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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 God </div> </a> <ul id="toc-God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Angels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Angels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Angels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Angels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scriptures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scriptures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Scriptures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scriptures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prophets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prophets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Prophets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prophets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resurrection_and_judgment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resurrection_and_judgment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Resurrection and judgment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resurrection_and_judgment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Divine_predestination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Divine_predestination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Divine predestination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Divine_predestination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acts_of_worship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acts_of_worship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Acts of worship </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Acts_of_worship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Acts of worship subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Acts_of_worship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Declaration_of_faith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declaration_of_faith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Declaration of faith </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declaration_of_faith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prayer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prayer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Prayer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prayer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almsgiving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almsgiving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Almsgiving </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almsgiving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Fasting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pilgrimage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pilgrimage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Pilgrimage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pilgrimage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_acts_of_worship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_acts_of_worship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Other acts of worship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_acts_of_worship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Muhammad_and_the_beginning_of_Islam_(570–632)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muhammad_and_the_beginning_of_Islam_(570–632)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muhammad_and_the_beginning_of_Islam_(570–632)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Islamic_period_(632–750)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Islamic_period_(632–750)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Early Islamic period (632–750) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Islamic_period_(632–750)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_era_(750–1258)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_era_(750–1258)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Classical era (750–1258) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_era_(750–1258)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Modern_era_(1258–18th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Modern_era_(1258–18th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Modern_era_(1258–18th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era_(18th–20th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era_(18th–20th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Modern era (18th–20th centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era_(18th–20th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_era_(20th_century–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_era_(20th_century–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Contemporary era (20th century–present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_era_(20th_century–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Demographics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Main_branches_or_denominations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_branches_or_denominations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Main branches or denominations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Main_branches_or_denominations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Main branches or denominations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Main_branches_or_denominations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sunni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Sunni </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Shia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muhakkima" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muhakkima"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Muhakkima </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muhakkima-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_denominations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_denominations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Other denominations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_denominations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-denominational_Muslims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-denominational_Muslims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Non-denominational Muslims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-denominational_Muslims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mysticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mysticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Mysticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mysticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_and_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_and_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Law and jurisprudence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_and_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious_personages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_personages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Religious personages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_personages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Governance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daily_and_family_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daily_and_family_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Daily and family life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daily_and_family_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Arts and culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influences_on_other_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences_on_other_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Influences on other religions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences_on_other_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Criticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quran_and_hadith" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quran_and_hadith"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Quran and hadith </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quran_and_hadith-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.5 Encyclopedias and dictionaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Islam</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 265 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-265" aria-hidden="true" > 265 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89seulam" title="Éseulam – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Éseulam" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8A%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислъам – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Ислъам" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8A%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислъам – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Ислъам" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A5%E1%88%B5%E1%88%8D%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%93" title="እስልምና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="እስልምና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allad%C5%8Dm" title="Alladōm – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Alladōm" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="الإسلام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإسلام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%90%DC%A3%DC%A0%DC%90%DC%A1" title="ܐܣܠܐܡ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܐܣܠܐܡ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իսլամութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Իսլամութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islame" title="Islame – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Islame" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="ইছলাম – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ইছলাম" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A3" title="Islã – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Islã" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam" title="İslam – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İslam" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="ایسلام – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایسلام" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Islam" title="Agama Islam – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Agama Islam" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silameya" title="Silameya – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Silameya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="ইসলাম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইসলাম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Іслам – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іслам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Іслам – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Іслам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC" title="Ислям – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ислям" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="དབྱི་སི་ལམ་ཆོས་ལུགས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="དབྱི་སི་ལམ་ཆོས་ལུགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Лалын шажан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Лалын шажан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A1m" title="Islám – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Islám" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyisalama" title="Uyisalama – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Uyisalama" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamu" title="Islamu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Islamu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musulunsi" title="Musulunsi – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Musulunsi" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="إسلام – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إسلام" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A1ma" title="Isláma – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Isláma" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islaam" title="Islaam – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Islaam" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%90%DE%B0%DE%8D%DE%A7%DE%89%DE%B0" title="އިސްލާމް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިސްލާމް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BC" title="Ισλάμ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ισλάμ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8C%C5%9Blam" title="Ìślam – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Ìślam" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamo" title="Islamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Islamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اسلام – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسلام" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lislaamu" title="Lislaamu – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Lislaamu" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioslam" title="Ioslam – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ioslam" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Islam" title="Yn Islam – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Islam" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam" title="İslam – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="İslam" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioslam" title="Ioslam – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ioslam" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E6%95%99" title="伊斯蘭教 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="伊斯蘭教" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="ايسلام – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="ايسلام" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE" title="ઇસ્લામ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઇસ્લામ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BC" title="𐌹𐍃𐌻𐌰𐌼 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌹𐍃𐌻𐌰𐌼" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%AE-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%82-l%C3%A0n-kau" title="Yî-sṳ̂-làn-kau – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yî-sṳ̂-làn-kau" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D1%88%D0%B0%D2%97%D0%BD" title="Лал шаҗн – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Лал шаҗн" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%AC%EB%9E%8C%EA%B5%90" title="이슬람교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이슬람교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musulunci" title="Musulunci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Musulunci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%CA%BBomana_Mohameka" title="Hoʻomana Mohameka – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Hoʻomana Mohameka" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%BD%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B4" title="Իսլամ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իսլամ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamo" title="Islamo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Islamo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80lak%E1%BB%A5%CC%80ba" title="Àlakụ̀ba – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Àlakụ̀ba" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Пысылмон дин – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Пысылмон дин" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dslam" title="Íslam – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Íslam" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9D" title="אסלאם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אסלאם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iizilaam" title="Iizilaam – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Iizilaam" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82_%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE" title="ಇಸ್ಲಾಂ ಧರ್ಮ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇಸ್ಲಾಂ ಧರ್ಮ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ისლამი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ისლამი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%90%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اِسلام – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="اِسلام" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamu" title="Islamu – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Islamu" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uislamu" title="Uislamu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uislamu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisilamu" title="Kisilamu – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Kisilamu" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamis" title="Islamis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Islamis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Eslam" title="Îslam – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Îslam" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%9C%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A1" title="ສາສະໜາອິສະລາມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສາສະໜາອິສະລາມ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religio_Islamica" title="Religio Islamica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Religio Islamica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C4%81ms" title="Islāms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Islāms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamas" title="Islamas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Islamas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamiximo" title="Islamiximo – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Islamiximo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamu" title="Islamu – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Islamu" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/musyjda" title="musyjda – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="musyjda" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iszl%C3%A1m" title="Iszlám – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Iszlám" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silamo" title="Silamo – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Silamo" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82" title="ഇസ്‌ലാം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇസ്‌ലാം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C5%BClam" title="Iżlam – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Iżlam" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihirama" title="Ihirama – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Ihirama" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ისლამი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ისლამი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="الاسلام – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الاسلام" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B1%E1%80%BF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="အေဿလာမ် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="အေဿလာမ်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="ایسلام – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ایسلام" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%AD%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9D_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%8F%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1" title="ꯏꯁ꯭ꯂꯥꯝ ꯂꯥꯏꯅꯤꯡ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯏꯁ꯭ꯂꯥꯝ ꯂꯥꯏꯅꯤꯡ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%AC-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%86-l%C3%A0ng-g%C3%A1u" title="Ĭ-sṳ̆-làng-gáu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ĭ-sṳ̆-làng-gáu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eislan" title="Eislan – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eislan" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%85%E1%80%B9%E1%80%85%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="အစ္စလာမ်ဘာသာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အစ္စလာမ်ဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Nigerian Pidgin" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="Nigerian Pidgin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Naijá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम धर्म – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इस्लाम धर्म" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इस्लाम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E6%95%99" title="イスラム教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イスラム教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%96%DF%98%DF%8D%DF%AC%DF%9E%DF%9F%DF%8F%DF%AC%DF%A6%DF%8A" title="ߖߘߍ߬ߞߟߏ߬ߦߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߖߘߍ߬ߞߟߏ߬ߦߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islaam" title="Islaam – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Islaam" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islem" title="Islem – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Islem" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islame" title="Islame – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Islame" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE_%E0%AC%A7%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE" title="ଇସଲାମ ଧର୍ମ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଇସଲାମ ଧର୍ମ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islaamaa" title="Islaamaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Islaamaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islom" title="Islom – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Islom" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE" title="ਇਸਲਾਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਸਲਾਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="इस्लाम धम्म – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="इस्लाम धम्म" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اسلام – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اسلام" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F" title="အိစ်သာလမ်ဘာႏသာႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အိစ်သာလမ်ဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اسلام – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اسلام" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izlam" title="Izlam – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Izlam" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A5%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6" title="ឥស្លាមសាសនា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ឥស្លាមសាសនា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamismo" title="Islamismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Islamismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0sl%C3%A2m" title="İslâm – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="İslâm" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Іслам – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Іслам" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислаам – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ислаам" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="इस्लाम्-मतम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="इस्लाम्-मतम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2" title="ᱤᱥᱞᱟᱢ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱤᱥᱞᱟᱢ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اسلام – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="اسلام" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islami" title="Islami – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Islami" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A" title="ඉස්ලාම් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉස්ලාම්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اسلام – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اسلام" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islaam" title="Islaam – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Islaam" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="ئیسلام – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیسلام" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இசுலாம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இசுலாம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lislam" title="Lislam – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Lislam" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tineslemt" title="Tineslemt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tineslemt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ислам – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ислам" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82_%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%82" title="ఇస్లాం మతం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఇస్లాం మతం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1" title="ศาสนาอิสลาม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศาสนาอิสลาม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9D%E1%88%B5%E1%88%8D%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%93" title="ምስልምና – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ምስልምና" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Ислом – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ислом" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE" title="ಇಸ್ಲಾಮ್ ಧರ್ಮ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಇಸ್ಲಾಮ್ ಧರ್ಮ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam" title="İslam – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İslam" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A4m" title="Isläm – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Isläm" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkramosom" title="Nkramosom – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Nkramosom" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khwikpaa%CC%B1pyia%CC%B1" title="Khwikpaa̱pyia̱ – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Khwikpaa̱pyia̱" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selleng" title="Selleng – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="Selleng" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Іслам – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іслам" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اسلام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسلام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89" title="ئىسلام دىنى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئىسلام دىنى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yihswhlanzgyau" title="Yihswhlanzgyau – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yihswhlanzgyau" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%93i_gi%C3%A1o" title="Hồi giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hồi giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slam" title="Slam – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Slam" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhamediusk" title="Muhamediusk – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Muhamediusk" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%9E%E6%95%99" title="回教 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="回教" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – West Flemish" lang="vls" 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class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vusurumani" title="Vusurumani – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Vusurumani" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%9D" title="איסלאם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="איסלאם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BA%B8%CC%80s%C3%ACn_Islam" title="Ẹ̀sìn Islam – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ẹ̀sìn Islam" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E6%95%99" title="伊斯蘭教 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="伊斯蘭教" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0slam" title="İslam – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="İslam" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Islam" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Islam_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Islam (disambiguation)">Islam (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 24em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;">Islam</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style>ٱلْإِسْلَام‎ al-Islām</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg/275px-The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg/413px-The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg/550px-The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4425" data-file-height="2955" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a> at <a href="/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram" title="Masjid al-Haram">Masjid al-Haram</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, Saudi Arabia, the <a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">holiest Islamic site</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Classification</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Scripture</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Theology</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Monotheistic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Caucasus">Northern Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Territory</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Founder</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Origin</th><td class="infobox-data">610 CE <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour" title="Jabal al-Nour">Jabal al-Nour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mecca_Province" title="Mecca Province">Mecca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian Peninsula</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Separated from</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian polytheism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Separations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Druze_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Druze Faith">Druze Faith</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Number of followers</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">1.9 billion</a><a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.orgReligion-7">[7]</a> <img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> (individually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, collectively referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/110px-Allah3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/165px-Allah3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/220px-Allah3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="313" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Beliefs</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Oneness</a> of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revealed Books</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Day of Resurrection</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Profession of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Prayer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Almsgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Pilgrimage</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_texts" title="List of Islamic texts">Texts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Foundations</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Sirah</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir (exegesis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah (creed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_al-Anbiya" title="Qisas al-Anbiya">Qisas al-Anbiya ("Stories of the Prophets")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a> (Poems)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh (jurisprudence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia (law)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Academics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)" title="Khitan (circumcision)">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_diaspora" title="Muslim diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession_and_exorcism_in_Islam" title="Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">Proselytizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_Islam" title="Sexuality in Islam">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_and_Islam" title="LGBTQ people and Islam">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_hadith" title="Criticism of hadith">Hadith</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a> <ul><li><a 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 1px solid #060; border-collapse:collapse; padding: 10px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:rgb(220, 245, 220); text-align:center; font-weight:bold;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:rgb(220, 245, 220); text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size: 120%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Iman</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:auto;"> <div style="width:75%; background:#65D75D; margin:auto; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; font-size:96%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a> <div style="width:75%; background:#B0FFA6; margin:auto; font-size:96%;"><a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Iman</a> <div style="width:75%; background:#A8FFDD; margin:auto; font-size:96%;"><a href="/wiki/Ihsan" title="Ihsan">Ihsan</a></div> </div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:rgb(220, 245, 220); padding-left:0.5em; border-top:1px solid #686; font-weight:bold; font-size:110%;"> Individuals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 5px 10px; text-align:left; font-size: 95%; "> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mumin" title="Mumin">Mumin</a> – Believer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> – Submitter (to <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahid" title="Shahid">Shahid</a> – <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">Martyr</a> who dies in the cause of Islam</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasiq" title="Fasiq">Fasiq</a> – Open <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_sin" title="Islamic views on sin">sinner</a>, corrupt</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fajir" title="Fajir">Fajir</a> – Sinner (by action)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">Kafir</a> – Disbeliever</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munafiq" title="Munafiq">Munafiq</a> – <a href="/wiki/Hypocrisy" title="Hypocrisy">Hypocrite</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:rgb(220, 245, 220); padding-left:0.5em; border-top:1px solid #686; font-weight:bold; font-size:110%;"> Groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 5px 10px; text-align:left; font-size: 95%; "> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People_of_the_Book" title="People of the Book">Ahl al-Kitab</a> – People of the Book</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Fatrah" title="Ahl al-Fatrah">Ahl al-Fatrah</a> – People of the Interval</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:rgb(220, 245, 220); padding-left:0.5em; border-top:1px solid #686; font-weight:bold; font-size:110%;"> Terms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding: 5px 10px; text-align:left; font-size: 95%; "> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Din_(Arabic)" title="Din (Arabic)">Din</a> – Religion</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding: 0 0.2em; font-size: 95%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_and_iman" title="Template:Islam and iman"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_and_iman" title="Template talk:Islam and iman"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_and_iman" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam and iman"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Islam<a href="#cite_note-9">[a]</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic religion</a> centered on the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, who are estimated to number approximately <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">1.9 billion worldwide</a> and are the world's <a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">second-largest religious population</a> after <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-www.pewresearch.org-2022-10">[9]</a> Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a <a href="/wiki/Fitra" title="Fitra">primordial faith</a> that was revealed many times through earlier <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">prophets and messengers</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Adam_in_Islam" title="Adam in Islam">Adam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noah_in_Islam" title="Noah in Islam">Noah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Moses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Jesus</a>. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a> and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous <a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">revelations</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Torah_in_Islam" title="Torah in Islam">Tawrat</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Zabur" title="Zabur">Zabur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_in_Islam" title="Gospel in Islam">Injil</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a>). They believe that <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a> is the main and <a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_Prophets" title="Seal of the Prophets">final Islamic prophet</a>, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, documented in accounts called the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God (<a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">tawhid</a>), and belief in an afterlife (<a href="/wiki/Akhirah" title="Akhirah">akhirah</a>) with the <a href="/wiki/Judgement_Day_in_Islam" title="Judgement Day in Islam">Last Judgment</a>—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (<a href="/wiki/Jannah" title="Jannah">jannah</a>) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (<a href="/wiki/Jahannam" title="Jahannam">jahannam</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a>—considered <a href="/wiki/Fard" title="Fard">obligatory</a> acts of worship—are the Islamic oath and creed (<a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">shahada</a>), daily prayers (<a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">salah</a>), almsgiving (<a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">zakat</a>), fasting (<a href="/wiki/Sawm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawm">sawm</a>) in the month of <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a>, and a pilgrimage (<a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">hajj</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. Islamic law, <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from <a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">banking and finance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">welfare</a> to <a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_Islam" title="Gender roles in Islam">men's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">women's roles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics#Environmentalism" title="Islamic ethics">environment</a>. The two main <a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">religious festivals</a> are <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Fitr" title="Eid al-Fitr">Eid al-Fitr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">Eid al-Adha</a>. The three <a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">holiest sites in Islam</a> are <a href="/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram" title="Masjid al-Haram">Masjid al-Haram</a> in Mecca, <a href="/wiki/Prophet%27s_Mosque" title="Prophet's Mosque">Prophet's Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Aqsa_Mosque" title="Al-Aqsa Mosque">al-Aqsa Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>. Muslims believe this is when <a href="/wiki/Muhammad%27s_first_revelation" title="Muhammad's first revelation">Muhammad received his first revelation</a>. By the time of his death, most of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> had <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Islam" title="Conversion to Islam">converted to Islam</a>. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> ruled from the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Iberian Peninsula</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_period_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent">Indus Valley</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, specifically during the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, most of the Muslim world experienced a <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">scientific</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">cultural flourishing</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">expansion of the Muslim world</a> involved <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Muslim states and dynasties">various states and caliphates</a> as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_missionary_activity" title="Islamic missionary activity">Islamic missionary activities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">dawah</a>), as well as through <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">conquests</a>. The two main <a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Islamic branches</a> are <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a> (85–90%) and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> (10–15%). While the <a href="/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations" title="Shia–Sunni relations">Shia–Sunni divide</a> initially arose from disagreements over the <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">succession to Muhammad</a>, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">theologically</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">juridically</a>. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of <a href="/wiki/Kutub_al-Sittah" title="Kutub al-Sittah">six books</a>, while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Books" title="The Four Books">four books</a>. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Islam in Indonesia">in Indonesia</a>, the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia" title="Islam in South Asia">in South Asia</a>; 20% live <a href="/wiki/MENA#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="MENA">in the Middle East–North Africa</a>; and 15% live <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Sub-Saharan Africa">in sub-Saharan Africa</a>. Muslim communities are also present <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Americas" title="Islam in the Americas">in the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Europe" title="Islam in Europe">Europe</a>. Muslims are the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_population_growth" title="Muslim population growth">world's fastest-growing</a> major religious group, due primarily to a higher <a href="/wiki/Fertility_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility rate">fertility rate</a> and younger age structure compared to other major religions. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Muslims#Etymology" title="Muslims">Muslims § Etymology</a></div> In Arabic, Islam (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: إسلام, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'submission [to God]')<a href="#cite_note-Schimmel-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> is the verbal noun of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85#Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikt:أسلم">Form IV</a> originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">triliteral root</a> س-ل-م (<a href="/wiki/%C5%A0-L-M" title="Š-L-M">S-L-M</a>), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslim</a> (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam,<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">active participle</a> of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the <a href="/wiki/Hadith_of_Gabriel" title="Hadith of Gabriel">Hadith of Gabriel</a>, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes <a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">imān</a> (faith), and <a href="/wiki/Ihsan" title="Ihsan">ihsān</a> (excellence).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordhistoryofi00johnpage76_76–77]-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Islam itself was historically called <a href="/wiki/Mohammedan" title="Mohammedan">Mohammedanism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be <a href="/wiki/Religious_offence" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious offence">offensive</a>, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Articles_of_faith">Articles of faith</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Iman</a></div> The Islamic <a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">creed</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">aqidah</a>) requires belief in <a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)#The_Six_Articles_of_Faith" title="Iman (Islam)">six articles</a>: God, <a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">angels</a>, revelation, prophets, the <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Day of Resurrection</a>, and the divine predestination.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="God">God</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul,_Hagia_Sophia,_Allah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Istanbul%2C_Hagia_Sophia%2C_Allah.jpg/220px-Istanbul%2C_Hagia_Sophia%2C_Allah.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Istanbul%2C_Hagia_Sophia%2C_Allah.jpg/330px-Istanbul%2C_Hagia_Sophia%2C_Allah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Istanbul%2C_Hagia_Sophia%2C_Allah.jpg/440px-Istanbul%2C_Hagia_Sophia%2C_Allah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2118" data-file-height="2077" /></a><figcaption>Calligraphy showing the word <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> in Arabic in <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a></div> The central concept of Islam is <a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">tawḥīd</a> (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>, but is also <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheistic</a> in Islamic mystical teachings.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Trinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Trinity">Christian Trinity</a>, and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as <a href="/wiki/Idolatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Idolatory">idolatory</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)" title="Shirk (Islam)">shirk</a>. God is described as <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghayb" title="Al-Ghayb">Al Ghayb</a> so is beyond comprehension. [<a href="/wiki/Talk:Islam#Al-Ghayb" title="Talk:Islam">under discussion</a>] Thus, Muslims are not <a href="/wiki/Iconodule" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconodule">iconodules</a> and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several <a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Islam" title="Names of God in Islam">names or attributes</a>, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampo200934"Allah"-24">[23]</a> Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "<a href="/wiki/Be,_and_it_is" title="Be, and it is">Be, and it is</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-25">[i]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schimmel-11">[10]</a> and that the <a href="/wiki/Purpose_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Purpose of life">purpose of existence</a> is to worship God.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> He is viewed as a personal god<a href="#cite_note-Schimmel-11">[10]</a> and there are no intermediaries, such as <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Taqwa" title="Taqwa">Taqwa</a>. <a href="/wiki/All%C4%81h" class="mw-redirect" title="Allāh">Allāh</a> is a term with no <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas <a href="/wiki/%CA%BEil%C4%81h" class="mw-redirect" title="ʾilāh">ʾilāh</a> (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Angels">Angels</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rashid_al-Din_Tabib_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh,_f.45v_detail_-_c._1306-15.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rashid_al-Din_Tabib_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh%2C_f.45v_detail_-_c._1306-15.png/220px-Rashid_al-Din_Tabib_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh%2C_f.45v_detail_-_c._1306-15.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rashid_al-Din_Tabib_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh%2C_f.45v_detail_-_c._1306-15.png/330px-Rashid_al-Din_Tabib_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh%2C_f.45v_detail_-_c._1306-15.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Rashid_al-Din_Tabib_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh%2C_f.45v_detail_-_c._1306-15.png/440px-Rashid_al-Din_Tabib_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh%2C_f.45v_detail_-_c._1306-15.png 2x" data-file-width="5877" data-file-height="4374" /></a><figcaption>Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. From the manuscript <a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-Tawarikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Jami' al-Tawarikh">Jami' al-Tawarikh</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rashid-al-Din_Hamadani" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashid-al-Din Hamadani">Rashid-al-Din Hamadani</a>, 1307.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels in Islam</a></div> Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurge201523-28">[26]</a> and hadith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurge201579-29">[27]</a> They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelations</a> from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (<a href="/wiki/N%C5%ABr_(Islam)" title="Nūr (Islam)">nūr</a>)<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> or 'fire' (nār).<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> Islamic angels are often represented in <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphic forms</a> combined with <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurge201597–99-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017140-41">[39]</a> Some of them, such as <a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a> (Jibrīl) and <a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Michael</a> (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the <a href="/wiki/Isra_and_Mi%27raj" class="mw-redirect" title="Isra and Mi'raj">Mi'raj</a>, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurge201579-29">[27]</a> Further angels have often been featured in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic eschatology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurge201522-42">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scriptures">Scriptures</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qur%27an_and_Rehal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Qur%27an_and_Rehal.jpg/220px-Qur%27an_and_Rehal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Qur%27an_and_Rehal.jpg/330px-Qur%27an_and_Rehal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Qur%27an_and_Rehal.jpg/440px-Qur%27an_and_Rehal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> manuscript resting on a <a href="/wiki/Rehal_(book_rest)" title="Rehal (book rest)">rehal</a>, a book rest for the holy text</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Islamic holy books</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wahy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahy">Wahy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Quran" title="History of the Quran">History of the Quran</a></div> The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the <a href="/wiki/Archangel" title="Archangel">archangel</a> Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE<a href="#cite_note-610CE-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> and 632, the year Muhammad died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito200417–18,_21-45">[43]</a> While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad%27s_companions" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad's companions">his companions</a>, although the primary method of transmission was orally through <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)" title="Hafiz (Quran)">memorization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (<a href="/wiki/S%C5%ABrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sūrah">sūrah</a>) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (<a href="/wiki/Ayah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayah">āyāt</a>). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medinan</a> chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.<a href="#cite_note-Schimmel-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ringgren-47">[45]</a> Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as <a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">tafsir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito200479–81-49">[47]</a> In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>,<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> and has influenced art and the Arabic language.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called <a href="/wiki/Wahy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahy">wahy</a>, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tawrat" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawrat">Tawrat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Injil" class="mw-redirect" title="Injil">Injil</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gospel_in_Islam" title="Gospel in Islam">Gospel</a>), have become <a href="/wiki/Tahrif" title="Tahrif">distorted</a>—either in interpretation, in text, or both,<a href="#cite_note-harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Peters|2003|p=9-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.<a href="#cite_note-Ringgren-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2010101-59">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prophets">Prophets</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets and messengers in Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_Persian_manuscript_Muhammad_leads_Abraham_Moses_Jesus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Medieval_Persian_manuscript_Muhammad_leads_Abraham_Moses_Jesus.jpg/220px-Medieval_Persian_manuscript_Muhammad_leads_Abraham_Moses_Jesus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Medieval_Persian_manuscript_Muhammad_leads_Abraham_Moses_Jesus.jpg/330px-Medieval_Persian_manuscript_Muhammad_leads_Abraham_Moses_Jesus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Medieval_Persian_manuscript_Muhammad_leads_Abraham_Moses_Jesus.jpg/440px-Medieval_Persian_manuscript_Muhammad_leads_Abraham_Moses_Jesus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1073" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>A 15th century<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Persian miniature</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a> leading <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Moses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Jesus</a> and other prophets in prayer</figcaption></figure> Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl).<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered <a href="/wiki/Prophets_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophets in Islam">prophets in Islam</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Adam_in_Islam" title="Adam in Islam">Adam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noah_in_Islam" title="Noah in Islam">Noah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Abraham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moses_in_Islam" title="Moses in Islam">Moses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Jesus</a>, among others.<a href="#cite_note-Schimmel-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the <a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Qisas al-Anbiya</a> (Stories of the Prophets). Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("<a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_prophets" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal of the prophets">Seal of the prophets</a>") to convey the completed message of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a> (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> This example is preserved in traditions known as <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. <a href="/wiki/Hadith_qudsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadith qudsi">Hadith Qudsi</a> is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called <a href="/wiki/Hadith_studies#Traditional_importance_of_the_sanad" title="Hadith studies">sanad</a>, and the actual wording, called <a href="/wiki/Hadith_studies" title="Hadith studies">matn</a>. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, <a href="/wiki/Authentic_hadith" class="mw-redirect" title="Authentic hadith">ṣaḥīḥ</a>); "good" (حسن, <a href="/wiki/Hasan_(hadith)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan (hadith)">ḥasan</a>); or "weak" (ضعيف, <a href="/wiki/Da%27if" class="mw-redirect" title="Da'if">ḍaʻīf</a>), among others. The <a href="/wiki/Kutub_al-Sittah" title="Kutub al-Sittah">Kutub al-Sittah</a> are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a>. Among them is <a href="/wiki/Sahih_al-Bukhari" title="Sahih al-Bukhari">Sahih al-Bukhari</a>, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most <a href="/wiki/Hadith_terminology#Terminology_relating_to_the_authenticity_of_a_hadith" title="Hadith terminology">authentic</a> sources after the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Another well-known source of hadiths is known as <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Books" title="The Four Books">The Four Books</a>, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resurrection_and_judgment">Resurrection and judgment</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria,_Damascus,_The_Umayyad_Mosque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria%2C_Damascus%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque.jpg/220px-Syria%2C_Damascus%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria%2C_Damascus%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque.jpg/330px-Syria%2C_Damascus%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria%2C_Damascus%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque.jpg/440px-Syria%2C_Damascus%2C_The_Umayyad_Mosque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, where Islamic tradition says <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Isa</a> (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment#In_Islam" title="Last Judgment">Day of Judgment</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Islamic eschatology</a></div> Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or <a href="/wiki/Qiyamah" class="mw-redirect" title="Qiyamah">Yawm al-Qiyāmah</a> (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">scholars</a>, describe the trials and <a href="/wiki/Great_Tribulation" title="Great Tribulation">tribulations</a> preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes <a href="/wiki/Universal_resurrection" title="Universal resurrection">bodily resurrection</a>, a break from the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabian</a> understanding of death.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to <a href="/wiki/Jannah" title="Jannah">Jannah</a> (paradise) or <a href="/wiki/Jahannam" title="Jahannam">Jahannam</a> (hell).<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> The Quran in <a href="/wiki/Surat_al-Zalzalah" class="mw-redirect" title="Surat al-Zalzalah">Surat al-Zalzalah</a> describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_of_sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic views of sin">lists several sins</a> that can condemn a person to <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">hell</a>. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2011130-76">[74]</a> will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");<a href="#cite_note-80">[ii]</a> as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");<a href="#cite_note-81">[iii]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaria" title="Al-Qaria">al-Qāriʿah</a> (القارعة "The Clatterer").<a href="#cite_note-82">[iv]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divine_predestination">Divine predestination</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination in Islam</a></div> The concept of divine predestination in Islam (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".<a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a> Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase <a href="/wiki/Inshallah" title="Inshallah">"In-sha-Allah"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.<a href="#cite_note-87">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acts_of_worship">Acts of worship</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars of Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibadah" title="Ibadah">Ibadah</a></div> There are five acts of worship that are considered <a href="/wiki/Fard" title="Fard">duties</a>–the <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a> (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a> (almsgiving), <a href="/wiki/Fasting_during_Ramadan" title="Fasting during Ramadan">fasting during Ramadan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).<a href="#cite_note-www.britannica.com-2023-88">[83]</a> In addition, Muslims also perform other optional <a href="/wiki/Supererogation" title="Supererogation">supererogatory</a> acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.<a href="#cite_note-89">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declaration_of_faith">Declaration of faith</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg/220px-Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg/330px-Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg/440px-Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Silver coin of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal Emperor">Mughal Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Akbar" title="Akbar">Akbar</a>, c. 16th century, inscribed with the Shahadah</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">shahadah</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENasr20033,_39,_85,_270–272-90">[85]</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">oath</a> declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deity</a> except <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a> and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."<a href="#cite_note-91">[86]</a> Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to <a href="/wiki/Convert_to_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Convert to Islam">convert to Islam</a> are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-92">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prayer">Prayer</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jumu%27ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumu'ah">Jumu'ah</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mosque.jpg/220px-Mosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mosque.jpg/330px-Mosque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Mosque.jpg/440px-Mosque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Muslim men <a href="/wiki/Prostration" title="Prostration">prostrating</a> in prayer, at the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> Prayer in Islam, called <a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">as-salah</a> or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called <a href="/wiki/Rakat" class="mw-redirect" title="Rakat">rakat</a> that include <a href="/wiki/Ruku" title="Ruku">bowing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sujud" title="Sujud">prostrating</a> to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">the direction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine <a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">wudu</a> ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a <a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">ghusl</a> full body ritual wash.<a href="#cite_note-94">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[92]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosque</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Places_of_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Places of worship">place of worship</a> for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Muslim community</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Al-Masjid_an-Nabawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Masjid an-Nabawi">Masjid an-Nabawi</a> ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.<a href="#cite_note-98">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">Minarets</a> are towers used to call the <a href="/wiki/Adhan" title="Adhan">adhan</a>, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.<a href="#cite_note-99">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almsgiving">Almsgiving</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slot_at_the_Zaouia_Moulay_Idriss_II_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Slot_at_the_Zaouia_Moulay_Idriss_II_1.jpg/220px-Slot_at_the_Zaouia_Moulay_Idriss_II_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Slot_at_the_Zaouia_Moulay_Idriss_II_1.jpg/330px-Slot_at_the_Zaouia_Moulay_Idriss_II_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Slot_at_the_Zaouia_Moulay_Idriss_II_1.jpg/440px-Slot_at_the_Zaouia_Moulay_Idriss_II_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2245" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A slot for giving zakat at the <a href="/wiki/Zawiya_of_Moulay_Idris_II" title="Zawiya of Moulay Idris II">Zawiya of Moulay Idris II</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fez, Morocco</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of <a href="/wiki/Almsgiving" class="mw-redirect" title="Almsgiving">almsgiving</a> characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Financial_capital" title="Financial capital">accumulated wealth</a> by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in <a href="/wiki/Bonded_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonded labour">debt</a>, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a> in Muslim societies.<a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a> It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,<a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a> and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.<a href="#cite_note-104">[99]</a> The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.<a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sadaqah" title="Sadaqah">Sadaqah</a>, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.<a href="#cite_note-106">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage72_72]-107">[102]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a> is a perpetual <a href="/wiki/Charitable_trust" title="Charitable trust">charitable trust</a>, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.<a href="#cite_note-108">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fasting">Fasting</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iftar_for_Ramadhan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Iftar_for_Ramadhan.jpg/220px-Iftar_for_Ramadhan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Iftar_for_Ramadhan.jpg/330px-Iftar_for_Ramadhan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Iftar_for_Ramadhan.jpg/440px-Iftar_for_Ramadhan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="1576" /></a><figcaption>A fast-breaking feast, known as <a href="/wiki/Iftar" title="Iftar">Iftar</a>, is served traditionally with <a href="/wiki/Date_(fruits)" class="mw-redirect" title="Date (fruits)">dates</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Fasting in Islam</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fasting_during_Ramadan" title="Fasting during Ramadan">Fasting during Ramadan</a></div> In Islam, fasting (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as <a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoking in Islam">smoking</a>, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a>, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.<a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a> The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Arafah" title="Day of Arafah">Day of Arafah</a>, when fasting is optional.<a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umrah" title="Umrah">Umrah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites in Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_packed_house_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/A_packed_house_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg/220px-A_packed_house_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/A_packed_house_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg/330px-A_packed_house_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/A_packed_house_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg/440px-A_packed_house_-_Flickr_-_Al_Jazeera_English.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Pilgrims at the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Mosque of Mecca">Great Mosque of Mecca</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> season</figcaption></figure> The Islamic <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimage</a>, called the "ḥajj" (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic month</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dhu_al-Hijjah" title="Dhu al-Hijjah">Dhu al-Hijjah</a>. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Abraham</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, pilgrims walk seven times around the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount <a href="/wiki/Safa_and_Marwa" title="Safa and Marwa">Safa and Marwa</a>, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, <a href="/wiki/Hagar" title="Hagar">Hagar</a>, who was looking for water for her baby <a href="/wiki/Ishmael_in_Islam" title="Ishmael in Islam">Ishmael</a> in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a> The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Arafat" title="Mount Arafat">Mount Arafat</a> as well as symbolically <a href="/wiki/Stoning_of_the_Devil" title="Stoning of the Devil">stoning the Devil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a> All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called <a href="/wiki/Ihram_clothing" title="Ihram clothing">ihram</a>, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.<a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a> Another form of pilgrimage, <a href="/wiki/Umrah" title="Umrah">Umrah</a>, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, where Muhammad died, as well as <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of <a href="/wiki/Al-Aqsa" title="Al-Aqsa">Al-Aqsa</a>, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.<a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_acts_of_worship">Other acts of worship</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Men_reading_the_Koran_in_Umayyad_Mosque,_Damascus,_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Men_reading_the_Koran_in_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus%2C_Syria.jpg/220px-Men_reading_the_Koran_in_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus%2C_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Men_reading_the_Koran_in_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus%2C_Syria.jpg/330px-Men_reading_the_Koran_in_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus%2C_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Men_reading_the_Koran_in_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus%2C_Syria.jpg/440px-Men_reading_the_Koran_in_Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus%2C_Syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2813" data-file-height="1875" /></a><figcaption>Muslim men reading the Quran</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Quran#Recitation" title="Quran">Quran § Recitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dua" title="Dua">Dua</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr">Dhikr</a></div> Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. <a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a> refers to the set of rules for the proper <a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">elocution</a> of the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-119">[114]</a> Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage42_42–43]-120">[115]</a> One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENigosian2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmy7hnALd_NkCpgPA70_70]-121">[116]</a> Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: دعاء <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[dʊˈʕæːʔ]</a>) has its own etiquette such as <a href="/wiki/Raising_hands_in_dua" title="Raising hands in dua">raising hands</a> as if begging.<a href="#cite_note-122">[117]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg" title="File:112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg">Al-Ikhlas</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="22" data-mwtitle="112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/28/112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg/112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg&lang=ar&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ar" label="العربية ‪(ar)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg&lang=bn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="bn" label="বাংলা ‪(bn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A112.AlIkhlas-MisharyRashedAlafasy.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description"><a href="/wiki/Al-Ikhlas" title="Al-Ikhlas">Sincerity</a> is the Quran's <a href="/wiki/List_of_surahs_in_the_Quran" class="mw-redirect" title="List of surahs in the Quran">112th</a> <a href="/wiki/Surah" title="Surah">chapter</a> as recited by <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a> <a href="/wiki/Mishary_Rashid_Alafasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mishary Rashid Alafasy">Mishary Rashid Alafasy</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring <a href="/wiki/Alhamdulillah" title="Alhamdulillah">praise be due to God</a> (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, <a href="/wiki/Tasbih" title="Tasbih">Tasbih</a>, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying '<a href="/wiki/Basmala" title="Basmala">in the name of God</a>' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.<a href="#cite_note-123">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History of Islam</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_empires_and_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Muslim empires and dynasties">List of Muslim empires and dynasties</a></div> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1008px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred mosque in Islam"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg/1000px-Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg" decoding="async" width="1000" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg/1500px-Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg/2000px-Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2853" data-file-height="475" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Madina_Haram_at_evening.jpg" title="File:Madina Haram at evening.jpg"> </a></div>A panoramic view of <a href="/wiki/Al-Masjid_al-Nabawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Masjid al-Nabawi">Al-Masjid al-Nabawi</a> (the Mosque of the Prophet) in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a> region, today's <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, the second most sacred mosque in Islam</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muhammad_and_the_beginning_of_Islam_(570–632)">Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad in Islam</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_social_changes_under_Islam" title="Early social changes under Islam">Early social changes under Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hira_Cave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hira_Cave.jpg/220px-Hira_Cave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hira_Cave.jpg/330px-Hira_Cave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hira_Cave.jpg/440px-Hira_Cave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour" title="Jabal al-Nour">Cave of Hira</a></figcaption></figure> According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> in <a href="/wiki/570" title="570">570</a> <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a> and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Amin_(name)" title="Amin (name)">trusted one</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman <a href="/wiki/Khadija_bint_Khuwaylid" title="Khadija bint Khuwaylid">Khadija</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito20106-124">[119]</a> In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Hira" class="mw-redirect" title="Cave of Hira">Cave of Hira</a> in the mountain <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Nour" title="Jabal al-Nour">Jabal al-Nour</a>, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have <a href="/wiki/Muhammad%27s_first_revelation" title="Muhammad's first revelation">received the first revelation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> from the angel <a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[120]</a> The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Night_of_Power" title="Night of Power">Night of Power</a>" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or <a href="/wiki/Seal_of_the_prophets" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal of the prophets">seal of the prophets</a> sent to mankind.<a href="#cite_note-harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Peters|2003|p=9-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[121]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg/220px-Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg/330px-Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg/440px-Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1108" /></a><figcaption>"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the <a href="/wiki/Siyer-i_Nebi" title="Siyer-i Nebi">Siyer-i Nebi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[122]</a> Muhammad is shown with veiled face, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1595.</figcaption></figure> During this time, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Mecca" title="Muhammad in Mecca">while in Mecca, Muhammad</a> preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first <a href="/wiki/Muezzin" title="Muezzin">muezzin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bilal_ibn_Rabah_al-Habashi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi">Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[123]</a> The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.<a href="#cite_note-129">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[125]</a> After 12 years of the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_by_the_Meccans" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans">persecution of Muslims by the Meccans</a>, Muhammad and his <a href="/wiki/Sahaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahaba">companions</a> performed the <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">Hijra</a> ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the <a href="/wiki/Ansar_(Islam)" title="Ansar (Islam)">Ansar</a>) and the Meccan migrants (the <a href="/wiki/Muhajirun" title="Muhajirun">Muhajirun</a>), <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Medina" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad in Medina">Muhammad in Medina</a> established his <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">political and religious authority</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Medina" title="Constitution of Medina">Constitution of Medina</a> was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerjeant19784-131">[126]</a> Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badr" title="Battle of Badr">Battle of Badr</a> in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Uhud" title="Battle of Uhud">Battle of Uhud</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a> before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trench" title="Battle of the Trench">Battle of the Trench</a> (March–April 627). In 628, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Hudaybiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Hudaybiyyah">Treaty of Hudaybiyyah</a> was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[129]</a> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Mecca" title="Conquest of Mecca">conquest of Mecca</a>, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Arabia" title="Tribes of Arabia">tribes of Arabia</a> into a single religious <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-610CE-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Islamic_period_(632–750)">Early Islamic period (632–750)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Event_of_Ghadir_Khumm" class="mw-redirect" title="Event of Ghadir Khumm">Event of Ghadir Khumm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saqifa" title="Saqifa">Saqifa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammad_adil-Rashidun_empire-slide.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun_empire-slide.gif/220px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun_empire-slide.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun_empire-slide.gif/330px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun_empire-slide.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun_empire-slide.gif/440px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun_empire-slide.gif 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Expansion of <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg/220px-Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg/330px-Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg/440px-Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dome_of_the_Rock" title="Dome of the Rock">Dome of the Rock</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> built by caliph <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a>; completed at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Fitna</a></figcaption></figure> Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> – <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_al-Affan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uthman ibn al-Affan">Uthman ibn al-Affan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan ibn Ali</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[131]</a> – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("<a href="/wiki/Rightly_Guided_Caliphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Rightly Guided Caliphs">Rightly Guided Caliphs</a>").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201040-137">[132]</a> Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the <a href="/wiki/Ridda_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ridda wars">Ridda wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[137]</a> Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201038-143">[138]</a> resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> empires.<a href="#cite_note-144">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012-145">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[142]</a> Uthman <a href="/wiki/Election_of_Uthman" title="Election of Uthman">was elected in 644</a> and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Civil War</a>, Muhammad's widow, <a href="/wiki/Aisha" title="Aisha">Aisha</a>, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel" title="Battle of the Camel">Battle of the Camel</a>. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'awiya">Mu'awiya</a>, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Siffin" title="Battle of Siffin">Battle of Siffin</a>. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a>, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nahrawan" title="Battle of Nahrawan">Battle of Nahrawan</a> but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a <a href="/wiki/Hasan%E2%80%93Muawiya_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan–Muawiya treaty">peace treaty</a> to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoltLewis197767–72-148">[143]</a> Mu'awiya began the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a> with the appointment of his son <a href="/wiki/Yazid_I" title="Yazid I">Yazid I</a> as successor, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Second_Fitna" title="Second Fitna">Second Civil War</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">Battle of Karbala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a> was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been <a href="/wiki/Ashura" title="Ashura">annually commemorated</a> by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Zubayr" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Zubayr">Ibn al-Zubayr</a> and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_(692)" title="Siege of Mecca (692)">siege of Mecca</a>. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a>-<a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> schism,<a href="#cite_note-149">[144]</a> with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the <a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-bayt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahl al-bayt">ahl al-bayt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaines200346-150">[145]</a> Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz" title="Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz">Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz</a> set up the committee, <a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Fuqaha_of_Medina" title="The Seven Fuqaha of Medina">The Seven Fuqaha of Medina</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsmāʻīl_ibn_ʻUmar_Ibn_Kathīr2012505-151">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[147]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malik_ibn_Anas" title="Malik ibn Anas">Malik ibn Anas</a> wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the <a href="/wiki/Muwatta_Imam_Malik" title="Muwatta Imam Malik">Muwatta</a>, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.<a href="#cite_note-153">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[150]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a> believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as <a href="/wiki/ISIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS">ISIS</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[151]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Murji%27ah" title="Murji'ah">Murji'ah</a> taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship200843-157">[152]</a> This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201087-158">[153]</a> The Umayyad dynasty conquered the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Narbonnese Gaul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[154]</a> The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201045-160">[155]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201087-158">[153]</a> While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,<a href="#cite_note-161">[156]</a> Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201087-158">[153]</a> The Kharijites led the <a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a>, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a>, non-Arab converts (<a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">mawali</a>), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus200256-162">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199371–83-163">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_era_(750–1258)">Classical era (750–1258)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hadith_studies" title="Hadith studies">Hadith studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian tradition</a></div> Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus200286-164">[159]</a> During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Bukhari" title="Muhammad al-Bukhari">Muhammad al-Bukhari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_ibn_al-Hajjaj" title="Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj">Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj</a> compiled the major <a href="/wiki/Six_major_Hadith_collections" class="mw-redirect" title="Six major Hadith collections">Sunni hadith collections</a> while scholars like <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ya%27qub_al-Kulayni" title="Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni">Al-Kulayni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Babawayh" title="Ibn Babawayh">Ibn Babawayh</a> compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni <a href="/wiki/Madh%27hab" class="mw-redirect" title="Madh'hab">Madh'habs</a>, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_%E1%B8%A4an%C4%ABfa" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Ḥanīfa">Abū Ḥanīfa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a>, Malik ibn Anas and <a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">al-Shafi'i</a>. In contrast, the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ja'far al-Sadiq">Ja'far al-Sadiq</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Ja%27fari_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ja'fari jurisprudence">Ja'fari jurisprudence</a>. In the 9th century, <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">Al-Tabari</a> completed the first commentary of the Quran, the <a href="/wiki/Tafsir_al-Tabari" title="Tafsir al-Tabari">Tafsir al-Tabari</a>, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as <a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Basri" title="Hasan al-Basri">Hasan al-Basri</a> inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB-Sufism-165">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus200290,_91-166">[161]</a> At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the <a href="/wiki/Iblis" title="Iblis">devil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship200838–39-167">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[b]</a> Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a>, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by <a href="/wiki/Wasil_ibn_Ata" title="Wasil ibn Ata">Wasil ibn Ata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlankinship200850-170">[164]</a> Caliph <a href="/wiki/Mamun_al_Rashid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamun al Rashid">Mamun al Rashid</a> made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201088-171">[165]</a> Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">Al-Mu'tasim</a> carried out <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">inquisitions</a>, with the traditionalist <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was <a href="/wiki/Quranic_createdness" title="Quranic createdness">created rather than being eternal</a>, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.<a href="#cite_note-172">[166]</a> However, other <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">schools</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">speculative theology</a> – <a href="/wiki/Maturidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maturidi">Māturīdism</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi" title="Abu Mansur al-Maturidi">Abu Mansur al-Maturidi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ash'ari">Al-Ash'ari</a> – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> within <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Europe" title="Christianity in Europe">Christianity in Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>' work within Judaism, while others like <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> argued against such <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> and ultimately prevailed.<a href="#cite_note-173">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[168]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheshm_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/220px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/330px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Cheshm_manuscript.jpg/440px-Cheshm_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The eye, according to <a href="/wiki/Hunain_ibn_Ishaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunain ibn Ishaq">Hunain ibn Ishaq</a> from a manuscript dated c. 1200</figcaption></figure> This era is sometimes called the "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>".<a href="#cite_note-175">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Gardet|Jomier|2012-145">[140]</a> Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">agriculture</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">optics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> was a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">experimental medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-183">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[178]</a> and his <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a> was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> for centuries. <a href="/wiki/Rhazes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhazes">Rhazes</a> was the first to identify the diseases <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">Public hospitals</a> of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.<a href="#cite_note-186">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> is regarded as the father of the modern <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[184]</a> In engineering, the <a href="/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Banū Mūsā">Banū Mūsā</a> brothers' <a href="/wiki/Automaton" title="Automaton">automatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Flute" title="Flute">flute</a> player is considered to have been the first <a href="/wiki/Program_(machine)" title="Program (machine)">programmable machine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[185]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">mathematics</a>, the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> is named after <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a>, who is considered a founder of <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>, which is named after his book <a href="/wiki/The_Compendious_Book_on_Calculation_by_Completion_and_Balancing" class="mw-redirect" title="The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing">al-jabr</a>, while others developed the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">function</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[186]</a> The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.<a href="#cite_note-193">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness World Records</a> recognizes the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Al_Karaouine" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Al Karaouine">University of Al Karaouine</a>, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.<a href="#cite_note-194">[188]</a> Many non-Muslims, such as <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabians" title="Sabians">Sabians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Brague_2009-195">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">contributed to the Islamic civilization</a> in various fields,<a href="#cite_note-196">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[191]</a> and the institution known as the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> employed <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_scientists_and_scholars_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars">Persian scholars</a> to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-198">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brague_2009-195">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[193]</a> Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tulunid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid">Tulunids</a> in 868 in Egypt<a href="#cite_note-200">[194]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaznavid">Ghaznavid dynasty</a> in 977 in Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-201">[195]</a> In this fragmentation came the <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Century" title="Shi'a Century">Shi'a Century</a>, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Millennialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennialist">millennialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'ili">Isma'ili</a> Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_dynasty" title="Fatimid dynasty">Fatimid dynasty</a>, took control of North Africa in the 10th century<a href="#cite_note-202">[196]</a> and another Isma'ili group, the <a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a>, sacked Mecca and stole the <a href="/wiki/Black_Stone" title="Black Stone">Black Stone</a>, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-203">[197]</a> Yet another Isma'ili group, the <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a>, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Revival" title="Sunni Revival">reassert Sunni Islam</a> by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as <a href="/wiki/Nezamiyeh" title="Nezamiyeh">Nezamiyeh</a>, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Shirazi" title="Saadi Shirazi">Saadi Shirazi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[198]</a> The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a> to Islam. The <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> reached deep into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a> and many converted to Islam,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1896227–228-205">[199]</a> in particular <a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">low-caste Hindus</a> whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-206">[200]</a> Trade brought many <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Muslims to China</a>, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[201]</a> Muslims were recruited as a <a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">governing minority class</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Modern_era_(1258–18th_century)">Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG/220px-GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG/330px-GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG/440px-GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1498" data-file-height="2009" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ghazan_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazan Khan">Ghazan Khan</a>, 7th <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>, converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction</figcaption></figure> Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1896125–258-209">[203]</a> Islam spread into new areas<a href="#cite_note-210">[204]</a> and Muslims assimilated into new cultures. Under the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, Islam spread to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[205]</a> Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-212">[206]</a> as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> folklore.<a href="#cite_note-213">[207]</a> Muslim Turks incorporated elements of <a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Turkish Shamanism beliefs</a> to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-215">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak20171425–1429-216">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_during_the_Ming_dynasty" title="Islam during the Ming dynasty">Muslims in Ming Dynasty China</a> who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,<a href="#cite_note-217">[210]</a> by adopting Chinese names and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">culture</a> while <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> became an important center of Islamic study.<a href="#cite_note-218">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[212]</a> Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol destruction</a> of the Abbasid Caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-220">[213]</a> The Muslim Mongol Khanates in <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Central Asia</a> benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under <a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Mongol rule</a> and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[214]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a> (1201–1274) proposed the <a href="/wiki/Tusi_couple" title="Tusi couple">mathematical model</a> that was later argued to be adopted by <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a> unrevised in his <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model,<a href="#cite_note-222">[215]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jamsh%C4%ABd_al-K%C4%81sh%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamshīd al-Kāshī">Jamshīd al-Kāshī</a>'s estimate of <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a> would not be surpassed for 180 years.<a href="#cite_note-223">[216]</a> After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a>, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">caliphate</a> was claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a> of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> became the <a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">ruler of Mecca and Medina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-224">[217]</a> The Shia <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.<a href="#cite_note-225">[218]</a> In South Asia, <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[219]</a> The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> between <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman rulers</a> and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The <a href="/wiki/Mevlevi_Order" title="Mevlevi Order">Mevlevi Order</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bektashi_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Bektashi Order">Bektashi Order</a> had a close relation to the sultans,<a href="#cite_note-227">[220]</a> as Sufi-mystical as well as <a href="/wiki/Heterodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterodox">heterodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syncretic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncretic">syncretic</a> approaches to Islam flourished.<a href="#cite_note-228">[221]</a> The often forceful <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran</a> to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver sect</a> within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.<a href="#cite_note-229">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,<a href="#cite_note-230">[223]</a> which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.<a href="#cite_note-231">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era_(18th–20th_centuries)">Modern era (18th–20th centuries)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/220px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/330px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg/440px-Portrait_Caliph_Abdulmecid_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_II" title="Abdülmecid II">Abdülmecid II</a> was the last Caliph of Islam from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure> Earlier in the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a> promoted a <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">puritanical</a> form of Islam,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-232">[225]</a> rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-232">[225]</a> and called to open the gates of <a href="/wiki/Itjihad" class="mw-redirect" title="Itjihad">itjihad</a> rather than blind imitation of scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010150-233">[226]</a> He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,<a href="#cite_note-234">[227]</a> but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-235">[228]</a> During the 18th century in Arabia, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab" title="Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab">Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab</a>, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Qayyim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Qayyim">Ibn al-Qayyim</a>, founded a movement called <a href="/wiki/Wahhabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahhabi">Wahhabi</a> to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.<a href="#cite_note-236">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceE-237">[230]</a> He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later <a href="/wiki/Bidah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bidah">innovations</a> and sinful<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceE-237">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-Musa-2022-238">[231]</a> and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_early_Islamic_heritage_sites_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia">tombs of Muhammad and his companions</a> and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.<a href="#cite_note-Musa-2022-238">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010146-240">[233]</a> He formed an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Saud" title="House of Saud">Saud family</a>, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Musa-2022-238">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ma_Wanfu" title="Ma Wanfu">Ma Wanfu</a> and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as <a href="/wiki/Sailaifengye" title="Sailaifengye">Sailaifengye</a> in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.<a href="#cite_note-242">[235]</a> Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the <a href="/wiki/Senusiyya" title="Senusiyya">Senusiyya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ahmad" title="Muhammad Ahmad">Muhammad Ahmad</a> both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010147-243">[236]</a> In India, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Waliullah_Dehlawi" title="Shah Waliullah Dehlawi">Shah Waliullah Dehlawi</a> attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the <a href="/wiki/Deobandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Deobandi">Deobandi</a> movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010149-244">[237]</a> In response to the Deobandi movement, the <a href="/wiki/Barelwi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelwi">Barelwi</a> movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a> and reforming its practices.<a href="#cite_note-245">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[239]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> succeeded in ending the <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Muslim presence in Iberia</a>. By the 19th century, the British <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">East India Company</a> had formally annexed the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_dynasty" title="Mughal dynasty">Mughal dynasty</a> in India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus2002358,_378–380,_624-247">[240]</a> As a response to <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Western Imperialism</a>, many intellectuals sought to <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revival" title="Islamic revival">reform Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[241]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Islamic modernism</a>, initially labelled by Western scholars as <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafiyya</a>, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad 'Abduh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_al-Afghani" title="Jamal al-Din al-Afghani">Jamal al-Din al-Afghani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-249">[242]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abul_A%27la_Maududi" title="Abul A'la Maududi">Abul A'la Maududi</a> helped influence modern <a href="/wiki/Political_Islam" title="Political Islam">political Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[244]</a> Similar to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Civil_code" title="Civil code">codification</a>, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's <a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a> code.<a href="#cite_note-Oxfordref-252">[245]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire dissolved</a> after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a> <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">was abolished in 1924</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[246]</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">Sharifian Caliphate</a> fell quickly,<a href="#cite_note-254">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-والخلفاء-2023-256">[249]</a> thus leaving Islam without a <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-والخلفاء-2023-256">[249]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-Islam">Pan-Islamists</a> attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arabism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[251]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> (OIC), consisting of <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Muslim-majority countries</a>, was established in 1969 after the burning of the <a href="/wiki/Qibli_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Qibli Mosque">Al-Aqsa Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-259">[252]</a> Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaddadSmith2002271-260">[253]</a> Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Latin_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Latin America">Muslim population in Latin America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-261">[254]</a> The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,<a href="#cite_note-Pew_Research_Center-2011-262">[255]</a> likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.<a href="#cite_note-263">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_era_(20th_century–present)">Contemporary era (20th century–present)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:13._Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/13._Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference.jpg/300px-13._Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/13._Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference.jpg/450px-13._Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/13._Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference.jpg/600px-13._Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption>Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Summit_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Summit Conference">Islamic Summit Conference</a> in Istanbul, Turkey</figcaption></figure> Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> and related parties in the Arab world,<a href="#cite_note-264">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[258]</a> which performed well in elections following the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>,<a href="#cite_note-266">[259]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamaat-e-Islami" title="Jamaat-e-Islami">Jamaat-e-Islami</a> in South Asia and the <a href="/wiki/Justice_and_Development_Party_(Turkey)" title="Justice and Development Party (Turkey)">AK Party</a>, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">revolution</a> replaced a <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> monarchy with an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic state</a>. Others such as <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Sayyid Rashid Rida</a> broke away from Islamic modernists<a href="#cite_note-267">[260]</a> and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.<a href="#cite_note-268">[261]</a> The group <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant</a> would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were <a href="/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam" title="Political quietism in Islam">quietist</a>, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-269">[262]</a> In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out <a href="/wiki/1997_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1997 Turkish military memorandum">coups</a> to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.<a href="#cite_note-270">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[264]</a> In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship<a href="#cite_note-272">[265]</a> and, in Egypt, the state nationalized <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a>, previously an independent voice checking state power.<a href="#cite_note-273">[266]</a> Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.<a href="#cite_note-274">[267]</a> Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.<a href="#cite_note-275">[268]</a> Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.<a href="#cite_note-276">[269]</a> This has been undertaken by communist forces like the <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge" title="Khmer Rouge">Khmer Rouge</a>, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,<a href="#cite_note-277">[270]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[271]</a> and by nationalist forces such as during the <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_genocide" title="Bosnian genocide">Bosnian genocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-279">[272]</a> Myanmar military's <a href="/wiki/Tatmadaw" title="Tatmadaw">Tatmadaw</a> targeting of <a href="/wiki/Rohingya_people" title="Rohingya people">Rohingya Muslims</a> has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,<a href="#cite_note-280">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[274]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">OHCHR</a> Fact-Finding Mission identified <a href="/wiki/Rohingya_genocide" title="Rohingya genocide">genocide</a>, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.<a href="#cite_note-282">[275]</a> The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Hijab" title="Hijab">hijab</a> has grown more common<a href="#cite_note-283">[276]</a> and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENigosian200441-284">[277]</a> Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "<a href="/wiki/Televangelist" class="mw-redirect" title="Televangelist">televangelist</a>" preachers, such as <a href="/wiki/Amr_Khaled" title="Amr Khaled">Amr Khaled</a>, who compete with the traditional <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">ulema</a> in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.<a href="#cite_note-285">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010263-286">[279]</a> More "individualized" interpretations of Islam<a href="#cite_note-287">[280]</a> notably involve <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Muslims">Liberal Muslims</a> who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2004118–119,_179-288">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERippin2001288-289">[282]</a> an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.<a href="#cite_note-290">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[284]</a> Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling elites</a>,<a href="#cite_note-292">[285]</a> and is frequently understood to be equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">anti-religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-293">[286]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_population_growth" title="Muslim population growth">Muslim population growth</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg/300px-Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg/450px-Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg/600px-Islam_percent_population_in_each_nation_World_Map_Muslim_data_by_Pew_Research.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>World percentage of Muslims by country </figcaption></figure> As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.orgReligion-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.pewresearch.org-2022-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[290]</a> In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,<a href="#cite_note-298">[291]</a> in 1990 it was 19.9%<a href="#cite_note-Pew_Research_Center-2011-262">[255]</a> and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-pew2015-299">[292]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life20091-300">[293]</a> Approximately 49 countries are <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_majority_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Muslim majority countries">Muslim-majority</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life200911-301">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[299]</a> with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Indonesia" title="Islam in Indonesia">Indonesia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-307">[300]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Pakistan" title="Islam in Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_India" title="Islam in India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Bangladesh" title="Islam in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-308">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life200915,_17-309">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[303]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Arab Muslims</a> form the <a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">largest ethnic group among Muslims</a> in the world,<a href="#cite_note-311">[304]</a> followed by <a href="/wiki/Bengali_Muslims" title="Bengali Muslims">Bengalis</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[306]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Muslims" title="Punjabi Muslims">Punjabis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-314">[307]</a> Most estimates indicate <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">China</a> has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).<a href="#cite_note-315">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[309]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Europe" title="Islam in Europe">Islam in Europe</a> is the second-largest religion after <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,<a href="#cite_note-317">[310]</a> accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-318">[311]</a> <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Islam" title="Conversion to Islam">Religious conversion</a> has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who <a href="/wiki/Convert_to_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Convert to Islam">become Muslims through conversion</a> seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."<a href="#cite_note-319">[312]</a> Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from <a href="/wiki/Sub_Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub Saharan Africa">Sub Saharan Africa</a> (2.9 million).<a href="#cite_note-320">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[314]</a> According to a report by <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".<a href="#cite_note-322">[315]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in Britain">In Britain</a>, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.<a href="#cite_note-323">[316]</a> According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">women</a> and <a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-Americans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-324">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[318]</a> By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-326">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-pew2015-299">[292]</a> It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high <a href="/wiki/Fertility_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility rate">fertility rate</a> of Muslims relative to other religious groups."<a href="#cite_note-pew2015-299">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_branches_or_denominations">Main branches or denominations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches#Main_branches_or_denominations" title="Islamic schools and branches">Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominations</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations" title="Shia–Sunni relations">Shia–Sunni relations</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunni">Sunni</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sahih_Al-Bukhari_in_English.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Sahih_Al-Bukhari_in_English.png/220px-Sahih_Al-Bukhari_in_English.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Sahih_Al-Bukhari_in_English.png/330px-Sahih_Al-Bukhari_in_English.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Sahih_Al-Bukhari_in_English.png/440px-Sahih_Al-Bukhari_in_English.png 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="835" /></a><figcaption>The nine volumes of <a href="/wiki/Sahih_Al-Bukhari" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahih Al-Bukhari">Sahih Al-Bukhari</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Al-Kutub_Al-Sittah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Kutub Al-Sittah">six Sunni hadith books</a></figcaption></figure> Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.<a href="#cite_note-327">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[322]</a> The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunna</a> (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".<a href="#cite_note-330">[323]</a> Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",<a href="#cite_note-331">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[326]</a> though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.<a href="#cite_note-334">[327]</a> Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference <a href="/wiki/Al-Kutub_Al-Sittah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Kutub Al-Sittah">six major hadith works</a> for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lexico-335">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[329]</a> <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_theology_(Islam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist theology (Islam)">Traditionalist theology</a> is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a <a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">textualist</a> understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">kalam</a>, in religious and ethical matters.<a href="#cite_note-337">[330]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a> is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi" title="Abu Mansur al-Maturidi">Abu Mansur al-Maturidi</a> (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,<a href="#cite_note-338">[331]</a> but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. <a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ash%CA%BFar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ashʿarī">Al-Ashʿarī</a> (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito1999280-339">[332]</a> <a href="/wiki/Salafism" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafism">Salafism</a> is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi movement</a>, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-340">[333]</a> A similar movement called <a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Hadith" title="Ahl al-Hadith">Ahl al-Hadith</a> also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The <a href="/wiki/Nur_movement" title="Nur movement">Nurcu</a> Sunni movement was by <a href="/wiki/Said_Nursi" class="mw-redirect" title="Said Nursi">Said Nursi</a> (1877–1960);<a href="#cite_note-Svante_E._Cornell_p._283-341">[334]</a> it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.<a href="#cite_note-Svante_E._Cornell_p._283-341">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-342">[335]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shia">Shia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nahj_al-Balagha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Nahj_al-Balagha.jpg/220px-Nahj_al-Balagha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Nahj_al-Balagha.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nahj_al-balagha" title="Nahj al-balagha">Nahj al-balagha</a>, collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Imam Ali</a>.</figcaption></figure> Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.<a href="#cite_note-343">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life20091-300">[293]</a> Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">successor</a> as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the <a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a> and those leaders, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imams</a>, have additional spiritual authority.<a href="#cite_note-345">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-346">[339]</a> Shias are guided by the <a href="/wiki/Ja%27fari_school" title="Ja'fari school">Ja'fari school of jurisprudence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-347">[340]</a> According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at <a href="/wiki/Ghadir_Khumm" title="Ghadir Khumm">Ghadir Khumm</a> during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.<a href="#cite_note-348">[341]</a> Muhammad appointed his cousin <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a> as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his <a href="/wiki/Wali" title="Wali">Wali</a> (authority).<a href="#cite_note-349">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampo2009257–258-350">[343]</a> Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and <a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imam</a> (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> because of some <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">other companions</a> who selected <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abū Bakr</a> as <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-351">[344]</a> Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Muhammad">his death</a> and consider Abū Bakr to be the first <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">rightful</a> caliph after Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-352">[345]</a> Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,<a href="#cite_note-353">[346]</a> citing <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>'s appointment by Abu Bakr,<a href="#cite_note-354">[347]</a> other historical evidence,<a href="#cite_note-355">[348]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an's</a> stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.<a href="#cite_note-356">[349]</a> Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-357">[350]</a> <a href="/wiki/Twelvers" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelvers">Twelvers</a>, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Imams" title="Twelve Imams">Twelve Imams</a>, the last of whom went into <a href="/wiki/Occultation_(Islam)" title="Occultation (Islam)">occultation</a> to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the <a href="/wiki/Hadith_of_the_Twelve_Successors" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadith of the Twelve Successors">Hadith of the Twelve Successors</a> which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.<a href="#cite_note-358">[351]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zaidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidism">Zaidism</a> rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.<a href="#cite_note-359">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[353]</a> They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".<a href="#cite_note-361">[354]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ismailism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailism">Isma'ilis</a> split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the <a href="/wiki/Nizari_Isma%27ilism" title="Nizari Isma'ilism">Nizaris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-362">[355]</a> For Shias, the <a href="/wiki/Imam_Ali_Shrine" title="Imam Ali Shrine">Imam Ali Shrine</a> in Najaf, the <a href="/wiki/Imam_Husayn_Shrine" title="Imam Husayn Shrine">Imam Husayn Shrine</a> in Karbala, and the <a href="/wiki/Fatima_Masumeh_Shrine" title="Fatima Masumeh Shrine">Fatima Masumeh Shrine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a> are also among the <a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Islamic Holy sites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sardeg2-363">[356]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:718px;max-width:718px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:219px;max-width:219px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg/217px-Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="217" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg/326px-Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg/434px-Imam_Ali_shrine_-_1_May_2015_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="489" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Imam_Ali_Shrine" title="Imam Ali Shrine">Imam Ali Shrine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a>, the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/200px-%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/300px-%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/400px-%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5074" data-file-height="3382" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Imam_Hussein_Shrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam Hussein Shrine">Imam Hussein Shrine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Karbala" title="Karbala">Karbala</a>, a holy site for Shia Muslims.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:291px;max-width:291px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ImamReza(A).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/ImamReza%28A%29.jpg/289px-ImamReza%28A%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="289" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/ImamReza%28A%29.jpg/434px-ImamReza%28A%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/ImamReza%28A%29.jpg/578px-ImamReza%28A%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="552" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Imam_Reza_shrine" title="Imam Reza shrine">Imam Reza shrine</a>, the world's largest mosque, in <a href="/wiki/Mashhad" title="Mashhad">Mashhad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi Islam</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ibadism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadism">Ibadism</a> is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-364">[357]</a> Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">kharijites</a>, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jami_Sahih" title="Jami Sahih">Jami Sahih</a> collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.<a href="#cite_note-365">[358]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Islam_branches_and_schools..png" class="mw-file-description" title="An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam"><img alt="An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Islam_branches_and_schools..png" decoding="async" width="698" height="448" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_denominations">Other denominations</h3></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmadiyya Movement">Ahmadiyya Movement</a> was founded in British India in 1889 by <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad" title="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad">Mirza Ghulam Ahmad</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qadian" title="Qadian">Qadian</a>, who claimed to be the promised <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Second_Coming" title="Second Coming">Second Coming</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Christ</a>"), the <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a> awaited by the Muslims as well as a <a href="/wiki/Prophethood_(Ahmadiyya)" title="Prophethood (Ahmadiyya)">"subordinate" prophet</a> to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-Upal_2021-366">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turner_2003-367">[360]</a> There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of most other Muslims,<a href="#cite_note-Upal_2021-366">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-Drover_2020-368">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-369">[362]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turner_2003-367">[360]</a> which include the interpretation of the Quranic title <a href="/wiki/Khatam_an-Nabiyyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Khatam an-Nabiyyin">Khatam an-Nabiyyin</a><a href="#cite_note-370">[363]</a> and interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Ahmadiyya_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam">Messiah's Second Coming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Drover_2020-368">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-371">[364]</a> These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in rejection by most Muslims as heretics<a href="#cite_note-372">[365]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">persecution of Ahmadis</a> in various countries,<a href="#cite_note-Drover_2020-368">[361]</a> particularly <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_in_Pakistan" title="Ahmadiyya in Pakistan">Pakistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Drover_2020-368">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-373">[366]</a> where they have been officially declared as non-Muslims by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Pakistan" title="Government of Pakistan">Government of Pakistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-374">[367]</a> The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the <a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmadiyya Muslim Community">Ahmadiyya Muslim Community</a>, currently the dominant group, and the <a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Drover_2020-368">[361]</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heterodoxy" title="Heterodoxy">heterodox</a> local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (<a href="/wiki/Batin_(Islam)" title="Batin (Islam)">bāṭenī</a>) teachings of Ali and <a href="/wiki/Haji_Bektash_Veli" title="Haji Bektash Veli">Haji Bektash Veli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-375">[368]</a> Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,<a href="#cite_note-376">[369]</a> with possible syncretist origins in <a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Shamanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a>, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-377">[370]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a> is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and not the <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a>,<a href="#cite_note-378">[371]</a> with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the <a href="/wiki/Five_pillars_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Five pillars of Islam">five pillars of Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-379">[372]</a> The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan" title="Syed Ahmad Khan">Syed Ahmad Khan</a>, Abdullah Chakralawi and <a href="/wiki/Ghulam_Ahmed_Perwez" title="Ghulam Ahmed Perwez">Ghulam Ahmed Perwez</a> in India questioning the hadith tradition.<a href="#cite_note-380">[373]</a> In Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Tawfiq_Sidqi" title="Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi">Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi</a> penned the article Islam is the Quran alone in the magazine <a href="/wiki/Al-Man%C4%81r_(magazine)" title="Al-Manār (magazine)">Al-Manār</a>, arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-381">[374]</a> A prominent late 20th century Quranist was <a href="/wiki/Rashad_Khalifa" title="Rashad Khalifa">Rashad Khalifa</a>, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerological</a> <a href="/wiki/Quran_code" title="Quran code">code in the Quran</a>, and founded the Quranist organization <a href="/wiki/United_Submitters_International" class="mw-redirect" title="United Submitters International">United Submitters International</a>.<a href="#cite_note-382">[375]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-denominational_Muslims">Non-denominational Muslims</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational Muslim</a></div> Non-denominational Muslims is an <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella term</a> that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific <a href="/wiki/Islamic_denomination" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic denomination">Islamic denomination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-383">[376]</a><a href="#cite_note-384">[377]</a> Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.<a href="#cite_note-385">[378]</a><a href="#cite_note-386">[379]</a><a href="#cite_note-387">[380]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-388">[381]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mysticism">Mysticism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sufi%E2%80%93Salafi_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi–Salafi relations">Sufi–Salafi relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mevlana_Konya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Mevlana_Konya.jpg/220px-Mevlana_Konya.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Mevlana_Konya.jpg/330px-Mevlana_Konya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Mevlana_Konya.jpg/440px-Mevlana_Konya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>The Whirling Dervishes, or <a href="/wiki/Mevlevi_Order" title="Mevlevi Order">Mevlevi Order</a> by the tomb of Sufi-mystic <a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sema_ceremony_many.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Sema_ceremony_many.jpg/220px-Sema_ceremony_many.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Sema_ceremony_many.jpg/330px-Sema_ceremony_many.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Sema_ceremony_many.jpg/440px-Sema_ceremony_many.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6048" data-file-height="4024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Konya" title="Konya">Konya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></figcaption></figure> Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a <a href="/wiki/Mystical" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical">mystical</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ascetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascetic">ascetic</a> approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct <a href="/wiki/Divine_presence" title="Divine presence">personal experience of God</a>. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<a href="#cite_note-389">[382]</a><a href="#cite_note-390">[383]</a><a href="#cite_note-391">[384]</a><a href="#cite_note-392">[385]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ajiba" title="Ahmad ibn Ajiba">Ahmad ibn Ajiba</a> defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]."<a href="#cite_note-393">[386]</a> It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a>, whose teachings are rooted in <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a><a href="#cite_note-394">[387]</a> as well as by the <a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationist</a> and <a href="/wiki/School_of_Isfahan" title="School of Isfahan">Isfahan</a> schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-395">[388]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Basri" title="Hasan al-Basri">Hasan al-Basri</a>, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,<a href="#cite_note-396">[389]</a> emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as <a href="/wiki/Mansur_Al-Hallaj" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansur Al-Hallaj">Mansur Al-Hallaj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Jalaluddin Rumi</a>, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.<a href="#cite_note-397">[390]</a><a href="#cite_note-398">[391]</a> Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChittick20083–4,_11-399">[392]</a> Traditional Sufis, such as <a href="/wiki/Bayazid_Bastami" title="Bayazid Bastami">Bayazid Bastami</a>, Jalaluddin Rumi, <a href="/wiki/Haji_Bektash_Veli" title="Haji Bektash Veli">Haji Bektash Veli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Junaid_Baghdadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Junaid Baghdadi">Junaid Baghdadi</a>, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.<a href="#cite_note-400">[393]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChittick20083–4,_11-399">[392]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Nile_Green" title="Nile Green">Nile Green</a> argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock201924,77-401">[394]</a> Followers of the Sunni <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revival" title="Islamic revival">revivalist</a> movement known as <a href="/wiki/Salafism" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafism">Salafism</a> have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in <a href="/wiki/Sufi%E2%80%93Salafi_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi–Salafi relations">Sufi–Salafi relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-402">[395]</a> Sufi congregations form orders (<a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">tariqa</a>) centered around a teacher (<a href="/wiki/Wali" title="Wali">wali</a>) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.<a href="#cite_note-403">[396]</a> Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.<a href="#cite_note-EB-Sufism-165">[160]</a> The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or <a href="/wiki/Barelvi" class="mw-redirect" title="Barelvi">Barelvi</a> movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-404">[397]</a><a href="#cite_note-405">[398]</a><a href="#cite_note-406">[399]</a> Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,<a href="#cite_note-407">[400]</a><a href="#cite_note-408">[401]</a> as well as in African countries like <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-388">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-409">[402]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law_and_jurisprudence">Law and jurisprudence</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy#Islamic_law_and_theology" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madhhab_Map3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Madhhab_Map3.png/300px-Madhhab_Map3.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Madhhab_Map3.png/450px-Madhhab_Map3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Madhhab_Map3.png/600px-Madhhab_Map3.png 2x" data-file-width="8000" data-file-height="3882" /></a><figcaption>Islamic <a href="/wiki/Madh%27hab" class="mw-redirect" title="Madh'hab">schools of law</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Shariah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shariah">Shariah</a> is the body of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">religious law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lexico-335">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2002b17,_111–112,_118-410">[403]</a> The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">theory of law</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-411">[404]</a><a href="#cite_note-vikor-412">[405]</a> Conversely, <a href="/wiki/Bid%27ah" title="Bid'ah">bid'ah</a> is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.<a href="#cite_note-413">[406]</a> Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or <a href="/wiki/Usul_al-fiqh" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul al-fiqh">Usul al-fiqh</a>, have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a madhhab (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: مذهب). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a>. The term <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement#Views_on_Taqlid_(adherence_to_legal_precedent)" title="Salafi movement">ghair muqallid</a> refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.<a href="#cite_note-414">[407]</a> The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeiss20023,_161-415">[408]</a><a href="#cite_note-ODI-416">[409]</a> Those who interpret shariah are known as <a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">muftis</a> and their legal opinions are called <a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ODI-416">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-vikor-412">[405]</a> The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.<a href="#cite_note-417">[410]</a> A common third source is <a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">qiyas</a> (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.<a href="#cite_note-418">[411]</a> For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.<a href="#cite_note-419">[412]</a><a href="#cite_note-420">[413]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Zahiri_school" title="Zahiri school">Zahiri school</a> adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is <a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">ijma</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Ikhtilaf" title="Ikhtilaf">ikhtilaf</a> refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called <a href="/wiki/Ahkam" title="Ahkam">ahkam</a>: mandatory (<a href="/wiki/Fard" title="Fard">fard</a>), recommended (<a href="/wiki/Mustahabb" title="Mustahabb">mustahabb</a>), permitted (<a href="/wiki/Mubah" title="Mubah">mubah</a>), abhorred (<a href="/wiki/Makruh" title="Makruh">makruh</a>), and prohibited (<a href="/wiki/Haram" title="Haram">haram</a>).<a href="#cite_note-ODI-416">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-vikor-412">[405]</a> In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.<a href="#cite_note-vikor-412">[405]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>'s 19th century <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> reforms led to the <a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a> civil code and represented the first attempt to <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codify</a> sharia.<a href="#cite_note-Oxfordref-252">[245]</a> While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in <a href="/wiki/Status_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Status (law)">personal status</a> (family) laws.<a href="#cite_note-vikor-412">[405]</a> Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.<a href="#cite_note-vikor-412">[405]</a><a href="#cite_note-mayer-421">[414]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revival" title="Islamic revival">Islamic revival</a> of the late 20th century brought along calls by <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamist</a> movements for complete implementation of sharia.<a href="#cite_note-vikor-412">[405]</a><a href="#cite_note-mayer-421">[414]</a> The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-422">[415]</a><a href="#cite_note-423">[416]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_personages">Religious personages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Ulama</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8._%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8._%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8._%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8._%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8._%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8._%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8._%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5897" data-file-height="3939" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatar</a> Muslim students (1856)</figcaption></figure> Islam has no clergy in the <a href="/wiki/Sacerdotalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacerdotalism">sacerdotal</a> sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a> (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.<a href="#cite_note-424">[417]</a> Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a>. A scholar of the hadith is called a <a href="/wiki/Muhaddith" title="Muhaddith">muhaddith</a>, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a <a href="/wiki/Faqih" class="mw-redirect" title="Faqih">faqih</a> (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or <a href="/wiki/Fatwas" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatwas">fatwas</a> is called a <a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">mufti</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadi</a> is an Islamic judge. <a href="/wiki/Honorific" title="Honorific">Honorific</a> titles given to scholars include <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mullah" title="Mullah">mullah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mawlawi_(Islamic_title)" title="Mawlawi (Islamic title)">mawlawi</a>. Some Muslims also venerate <a href="/wiki/Saints_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints in Islam">saints</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">miracles</a> (كرامات, karāmāt).<a href="#cite_note-425">[418]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance">Governance</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects of Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Islamic economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic military jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tasamuh" title="Tasamuh">tasamuh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_economic_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic economic jurisprudence">Islamic economic jurisprudence</a>, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolistic</a> behavior is frowned upon.<a href="#cite_note-426">[419]</a> Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic banking">Islamic banking</a>. Islam prohibits <a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">riba</a>, usually translated as <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a>, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-427">[420]</a> Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling<a href="#cite_note-428">[421]</a> and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.<a href="#cite_note-429">[422]</a> The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as <a href="/wiki/Bayt_al-mal" title="Bayt al-mal">Bayt al-mal</a>, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a <a href="/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">guaranteed minimum income</a>, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 <a href="/wiki/Dirhams" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirhams">dirhams</a> annually.<a href="#cite_note-430">[423]</a> During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, <a href="/wiki/Child_support" title="Child support">child support</a> was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,<a href="#cite_note-431">[424]</a><a href="#cite_note-432">[425]</a> while the Umayyad Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar II</a> assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.<a href="#cite_note-433">[426]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a> means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disapprobation" class="extiw" title="wikt:disapprobation">disapprobation</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirestone199917–18-434">[427]</a> Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual <a href="/wiki/Self-improvement" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-improvement">self-perfection</a><a href="#cite_note-Afsaruddin-435">[428]</a><a href="#cite_note-436">[429]</a><a href="#cite_note-437">[430]</a> while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirestone199917-438">[431]</a><a href="#cite_note-EI2-439">[432]</a> When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirestone199917–18-434">[427]</a><a href="#cite_note-Afsaruddin-435">[428]</a> Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">apostates</a>, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirestone199917-438">[431]</a><a href="#cite_note-EI2-439">[432]</a> Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.<a href="#cite_note-440">[433]</a> Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a <a href="/wiki/General_mobilization" class="mw-redirect" title="General mobilization">general mobilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-439">[432]</a> For most <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver Shias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Offensive_jihad" class="mw-redirect" title="Offensive jihad">offensive jihad</a> can only be declared by a <a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Twelver_doctrine" title="Imamate in Twelver doctrine">divinely appointed leader</a> of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Mahdi" title="Muhammad al-Mahdi">Muhammad al-Mahdi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Occultation_(Islam)" title="Occultation (Islam)">occultation</a> in 868 CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESachedina1998105–106-441">[434]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENasr200372-442">[435]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Daily_and_family_life">Daily and family life</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Adab (Islam)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Islamic dietary laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Islam and children</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Marriage in Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women in Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_Islam" title="Polygyny in Islam">Polygyny in Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salat_Eid_al-Fitr,_Tehran_(113344343).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Salat_Eid_al-Fitr%2C_Tehran_%28113344343%29.jpg/220px-Salat_Eid_al-Fitr%2C_Tehran_%28113344343%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Salat_Eid_al-Fitr%2C_Tehran_%28113344343%29.jpg/330px-Salat_Eid_al-Fitr%2C_Tehran_%28113344343%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Salat_Eid_al-Fitr%2C_Tehran_%28113344343%29.jpg/440px-Salat_Eid_al-Fitr%2C_Tehran_%28113344343%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hijab" title="Hijab">Islamic veils</a> represent <a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam#Humility" title="Morality in Islam">modesty</a></figcaption></figure> Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a>. Health is viewed as a trust from God and <a href="/wiki/Khamr" title="Khamr">intoxicants</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic drink">alcoholic drinks</a>, are prohibited.<a href="#cite_note-443">[436]</a> All meat must come from a <a href="/wiki/Herbivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivorous">herbivorous</a> animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.<a href="#cite_note-444">[437]</a><a href="#cite_note-445">[438]</a><a href="#cite_note-446">[439]</a> Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural<a href="#cite_note-447">[440]</a> and body modifications, such as <a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_tattooing#Islam" title="Religious perspectives on tattooing">permanent tattoos</a>, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.<a href="#cite_note-449">[d]</a><a href="#cite_note-450">[442]</a> Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.<a href="#cite_note-451">[443]</a> <a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a>, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam<a href="#cite_note-452">[444]</a> and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">clothing in Islam</a> emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the <a href="/wiki/Hijab" title="Hijab">hijab</a> for women. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">personal hygiene</a> is encouraged with certain requirements.<a href="#cite_note-453">[445]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Muslim_Couple_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Muslim_Couple_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Muslim_Couple_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Muslim_Couple_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Muslim_Couple_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Muslim_Couple_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Muslim_Couple_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption>A Muslim couple</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Islamic marriage</a>, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (<a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">mahr</a>).<a href="#cite_note-454">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-455">[447]</a><a href="#cite_note-456">[448]</a> Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.<a href="#cite_note-457">[449]</a><a href="#cite_note-458">[450]</a> Muslim men are allowed to practice <a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">polygyny</a> and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">marriage contract</a> that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.<a href="#cite_note-459">[451]</a><a href="#cite_note-460">[452]</a> There are also cultural variations in weddings.<a href="#cite_note-461">[453]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyandry" title="Polyandry">Polyandry</a>, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.<a href="#cite_note-462">[454]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A1_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%85%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1_%D9%82%D9%85_20.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/%D8%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A1_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%85%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1_%D9%82%D9%85_20.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/%D8%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A1_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%85%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1_%D9%82%D9%85_20.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/%D8%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A1_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AA_%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%85%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1_%D9%82%D9%85_20.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> girls studying the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> placed atop folding <a href="/wiki/Lectern" title="Lectern">lecterns</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rehal_(book_rest)" title="Rehal (book rest)">rehal</a>) during <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></figcaption></figure> After the birth of a child, the <a href="/wiki/Adhan" title="Adhan">adhan</a> is pronounced in the right ear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampo2009106-463">[455]</a> On the seventh day, the <a href="/wiki/Aqiqah" title="Aqiqah">aqiqah</a> ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENigosian2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmy7hnALd_NkCpgPA120_120]-464">[456]</a> The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENigosian2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmy7hnALd_NkCpgPA120_120]-464">[456]</a> Male <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)" title="Khitan (circumcision)">khitan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-465">[457]</a> is often practised in the Muslim world.<a href="#cite_note-466">[458]</a><a href="#cite_note-467">[459]</a> Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampo2009136-468">[460]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_death" title="Islamic view of death">dying Muslim</a> is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words.<a href="#cite_note-469">[461]</a> Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_funeral" title="Islamic funeral">Islamic burial rituals</a>, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage83_83]-470">[462]</a> A "funeral prayer" called <a href="/wiki/Salat_al-Janazah" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat al-Janazah">Salat al-Janazah</a> is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.<a href="#cite_note-471">[463]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts_and_culture">Arts and culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Islam in association football</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslims" title="Cultural Muslims">Cultural Muslims</a></div> The term "<a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a>" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as <a href="/wiki/Festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="Festivals">festivals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">dress code</a>. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.<a href="#cite_note-472">[464]</a> Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201056-473">[465]</a> sometimes referred to as "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Islamicate" class="extiw" title="wikt:Islamicate">Islamicate</a>".<a href="#cite_note-474">[466]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a> encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">visual arts</a> including fields as varied as architecture, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">calligraphy</a>, painting, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ceramics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic ceramics">ceramics</a>, among others.<a href="#cite_note-475">[467]</a><a href="#cite_note-476">[468]</a> While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with <a href="/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam" title="Aniconism in Islam">laws against idolatry</a>, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">calligraphy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tessellation" title="Tessellation">tessellation</a>, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.<a href="#cite_note-477">[469]</a> Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Muhammad" title="Depictions of Muhammad">depiction of Muhammad</a> is a contentious issue among Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-478">[470]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a>, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan" title="Great Mosque of Kairouan">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> and <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(geology)" title="Porphyry (geology)">porphyry</a> columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,<a href="#cite_note-479">[471]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Mosques_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques in Indonesia">mosques in Indonesia</a> often have multi-tiered roofs from local <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Javanese</a> styles.<a href="#cite_note-480">[472]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a> that begins with the <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">Hijra</a> of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.<a href="#cite_note-481">[473]</a> Islamic <a href="/wiki/Muslim_holidays" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim holidays">holy days</a> fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in <a href="/wiki/Seasons" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasons">different seasons</a> in different years in the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>. The most important Islamic festivals are <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Fitr" title="Eid al-Fitr">Eid al-Fitr</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of <a href="/wiki/Shawwal" title="Shawwal">Shawwal</a>, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">Eid al-Adha</a> (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> (pilgrimage).<a href="#cite_note-482">[474]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.britannica.com-2023-88">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslims" title="Cultural Muslims">Cultural Muslims</a> are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.<a href="#cite_note-483">[475]</a><a href="#cite_note-484">[476]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional left"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sixty_Dome_Mosque,Bagerhat.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="14th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh"><img alt="14th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Sixty_Dome_Mosque%2CBagerhat.jpg/120px-Sixty_Dome_Mosque%2CBagerhat.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Sixty_Dome_Mosque%2CBagerhat.jpg/180px-Sixty_Dome_Mosque%2CBagerhat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Sixty_Dome_Mosque%2CBagerhat.jpg/240px-Sixty_Dome_Mosque%2CBagerhat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5811" data-file-height="3084" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">14th century <a href="/wiki/Sixty_Dome_Mosque" title="Sixty Dome Mosque">Sixty Dome Mosque</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Khalifatabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalifatabad">Khalifatabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Djenne_great_mud_mosque.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali"><img alt="Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Djenne_great_mud_mosque.jpg/120px-Djenne_great_mud_mosque.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Djenne_great_mud_mosque.jpg/180px-Djenne_great_mud_mosque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Djenne_great_mud_mosque.jpg/240px-Djenne_great_mud_mosque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1362" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9" title="Great Mosque of Djenné">Great Mosque of Djenné</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">west African</a> country of <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Closeup_of_Mir-i-Arab_Madrasa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan"><img alt="Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Closeup_of_Mir-i-Arab_Madrasa.jpg/120px-Closeup_of_Mir-i-Arab_Madrasa.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Closeup_of_Mir-i-Arab_Madrasa.jpg/180px-Closeup_of_Mir-i-Arab_Madrasa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Closeup_of_Mir-i-Arab_Madrasa.jpg/240px-Closeup_of_Mir-i-Arab_Madrasa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3228" data-file-height="2251" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dome in <a href="/wiki/Po-i-Kalyan" title="Po-i-Kalyan">Po-i-Kalyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:1_great_mosque_xian_2011.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China"><img alt="14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1_great_mosque_xian_2011.JPG/120px-1_great_mosque_xian_2011.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1_great_mosque_xian_2011.JPG/180px-1_great_mosque_xian_2011.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/1_great_mosque_xian_2011.JPG/240px-1_great_mosque_xian_2011.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">14th century <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Xi%27an" title="Great Mosque of Xi'an">Great Mosque of Xi'an</a> in China</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence"><img alt="16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg/120px-Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg/180px-Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg/240px-Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">16th century <a href="/wiki/Menara_Kudus_Mosque" title="Menara Kudus Mosque">Menara Kudus Mosque</a> in Indonesia showing Indian influence</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Basmalah-1wm.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region"><img alt="The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basmalah-1wm.svg/91px-Basmalah-1wm.svg.png" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basmalah-1wm.svg/137px-Basmalah-1wm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basmalah-1wm.svg/183px-Basmalah-1wm.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="672" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The phrase <a href="/wiki/Basmala" title="Basmala">Bismillah</a> in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman</a> region</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran"><img alt="Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg/120px-Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg/180px-Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg/240px-Roof_hafez_tomb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences_on_other_religions">Influences on other religions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Druze" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and Druze">Islam and Druze</a></div> Some movements, such as the <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a>,<a href="#cite_note-485">[477]</a><a href="#cite_note-486">[478]</a><a href="#cite_note-487">[479]</a> <a href="/wiki/Berghouata" class="mw-redirect" title="Berghouata">Berghouata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ha-Mim" title="Ha-Mim">Ha-Mim</a>, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.<a href="#cite_note-488">[480]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> faith further split from <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a> as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh</a> was <a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">God incarnate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-489">[481]</a><a href="#cite_note-490">[482]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a> is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a> by <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Adi_ibn_Musafir" title="Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir">Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir</a> in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-491">[483]</a> <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> stems from Twelver Shia passed through <a href="/wiki/Siyyid_%27Ali_Muhammad_i-Shirazi_al-Bab" class="mw-redirect" title="Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab">Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab</a> while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri <a href="/wiki/Baha%27u%27llah" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha'u'llah">Baha'u'llah</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-492">[484]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a> in late 15th century <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, primarily incorporates aspects of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, with some Islamic influences.<a href="#cite_note-493">[485]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Criticism of Muhammad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Damascus_(arabic_icon).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/John_Damascus_%28arabic_icon%29.gif/170px-John_Damascus_%28arabic_icon%29.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/John_Damascus_%28arabic_icon%29.gif/255px-John_Damascus_%28arabic_icon%29.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/John_Damascus_%28arabic_icon%29.gif/340px-John_Damascus_%28arabic_icon%29.gif 2x" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus" title="John of Damascus">John of Damascus</a>, under the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<a href="#cite_note-494">[486]</a></figcaption></figure> Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kammuna" title="Ibn Kammuna">Ibn Kammuna</a>, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Christian heresy</a> or a form of <a href="/wiki/Idolatry" title="Idolatry">idolatry</a>, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFahlbusch_et_al2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyaecVMhMWaECpgPA759_759]-495">[487]</a> Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a> defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a>. Catholic theologian <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>'s doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.<a href="#cite_note-496">[488]</a> Defamatory images of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, derived from early 7th century depictions of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Church</a>,<a href="#cite_note-497">[489]</a> appear in the 14th-century epic poem <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stone-498">[490]</a> Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a>, by establishing another religion after Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-Stone-498">[490]</a> Other criticisms center on the <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Muslim-majority_countries" title="Human rights in Muslim-majority countries">treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries</a>, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.<a href="#cite_note-499">[491]</a> Furthermore, in the wake of the recent <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a> trend, Islam's influence on the ability of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_diaspora" title="Muslim diaspora">Muslim immigrants</a> in the West to assimilate has been <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_multiculturalism" title="Criticism of multiculturalism">criticized</a>.<a href="#cite_note-500">[492]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam" title="Glossary of Islam">Glossary of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Islam-related_articles" title="Index of Islam-related articles">Index of Islam-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_mythology" title="Islamic mythology">Islamic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major religious groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪzlæm/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">IZ-la(h)m</a>;<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ٱلْإِسْلَام‎, romanized: al-Islām, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[alʔɪsˈlaːm]</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'submission [to the <a href="/wiki/Will_of_God" title="Will of God">will of God</a>]' </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.<a href="#cite_note-168">[163]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock201920–22-214">[208]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-449"><a href="#cite_ref-449">^</a> Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted <a href="/wiki/Footbinding" class="mw-redirect" title="Footbinding">footbinding</a> of girls for the same reason.<a href="#cite_note-448">[441]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quran_and_hadith">Quran and hadith</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=117">2:117</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Quran <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/1?startingVerse=4">1:4</a>; </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Quran <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/6?startingVerse=31">6:31</a>; </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Quran <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/101?startingVerse=1">101:1</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCenter2013" class="citation web cs1">Center, Pew Research (30 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/">"The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society"</a>. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231025124036/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%27s+Religion+%26+Public+Life+Project&rft.atitle=The+World%27s+Muslims%3A+Religion%2C+Politics+and+Society&rft.date=2013-04-30&rft.aulast=Center&rft.aufirst=Pew+Research&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Freligion%2F2013%2F04%2F30%2Fthe-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-overview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/the_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth_to_the_twentieth_century#:~:text=While%20the%20motivations%20of%20early,intensified%20the%20Trans%2DSaharan%20trade">"The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Spread+of+Islam+in+West+Africa%3A+Containment%2C+Mixing%2C+and+Reform+from&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspice.fsi.stanford.edu%2Fdocs%2Fthe_spread_of_islam_in_west_africa_containment_mixing_and_reform_from_the_eighth_to_the_twentieth_century%23%3A~%3Atext%3DWhile%2520the%2520motivations%2520of%2520early%2Cintensified%2520the%2520Trans%252DSaharan%2520trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelchMoussalliNewby2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Welch, Alford T.; Moussalli, Ahmad S.; Newby, Gordon D. 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Retrieved 17 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Schimmel&rft.aufirst=Annemarie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FIslam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam">"Definition of Islam | Dictionary.com"</a>. www.dictionary.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220509110220/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/islam">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2022. 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Spain: Barnes & Noble, Inc. p. 3.13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7607-1975-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7607-1975-6"><bdi>0-7607-1975-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Atlas+of+the+Medieval+World+%28AD+600+-+1492%29&rft.place=Spain&rft.pages=3.13&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Barnes+%26+Noble%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7607-1975-6&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm">Siin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110907230044/http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm">Archived</a> 7 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." Lane's Lexicon 4. – via <a href="/wiki/The_Study_Quran" title="The Study Quran">StudyQuran</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisChurchill2009" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi">Islam: The Religion and The People</a>. Wharton School Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamreligionpeo00lewi/page/8">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-223085-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-223085-8"><bdi>978-0-13-223085-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Religion+and+The+People&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Wharton+School+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-13-223085-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Barnard&rft.au=Churchill%2C+Buntzie+Ellis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamreligionpeo00lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190913192608/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/muslim">Muslim</a>." <a href="/wiki/Lexico" title="Lexico">Lexico</a>. UK: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordhistoryofi00johnpage76_76–77]-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2000[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordhistoryofi00johnpage76_76–77]_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2000">Esposito (2000)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/page/76">76–77</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahmutćehajić2006" class="citation book cs1">Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm">The mosque: the heart of submission</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University_Press" title="Fordham University Press">Fordham University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mosqueheartsubmi00mahm/page/n104">84</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2584-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-2584-2"><bdi>978-0-8232-2584-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+mosque%3A+the+heart+of+submission&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-2584-2&rft.aulast=Mahmut%C4%87ehaji%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Rusmir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmosqueheartsubmi00mahm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibb1969" class="citation book cs1">Gibb, Sir Hamilton (1969). 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Oxford University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195002454" title="Special:BookSources/9780195002454"><bdi>9780195002454</bdi></a>. <q>Modern Muslims dislike the terms Mohammedan and Mohammedanism, which seem to them to carry the implication of worship of Mohammed, as Christian and Christianity imply the worship of Christ.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mohammedanism%3A+an+historical+survey&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780195002454&rft.aulast=Gibb&rft.aufirst=Sir+Hamilton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeversluis2011" class="citation book cs1">Beversluis, Joel, ed. 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"Nūr". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(2nd_ed.)2012">Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012)</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0874">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Elias, Jamal J. "Light". In <a href="#CITEREFMcAuliffe2003">McAuliffe (2003)</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261">10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Campo, Juan E. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nar">Nar</a>". In <a href="#CITEREFMartin2004">Martin (2004)</a>.. – via <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Fahd, T. "Nār". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(2nd_ed.)2012">Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012)</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0846">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Toelle, Heidi. "Fire". In <a href="#CITEREFMcAuliffe2002">McAuliffe (2002)</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156">10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcAuliffe2003">McAuliffe (2003)</a>, p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurge201597–99-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurge201597–99_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurge2015">Burge (2015)</a>, pp. 97–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2002b">Esposito (2002b)</a>, pp. 26–28 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Webb, Gisela. "Angel". In <a href="#CITEREFMcAuliffen.d.">McAuliffe (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">MacDonald, D. B.; Madelung, W. "Malāʾika". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(2nd_ed.)2012">Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012)</a>.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0642">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017140-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÇakmak2017140_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÇakmak2017">Çakmak (2017)</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurge201522-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurge201522_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurge2015">Burge (2015)</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-610CE-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-610CE_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-610CE_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d.">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2003" class="citation book cs1">Watt, William Montgomery (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5">Islam and the Integration of Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17587-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17587-6"><bdi>978-0-415-17587-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228022949/https://books.google.com/books?id=AQUZ6BGyohQC&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Integration+of+Society&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-17587-6&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=William+Montgomery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAQUZ6BGyohQC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito200417–18,_21-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito200417–18,_21_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2004">Esposito (2004)</a>, pp. 17–18, 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl_Faruqi1987" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lois_Lamya_al-Faruqi" title="Lois Lamya al-Faruqi">Al Faruqi, Lois Ibsen</a> (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Asian_Music" title="Society for Asian Music">Asian Music</a> (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Music&rft.atitle=The+Cantillation+of+the+Qur%27an&rft.issue=Autumn+%E2%80%93+Winter+1987&rft.pages=3-4&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Al+Faruqi&rft.aufirst=Lois+Ibsen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ringgren-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ringgren_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ringgren_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinggren" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ringgren, Helmer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran">"Qurʾān"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Ringgren&rft.aufirst=Helmer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FQuran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> "The word Quran was invented and first used in the Quran itself. There are <a href="/wiki/Quran#Etymology_and_meaning" title="Quran">two different theories</a> about this term and its formation." </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir">"Tafsīr"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211019035210/https://www.britannica.com/topic/tafsir">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tafs%C4%ABr&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Ftafsir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito200479–81-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito200479–81_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2004">Esposito (2004)</a>, pp. 79–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1994" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Alan (1994). The Koran. London: <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Tuttle_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles E. Tuttle Company">Charles E. Tuttle Company</a>. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1842126091" title="Special:BookSources/1842126091"><bdi>1842126091</bdi></a>. <q>Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Koran&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Charles+E.+Tuttle+Company&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1842126091&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArberry1956" class="citation book cs1">Arberry, Arthur (1956). The Koran Interpreted. London: <a href="/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin" title="Allen & Unwin">Allen & Unwin</a>. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684825074" title="Special:BookSources/0684825074"><bdi>0684825074</bdi></a>. <q>It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Koran+Interpreted&rft.place=London&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=0684825074&rft.aulast=Arberry&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n" title="Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān">Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an</a> 3. pp. 213, 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-harvp|Esposito|2002b|pp=4–5_53-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2002b">Esposito (2002b)</a>, pp. 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-harvp|Peters|2003|p=9-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-harvp|Peters|2003|p=9_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-harvp|Peters|2003|p=9_54-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeters2003">Peters (2003)</a>, p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d.">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Hava_Lazarus-Yafeh" title="Hava Lazarus-Yafeh">Hava Lazarus-Yafeh</a>. "Tahrif". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d.">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeece2003">Teece (2003)</a>, pp. 12–13 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTurner2006">Turner (2006)</a>, p. 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBennett2010101-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBennett2010101_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBennett2010">Bennett (2010)</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16">"BnF. Département des Manuscrits. Supplément turc 190"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230909130407/https://gallica.bnf.fr/view3if/ga/ark:/12148/btv1b8427195m/f16">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BnF.+D%C3%A9partement+des+Manuscrits.+Suppl%C3%A9ment+turc+190&rft.pub=Biblioth%C3%A8que+nationale+de+France&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fview3if%2Fga%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbtv1b8427195m%2Ff16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2003">Esposito (2003)</a>, p. 225 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReeves2004" class="citation book cs1">Reeves, J. C. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC">Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-12726-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-12726-7"><bdi>90-04-12726-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNId86Eu4TEC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bible+and+Qur%CA%BC%C4%81n%3A+Essays+in+scriptural+intertextuality&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=90-04-12726-7&rft.aulast=Reeves&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWNId86Eu4TEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001"></a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001">The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World</a> , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5">978-0-19-530513-5</a>. (See also: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298">quick reference</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210110124812/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100012298">Archived</a> 10 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet." </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195305135.001.0001">The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World</a> , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530513-5">978-0-19-530513-5</a>. (See also: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960">quick reference</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200926053837/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095403960">Archived</a> 26 September 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'" </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMartin2004">Martin (2004)</a>, p. 666 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">J. Robson. "Hadith". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d.">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">D.W. Brown. "Sunna". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d.">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman1995" class="citation book cs1">Goldman, Elizabeth (1995). Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508240-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508240-1"><bdi>978-0-19-508240-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Believers%3A+Spiritual+Leaders+of+the+World&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508240-1&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Aisha_Abd_al-Rahman" title="Aisha Abd al-Rahman">al-Rahman, Aisha Abd</a>, ed. 1990. <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_the_Science_of_Hadith" title="Introduction to the Science of Hadith">Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ</a>. Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Awliya'i, Mustafa. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books">The Four Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912144702/https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/vol1-n12-3/outlines-development-science-hadith-dr-mustafa-awliyai/part-1#four-books">Archived</a> 12 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." In Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via <a href="/wiki/Al-Islam.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Islam.org">Al-Islam.org</a>. Retrieved 24 May 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%27id_Akhtar_Rizvi" title="Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi">Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah">The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu'l-Arb'ah)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912191319/https://www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-allamah-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-4-hadith#four-books-al-kutubul-arbah">Archived</a> 12 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." Ch 4 in The Qur'an and Hadith. Tanzania: <a href="/wiki/Bilal_Muslim_Mission" title="Bilal Muslim Mission">Bilal Muslim Mission</a>. – via <a href="/wiki/Al-Islam.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Islam.org">Al-Islam.org</a>. Retrieved 24 May 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlassé2003">Glassé (2003)</a>, pp. 382–383, "Resurrection" </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(2nd_ed.)2012">Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012)</a>, "Avicenna". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467</a>: "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'." </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Gardet, L. "Qiyama". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d.">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John L.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100913062714/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588">"Eschatology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Islam" title="The Oxford Dictionary of Islam">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e588">the original</a> on 13 September 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2017 – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.atitle=Eschatology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordislamicstudies.com%2Farticle%2Fopr%2Ft125%2Fe588&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2011130-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2011130_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2011">Esposito (2011)</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2006">Smith (2006)</a>, p. 89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p. 565 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Afsaruddin, Asma. "Garden". In <a href="#CITEREFMcAuliffen.d.">McAuliffe (n.d.)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paradise&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111208204654/http://www.freeweb.hu/etymological/AEDweb.htm">"Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary)"</a>. 2002. 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In R. S. Keller and R. R. Ruether (eds.). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America. Volume 2, Part VII. Islam. Bloomington and Indianapolis: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. pp. 615–629. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34687-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34687-2"><bdi>978-0-253-34687-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023019/https://books.google.com/books?id=WPILfbtT5tQC&pg=PA615#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women%2C+Islam%2C+and+Mosques&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Women+and+Religion+in+North+America&rft.place=Bloomington+and+Indianapolis&rft.series=Volume+2%2C+Part+VII.+Islam&rft.pages=615-629&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34687-2&rft.aulast=Mattson&rft.aufirst=Ingrid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWPILfbtT5tQC%26pg%3DPA615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, <a href="/wiki/John_Burton-Page" title="John Burton-Page">J. Burton-Page</a>, et al. 2010. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004206106_eifo_COM_0694">Masd̲j̲id</a> ." Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. Retrieved 25 May 2020. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque">"Mosque"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210928065350/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mosque">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mosque&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fmosque&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriff1991" class="citation book cs1">Ariff, Mohamed (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&pg=PA55">The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Southeast_Asian_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Southeast Asian Studies">Institute of Southeast Asian Studies</a>. pp. 55–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-3016-07-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-3016-07-1"><bdi>978-981-3016-07-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=NP4ZL0TJ9s4C&&pg=PA55">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+Voluntary+Sector+in+Southeast+Asia%3A+Islam+and+the+Economic+Development+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=55-&rft.pub=Institute+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-981-3016-07-1&rft.aulast=Ariff&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNP4ZL0TJ9s4C%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2010">Esposito (2010)</a>, p. 109-110: This is not regarded as charity because it is not really voluntary but instead is owed, by those who have received their wealth as a trust from God's bounty, to the poor. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidgeon2003" class="citation book cs1">Ridgeon, Lloyd (2003). Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present. United Kingdom: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415297967" title="Special:BookSources/9780415297967"><bdi>9780415297967</bdi></a>. <q>Aside from its function of purifying believers' wealth, the payment of zakat may have contributed in no small way to the economic welfare of the Muslim community in Mecca.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Major+World+Religions%3A+From+Their+Origins+to+the+Present.&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=RoutledgeCurzon&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780415297967&rft.aulast=Ridgeon&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world">"A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Humanitarian" title="The New Humanitarian">The New Humanitarian</a>. 1 June 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210114014900/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/95564/analysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Humanitarian&rft.atitle=A+faith-based+aid+revolution+in+the+Muslim+world&rft.date=2012-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenewhumanitarian.org%2Freport%2F95564%2Fanalysis-faith-based-aid-revolution-muslim-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaid2006" class="citation book cs1">Said, Abdul Aziz; et al. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145">Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static</a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77011-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77011-8"><bdi>978-0-415-77011-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023121/https://books.google.com/books?id=4bs7g0O4eLYC&pg=PA145">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Islam%3A+Dynamic%2C+Not+Static&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77011-8&rft.aulast=Said&rft.aufirst=Abdul+Aziz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4bs7g0O4eLYC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage72_72]-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage72_72]_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStefon2010">Stefon (2010)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/72">72</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2003" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85941-729-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85941-729-9"><bdi>1-85941-729-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Equity+and+Trusts&rft.place=London&rft.pages=32&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cavendish+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-85941-729-9&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan">"Ramadan"</a>. www.britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231009215438/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2023. 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United States: Tughra Books. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597846110" title="Special:BookSources/9781597846110"><bdi>9781597846110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fasting+In+Islam+And+The+Month+Of+Ramadan&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Tughra+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781597846110&rft.au=Ramadanali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldschmidtDavidson2005">Goldschmidt & Davidson (2005)</a>, p. 48 </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFarah1994">Farah (1994)</a>, pp. 145–147 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Hajj". 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Princeton University Press. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2548-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2548-6"><bdi>978-1-4008-2548-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023112/https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Guide+for+Jews+and+Christians&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-2548-6&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=F.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHYJ2c9E9IM8C%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell2007" class="citation book cs1">Cornell, Vincent J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g5LNUS0ciAAC&pg=PA29">Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98733-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98733-6"><bdi>978-0-275-98733-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voices+of+Islam%3A+Voices+of+tradition&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98733-6&rft.aulast=Cornell&rft.aufirst=Vincent+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg5LNUS0ciAAC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlassé2003">Glassé (2003)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA207">207</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichigan_Consortium_for_Medieval_and_Early_Modern_Studies1986" class="citation book cs1">Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies (1986). Goss, V. P.; Bornstein, C. V. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ">The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades</a>. Vol. 21. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0918720583" title="Special:BookSources/0918720583"><bdi>0918720583</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228023032/https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 15 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meeting+of+Two+Worlds%3A+Cultural+Exchange+Between+East+and+West+During+the+Period+of+the+Crusades&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=Medieval+Institute+Publications%2C+Western+Michigan+University&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0918720583&rft.au=Michigan+Consortium+for+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Studies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp44kAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_Trofimov" title="Yaroslav Trofimov">Trofimov, Yaroslav</a>. 2008. The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine. <a href="/wiki/Knopf" class="mw-redirect" title="Knopf">Knopf</a>. New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-47290-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-47290-8">978-0-307-47290-8</a>. p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAboo_Yahyaa2013" class="citation book cs1">Aboo Yahyaa (2013). Foundation of Tajweed (2 ed.). p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundation+of+Tajweed&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=2&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Aboo+Yahyaa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage42_42–43]-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage42_42–43]_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStefon2010">Stefon (2010)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/42">42–43</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENigosian2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmy7hnALd_NkCpgPA70_70]-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENigosian2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmy7hnALd_NkCpgPA70_70]_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNigosian2004">Nigosian (2004)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=my7hnALd_NkC&pg=PA70">70</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong2016" class="citation book cs1">Armstrong, Lyall (2016). 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Educational Studies in Mathematics. 66 (2): 185–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10649-006-9023-7">10.1007/s10649-006-9023-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120363574">120363574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Studies+in+Mathematics&rft.atitle=Stages+in+the+History+of+Algebra+with+Implications+for+Teaching&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-201&rft.date=2007-09-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10649-006-9023-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A120363574%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Victor+J.&rft.au=Barton%2C+Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAhmed2006">Ahmed (2006)</a>, pp. 23, 42, 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1998" class="citation book cs1">Young, Mark (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy">The Guinness Book of Records</a>. Bantam. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofwo1998newy/page/242">242</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-57895-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-553-57895-9"><bdi>978-0-553-57895-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Guinness+Book+of+Records&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=Bantam&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-553-57895-9&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fguinnessbookofwo1998newy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brague_2009-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brague_2009_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brague_2009_195-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrague2009" class="citation book cs1">Brague, Rémi (2009). The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. University of Chicago Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226070803" title="Special:BookSources/9780226070803"><bdi>9780226070803</bdi></a>. <q>Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Amost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians... A few others were Sabians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legend+of+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Philosophical+Explorations+of+Medieval+Christianity%2C+Judaism%2C+and+Islam&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780226070803&rft.aulast=Brague&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9mi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-0455-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-0455-3">0-7486-0455-3</a>, p.4 </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Rémi Brague, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm">Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm">Archived</a> 2013-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304">"Medieval Islamic Civilization". Vol. 1 Index A–K</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA304#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> 28 December 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 2006, p. 304. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Saliba" title="George Saliba">Saliba, George</a>. 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York: <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-8023-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-8023-7">0-8147-8023-7</a>. pp. 245, 250, 256–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Holt_(historian)" title="Peter Holt (historian)">Holt, Peter Malcolm</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8">The Crusader States and Their Neighbours, 1098–1291</a>. Pearson Longman. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-36931-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-36931-3"><bdi>978-0-582-36931-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024001/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qLHVGgH7AC&pg=PA8">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. 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Probleme <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a> 1975 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-004673-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-004673-1">978-3-11-004673-1</a> p. 260 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1896227–228-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1896227–228_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArnold1896">Arnold (1896)</a>, pp. 227–228. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36220329">"Why are many Indian Muslims seen as untouchable?"</a>. 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Islam in South Asia in Practice. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+South+Asia+in+Practice&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Metcalf&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock201920–22-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeacock201920–22_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeacock2019">Peacock (2019)</a>, p. 20–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEÇakmak20171425–1429-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEÇakmak20171425–1429_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFÇakmak2017">Çakmak (2017)</a>, pp. 1425–1429. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarmer1995" class="citation book cs1">Farmer, Edward L., ed. 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University of Wales Trinity Saint David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230502100026/https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/2096/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Emergence+of+a+Scholar+from+a+Garrison+Society%3A+A+contextual+analysis+of+Muhammad+Ibn+Abd+al-Wahh%C4%81b%27s+doctrine+in+the+light+of+the+Qur%27%C4%81n+and+Had%C4%ABth&rft.degree=masters&rft.inst=University+of+Wales+Trinity+Saint+David&rft.date=2022-08-23&rft.aulast=Musa&rft.aufirst=Shahajada+Md&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.uwtsd.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F2096%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO">"Graves desecrated in Mizdah"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Libya_Herald" title="Libya Herald">Libya Herald</a>. 4 September 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172759/http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/04/graves-desecrated-in-mizdah/#axzz2jWG0vDDO">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Libya+Herald&rft.atitle=Graves+desecrated+in+Mizdah&rft.date=2013-09-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libyaherald.com%2F2013%2F09%2F04%2Fgraves-desecrated-in-mizdah%2F%23axzz2jWG0vDDO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010146-240"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010146_240-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2010">Esposito (2010)</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Nicolas Laos The Metaphysics of World Order: A Synthesis of Philosophy, Theology, and Politics <a href="/wiki/Wipf_and_Stock" title="Wipf and Stock">Wipf and Stock</a> Publishers 2015 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-0102-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-0102-5">978-1-4982-0102-5</a> p. 177 </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2000" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Barry M. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79">Guide to Islamist Movements</a>. M.E. Sharpe. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7656-1747-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7656-1747-1"><bdi>0-7656-1747-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=wEih57-GWQQC&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+Islamist+Movements&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7656-1747-1&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Barry+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwEih57-GWQQC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010147-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010147_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2010">Esposito (2010)</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010149-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010149_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2010">Esposito (2010)</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_L._Canfield2002" class="citation book cs1">Robert L. Canfield (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131">Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 131–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5"><bdi>978-0-521-52291-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=g3JhKNSk8tQC&pg=PAPA131#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turko-Persia+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=131-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52291-5&rft.au=Robert+L.+Canfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg3JhKNSk8tQC%26pg%3DPAPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanyal1998" class="citation journal cs1">Sanyal, Usha (23 July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84">"Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the twentieth Century"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Asian_Studies" title="Modern Asian Studies">Modern Asian Studies</a>. 32 (3): 635–656. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X98003059">10.1017/S0026749X98003059</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200317013822/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/generational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century/8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2020 – via Cambridge Core.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Generational+Changes+in+the+Leadership+of+the+Ahl-e+Sunnat+Movement+in+North+India+during+the+twentieth+Century&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=635-656&rft.date=1998-07-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X98003059&rft.aulast=Sanyal&rft.aufirst=Usha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fmodern-asian-studies%2Farticle%2Fgenerational-changes-in-the-leadership-of-the-ahle-sunnat-movement-in-north-india-during-the-twentieth-century%2F8AAAC4CFEFC4F4084731C3964A5CAE84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus2002358,_378–380,_624-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELapidus2002358,_378–380,_624_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2002">Lapidus (2002)</a>, pp. 358, 378–380, 624. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuzpinar2007" class="citation journal cs1">Buzpinar, Ş. Tufan (March 2007). "Celal Nuri's Concepts of Westernization and Religion". Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (2): 247–258. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263200601114091">10.1080/00263200601114091</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284539">4284539</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144461915">144461915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Celal+Nuri%27s+Concepts+of+Westernization+and+Religion&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=247-258&rft.date=2007-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144461915%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4284539%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00263200601114091&rft.aulast=Buzpinar&rft.aufirst=%C5%9E.+Tufan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauziere2016" class="citation book cs1">Lauziere, Henri (2016). The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. pp. 231–232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17550-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17550-0"><bdi>978-0-231-17550-0</bdi></a>. <q>Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, all of whom seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Salafism%3A+Islamic+Reform+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=231-232&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-231-17550-0&rft.aulast=Lauziere&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam">"Political Islam: A movement in motion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Economist_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Economist Magazine">Economist Magazine</a>. 3 January 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104032602/http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2014/01/political-islam">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economist+Magazine&rft.atitle=Political+Islam%3A+A+movement+in+motion&rft.date=2014-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fblogs%2Ferasmus%2F2014%2F01%2Fpolitical-islam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Cantwell_Smith" title="Wilfred Cantwell Smith">Smith, Wilfred Cantwell</a> (1957). Islam in Modern History. Princeton University Press. p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03030-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03030-8"><bdi>0-691-03030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+Modern+History&rft.pages=233&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=0-691-03030-8&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Wilfred+Cantwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxfordref-252">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxfordref_252-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxfordref_252-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John L.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176">"Mecelle"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Islam" title="The Oxford Dictionary of Islam">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230817003534/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100146176">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023 – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.atitle=Mecelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100146176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101004145229/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm">"New Turkey"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Al-Ahram_Weekly" title="Al-Ahram Weekly">Al-Ahram Weekly</a>. No. 488. 29 June – 5 July 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/488/chrncls.htm">the original</a> on 4 October 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Ahram+Weekly&rft.atitle=New+Turkey&rft.issue=488&rft.date=2000-06-29%2F2000-07-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweekly.ahram.org.eg%2F2000%2F488%2Fchrncls.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFالوطنwebmaster2020" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">الوطن, جريدة; webmaster (5 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD">"«مملكة الحجاز».. وقــصـــة الـغــزو المـســلّـــح"</a>. جريدة الوطن (in Arabic). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230516230552/https://www.al-watan.com/article/230610/NEWS/%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB-%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86&rft.atitle=%C2%AB%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2%C2%BB..+%D9%88%D9%82%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B5%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80%D8%BA%D9%80%D9%80%D8%B2%D9%88+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%80%D8%B3%D9%80%D9%80%D9%84%D9%91%D9%80%D9%80%D9%80%D8%AD&rft.date=2020-05-05&rft.aulast=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86&rft.aufirst=%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9&rft.au=webmaster&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-watan.com%2Farticle%2F230610%2FNEWS%2F%25C2%25AB%25D9%2585%25D9%2585%25D9%2584%25D9%2583%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D8%25AC%25D8%25A7%25D8%25B2%25C2%25BB-%25D9%2588%25D9%2582%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25B5%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25A9-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2580%25D8%25BA%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25B2%25D9%2588-%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2585%25D9%2580%25D8%25B3%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D9%2584%25D9%2591%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D9%2580%25D8%25AD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBani_Issa2023" class="citation journal cs1">Bani Issa, Mohammad Saleh (1 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10623165">"Factors of stability and sustainable development in Jordan in its first centenary 1921–2021 (an analytical descriptive study)"</a>. Heliyon. 9 (11): e20993. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Heliy...920993B">2023Heliy...920993B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.heliyon.2023.e20993">10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20993</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2405-8440">2405-8440</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10623165">10623165</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37928029">37928029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heliyon&rft.atitle=Factors+of+stability+and+sustainable+development+in+Jordan+in+its+first+centenary+1921%E2%80%932021+%28an+analytical+descriptive+study%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e20993&rft.date=2023-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10623165%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Heliy...920993B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37928029&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.heliyon.2023.e20993&rft.issn=2405-8440&rft.aulast=Bani+Issa&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+Saleh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10623165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-والخلفاء-2023-256">^ <a href="#cite_ref-والخلفاء-2023_256-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-والخلفاء-2023_256-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFوالخلفاء2023" class="citation book cs1">والخلفاء, قصص الخلافة الإسلامية (31 March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ">قصص الخلافة الإسلامية والخلفاء</a>. Austin Macauley Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3984-9251-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3984-9251-6"><bdi>978-1-3984-9251-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024259/https://books.google.com/books?id=_r-5EAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B5+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A1&rft.pub=Austin+Macauley+Publishers&rft.date=2023-03-31&rft.isbn=978-1-3984-9251-6&rft.aulast=%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A1&rft.aufirst=%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B5+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_r-5EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoran1999" class="citation book cs1">Doran, Michael (1999). Pan-Arabism before Nasser: Egyptian power politics and the Palestine question. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York Oxford: Oxford university press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512361-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512361-6"><bdi>978-0-19-512361-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pan-Arabism+before+Nasser%3A+Egyptian+power+politics+and+the+Palestine+question&rft.place=New+York+Oxford&rft.series=Studies+in+Middle+Eastern+history&rft.pub=Oxford+university+press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512361-6&rft.aulast=Doran&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandau1994" class="citation book cs1">Landau, Yaʿaqov M. (1994). The politics of Pan-Islam: ideology and organization ([Rev. and updated] paperback (with additions and corr.) ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827709-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827709-5"><bdi>978-0-19-827709-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+Pan-Islam%3A+ideology+and+organization&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=%5BRev.+and+updated%5D+paperback+%28with+additions+and+corr.%29&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-827709-5&rft.aulast=Landau&rft.aufirst=Ya%CA%BFaqov+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm">"Organization of the Islamic Conference"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 26 December 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180628190335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/1555062.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Organization+of+the+Islamic+Conference&rft.date=2010-12-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fmiddle_east%2Fcountry_profiles%2F1555062.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaddadSmith2002271-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaddadSmith2002271_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaddadSmith2002">Haddad & Smith (2002)</a>, p. 271. </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZabel2006" class="citation book cs1">Zabel, Darcy (2006). Arabs in the Americas: Interdisciplinary Essays on the Arab Diaspora. Austria: Peter Lang. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820481111" title="Special:BookSources/9780820481111"><bdi>9780820481111</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabs+in+the+Americas%3A+Interdisciplinary+Essays+on+the+Arab+Diaspora&rft.place=Austria&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780820481111&rft.aulast=Zabel&rft.aufirst=Darcy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew_Research_Center-2011-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pew_Research_Center-2011_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pew_Research_Center-2011_262-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/">The Future of the Global Muslim Population</a> (Report). <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>. 27 January 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+the+Global+Muslim+Population&rft.pub=Pew+Research+Center&rft.date=2011-01-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2F2011%2F01%2F27%2Fthe-future-of-the-global-muslim-population%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBulliet2005">Bulliet (2005)</a>, p. 722 </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820">"Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 9 August 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221104171024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14447820">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Are+secular+forces+being+squeezed+out+of+Arab+Spring%3F&rft.date=2011-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-14447820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlackman2008" class="citation news cs1">Slackman, Michael (23 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html">"Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153440/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/world/middleeast/24jordan.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Jordanian+students+rebel%2C+embracing+conservative+Islam&rft.date=2008-12-23&rft.aulast=Slackman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F12%2F24%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2F24jordan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkpatrick2011" class="citation news cs1">Kirkpatrick, David D. (3 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html">"Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/04/world/middleeast/egypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Egypt%27s+vote+puts+emphasis+on+split+over+religious+rule&rft.date=2011-12-03&rft.aulast=Kirkpatrick&rft.aufirst=David+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F12%2F04%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Fegypts-vote-propels-islamic-law-into-spotlight.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauziere2016" class="citation book cs1">Lauziere, Henri (2016). The Making of Salafism: Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century. New York, Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17550-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-17550-0"><bdi>978-0-231-17550-0</bdi></a>. <q>Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology. However, the aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis' religious interpretations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Salafism%3A+Islamic+Reform+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-231-17550-0&rft.aulast=Lauziere&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._Rabil2014" class="citation book cs1">G. Rabil, Robert (2014). Salafism in Lebanon: From Apoliticism to Transnational Jihadism. Washington DC, US: Georgetown University Press. pp. 32–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-116-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-116-0"><bdi>978-1-62616-116-0</bdi></a>. <q>Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated into the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... The Muslim Brethren have taken up Rida's Islamic fundamentalism, a right-wing radical movement founded in 1928,..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Salafism+in+Lebanon%3A+From+Apoliticism+to+Transnational+Jihadism&rft.place=Washington+DC%2C+US&rft.pages=32-33&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62616-116-0&rft.aulast=G.+Rabil&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins">"Isis to mint own Islamic dinar coins in gold, silver and copper"</a>. The Guardian. 21 November 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/14/isis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Isis+to+mint+own+Islamic+dinar+coins+in+gold%2C+silver+and+copper&rft.date=2014-11-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2014%2Fnov%2F14%2Fisis-gold-silver-copper-islamic-dinar-coins&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm">"Huge rally for Turkish secularism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 29 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120529003102/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Huge+rally+for+Turkish+secularism&rft.date=2011-04-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2F6604643.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaleh2011" class="citation news cs1">Saleh, Heba (15 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm">"Tunisia moves against headscarves"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120529003101/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Tunisia+moves+against+headscarves&rft.date=2011-10-15&rft.aulast=Saleh&rft.aufirst=Heba&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2F6053380.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354">"Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. 28 June 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306094736/http://www.economist.com/node/9409354?story_id=9409354">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Laying+down+the+law%3A+Islam%27s+authority+deficit&rft.date=2007-06-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F9409354%3Fstory_id%3D9409354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoweringMirzaCrone2013" class="citation book cs1">Bowering, Gerhard; Mirza, Mahan; Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691134840" title="Special:BookSources/9780691134840"><bdi>9780691134840</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Political+Thought&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780691134840&rft.aulast=Bowering&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=Mirza%2C+Mahan&rft.au=Crone%2C+Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27256187">"Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a>. 18 October 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131104032423/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27256187/page/2/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ultraconservative+Islam+on+rise+in+Mideast&rft.pub=MSNBC&rft.date=2008-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna27256187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmukhtarPeçanhaWallace2016" class="citation news cs1">Almukhtar, Sarah; Peçanha, Sergio; Wallace, Tim (5 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html">"Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221104153442/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/04/world/middleeast/sunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Behind+Stark+Political+Divisions%2C+a+More+Complex+Map+of+Sunnis+and+Shiites&rft.date=2016-01-05&rft.aulast=Almukhtar&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Pe%C3%A7anha%2C+Sergio&rft.au=Wallace%2C+Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2016%2F01%2F04%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Fsunni-shiite-map-middle-east-iran-saudi-arabia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThames2021" class="citation web cs1">Thames, Knox (6 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/">"Why the Persecution of Muslims Should Be on Biden's Agenda"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Policy_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Policy Magazine">Foreign Policy Magazine</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220211114303/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/06/muslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy+Magazine&rft.atitle=Why+the+Persecution+of+Muslims+Should+Be+on+Biden%27s+Agenda&rft.date=2021-01-06&rft.aulast=Thames&rft.aufirst=Knox&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2021%2F01%2F06%2Fmuslims-islam-china-india-myanmar-persecution-repression-biden-human-rights%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrin2003" class="citation magazine cs1">Perrin, Andrew (10 October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html">"Weakness in numbers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130924035829/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,428133,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Weakness+in+numbers&rft.date=2003-10-10&rft.aulast=Perrin&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontent.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C428133%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeydoun" class="citation web cs1">Beydoun, Khaled A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html">"For China, Islam is a 'mental illness' that needs to be 'cured'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_English" title="Al Jazeera English">Al Jazeera</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210012542/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/china-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=For+China%2C+Islam+is+a+%27mental+illness%27+that+needs+to+be+%27cured%27&rft.pub=Al+Jazeera&rft.aulast=Beydoun&rft.aufirst=Khaled+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Findepth%2Fopinion%2Fchina-islam-mental-illness-cured-181127135358356.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMojzes2011" class="citation book cs1">Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0663-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0663-2"><bdi>978-1-4422-0663-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Balkan+Genocides%3A+Holocaust+and+Ethnic+Cleansing+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-0663-2&rft.aulast=Mojzes&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver_Holmes2016" class="citation news cs1">Oliver Holmes (19 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity">"Myanmar's Rohingya campaign 'may be crime against humanity'"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170106013700/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/19/myanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Myanmar%27s+Rohingya+campaign+%27may+be+crime+against+humanity%27&rft.date=2016-12-19&rft.au=Oliver+Holmes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2016%2Fdec%2F19%2Fmyanmars-rohingya-campaign-may-be-against-humanity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/">"Rohingya abuse may be crimes against humanity: Amnesty"</a>. Al Jazeera. 19 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230922232529/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/19/rohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Rohingya+abuse+may+be+crimes+against+humanity%3A+Amnesty&rft.date=2016-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2016%2F12%2F19%2Frohingya-abuse-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-amnesty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx">"Report of Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar"</a>. ohchr.org. 27 August 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181019232309/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/MyanmarFFM/Pages/ReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ohchr.org&rft.atitle=Report+of+Independent+International+Fact-Finding+Mission+on+Myanmar&rft.date=2018-08-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FEN%2FHRBodies%2FHRC%2FMyanmarFFM%2FPages%2FReportoftheMyanmarFFM.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlackman2007" class="citation news cs1">Slackman, Michael (28 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html">"In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503150409/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/weekinreview/28slackman.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Egypt%2C+a+new+battle+begins+over+the+veil&rft.date=2007-01-28&rft.aulast=Slackman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F01%2F28%2Fweekinreview%2F28slackman.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENigosian200441-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENigosian200441_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNigosian2004">Nigosian (2004)</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/21534763">"Islamic televangelist; holy smoke"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130904164441/http://www.economist.com/node/21534763">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Islamic+televangelist%3B+holy+smoke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F21534763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010263-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2010263_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2010">Esposito (2010)</a>, p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> V. Šisler: The Internet and the Construction of Islamic Knowledge in Europe p. 212 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito2004118–119,_179-288"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito2004118–119,_179_288-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2004">Esposito (2004)</a>, pp. 118–119, 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERippin2001288-289"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERippin2001288_289-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRippin2001">Rippin (2001)</a>, p. 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams,_Charles_J.1983" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Charles J. (1983). "Maududi and the Islamic State". In Esposito, John L. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen">Voices of Resurgent Islam</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/voicesofresurgen00hcen/page/113">113–4</a>. <q>[Maududi believed that] when religion is relegated to the personal realm, men inevitably give way to their bestial impulses and perpetrate evil upon one another. In fact it is precisely because they wish to escape the restraints of morality and the divine guidance that men espouse secularism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maududi+and+the+Islamic+State&rft.btitle=Voices+of+Resurgent+Islam&rft.pages=113-4&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Adams%2C+Charles+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvoicesofresurgen00hcen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeisami2013" class="citation web cs1">Meisami, Sayeh (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0034.xml">"'Abdolkarim Soroush"</a>. 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Retrieved 12 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies&rft.atitle=%27Abdolkarim+Soroush&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Meisami&rft.aufirst=Sayeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780195390155%2Fobo-9780195390155-0034.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullah_Saeed2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Abdullah Saeed (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12">"Secularism, State Neutrality, and Islam"</a>. In Phil Zuckerman; John R. Shook (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Secularism. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199988457.013.12">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-998845-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-998845-7"><bdi>978-0-19-998845-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210903020955/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/abstract/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-12">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2021. 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Retrieved 24 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Secrets+of+Islam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fusnews%2Fgraphics%2Freligion%2Fislams_global_reach.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_State_University" title="San Diego State University">San Diego State University</a> (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life200915,_17-309"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life200915,_17_309-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life2009">Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009)</a>, pp. 15, 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPechilisRaj2013" class="citation book cs1">Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C">South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA193">193</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44851-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-44851-2"><bdi>978-0-415-44851-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024331/https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Asian+Religions%3A+Tradition+and+Today&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-44851-2&rft.aulast=Pechilis&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Raj%2C+Selva+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkaubzRxh-U0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> Margaret Kleffner Nydell <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC">Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024737/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC">Archived</a> 28 December 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Intercultural Press, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1931930252" title="Special:BookSources/1931930252">1931930252</a>, page xxiii, 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Eaton2009" class="citation book cs1">Richard Eaton (8 September 2009). "Forest Clearing and the Growth of Islam in Bengal". In Barbara D. Metcalf (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pR0LzVCpfw8C">Islam in South Asia in Practice</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 275. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3138-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3138-8"><bdi>978-1-4008-3138-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Forest+Clearing+and+the+Growth+of+Islam+in+Bengal&rft.btitle=Islam+in+South+Asia+in+Practice&rft.pages=275&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009-09-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8&rft.au=Richard+Eaton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpR0LzVCpfw8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeghna_GuhathakurtaWillem_van_Schendel2013" class="citation book cs1">Meghna Guhathakurta; Willem van Schendel (30 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50">The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics</a>. Duke University Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822353188" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822353188"><bdi>978-0822353188</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230707092408/https://books.google.com/books?id=haGORCJRlOUC&pg=PA50">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bangladesh+Reader%3A+History%2C+Culture%2C+Politics&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2013-04-30&rft.isbn=978-0822353188&rft.au=Meghna+Guhathakurta&rft.au=Willem+van+Schendel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhaGORCJRlOUC%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGandhi2013" class="citation book cs1">Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>: Aleph Book Company. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-83064-41-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-83064-41-0"><bdi>978-93-83064-41-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Punjab%3A+A+History+from+Aurangzeb+to+Mountbatten&rft.place=New+Delhi%2C+India%2C+Urbana%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Aleph+Book+Company&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-93-83064-41-0&rft.aulast=Gandhi&rft.aufirst=Rajmohan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/">"Explore All Countries – China"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210213122152/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Explore+All+Countries+%E2%80%93+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fchina%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm">"China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)"</a>. Archived Content. U.S. Department of State. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190710075050/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2019. 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Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211126/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2020. <q>there is no substantial net gain or loss in the number of Muslims through conversion globally; the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+the+Global+Muslim+Population&rft.pub=Pew+Research+Center&rft.date=2011-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2F2011%2F01%2F27%2Ffuture-of-the-global-muslim-population-related-factors%2F%23conversion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20150429153811/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf">"Cumulative Change Due to Religious Switching, 2010–2050, p.43"</a> (PDF). 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Pew Research Center. 5 April 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220218030628/https://www.pewforum.org/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 February 2022. 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Pew Research Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514123559/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/06/why-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 21 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center&rft.atitle=Why+Muslims+are+the+world%27s+fastest-growing+religious+group&rft.date=2017-04-06&rft.aulast=Lipka&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Hackett%2C+Conrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Ffact-tank%2F2017%2F04%2F06%2Fwhy-muslims-are-the-worlds-fastest-growing-religious-group%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sunni">"Sunni"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150430101807/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574006/Sunnite">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sunni&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSunni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Esposito, John L., ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005013247/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280">"Sunni Islam"</a>. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e2280">the original</a> on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sunni+Islam&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordislamicstudies.com%2Farticle%2Fopr%2Ft125%2Fe2280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> Denny, Frederick. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D5_N97bAiJ0C&pg=PA3">Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90%) of that community." </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYavuz1994" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yavuz, Yusuf Şevki (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet">"Ahl as-Sunnah"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Islam_Ansiklopedisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam Ansiklopedisi">Islam Ansiklopedisi</a> (in Turkish). Vol. 10. Istanbul: Turkish Diyanet Foundation. pp. 525–530. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211228114411/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ehl-i-sunnet">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ahl+as-Sunnah&rft.btitle=Islam+Ansiklopedisi&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.pages=525-530&rft.pub=Turkish+Diyanet+Foundation&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Yavuz&rft.aufirst=Yusuf+%C5%9Eevki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fislamansiklopedisi.org.tr%2Fehl-i-sunnet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Richard_Thackrah2013" class="citation book cs1">John Richard Thackrah (2013). Dictionary of Terrorism (2, revised ed.). Routledge. p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135165956" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135165956"><bdi>978-1135165956</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Terrorism&rft.pages=252&rft.edition=2%2C+revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135165956&rft.au=John+Richard+Thackrah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasir2009" class="citation book cs1">Nasir, Jamal J., ed. (2009). The Status of Women Under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation (revised ed.). Brill. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004172739" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004172739"><bdi>978-9004172739</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Status+of+Women+Under+Islamic+Law+and+Modern+Islamic+Legislation&rft.pages=11&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9004172739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_W._Braswell2000" class="citation book cs1">George W. Braswell (2000). What You Need to Know about Islam & Muslims (illustrated ed.). B&H Publishing Group. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0805418293" title="Special:BookSources/978-0805418293"><bdi>978-0805418293</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+You+Need+to+Know+about+Islam+%26+Muslims&rft.pages=62&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=B%26H+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0805418293&rft.au=George+W.+Braswell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> An Introduction to the Hadith. John Burton. Published by Edinburgh University Press. 1996. p. 201. Cite: "Sunni: Of or pertaining sunna, especially the Sunna of the Prophet. Used in conscious opposition to Shi'a, Shi'í. There being no ecclesia or centralized magisterium, the translation 'orthodox' is inappropriate. To the Muslim 'unorthodox' implies heretical, mubtadi, from bid'a, the contrary of sunna and so 'innovation'." </li> <li id="cite_note-Lexico-335">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lexico_335-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lexico_335-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200122164555/https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia">"sharia"</a>. Lexico. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lexico.com/definition/sharia">the original</a> on 22 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lexico&rft.atitle=sharia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fdefinition%2Fsharia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2003">Esposito (2003)</a>, pp. 275, 306 </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a>, 30 June 2017 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-52611-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-52611-9">978-3-319-52611-9</a> p.48 </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a> 2018 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-97355-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-97355-5">978-3-319-97355-5</a> p. 108 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito1999280-339"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito1999280_339-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito1999">Esposito (1999)</a>, p. 280. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a> 2013 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-1356-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7103-1356-0">978-0-7103-1356-0</a> page 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-Svante_E._Cornell_p._283-341">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Svante_E._Cornell_p._283_341-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Svante_E._Cornell_p._283_341-1">b</a> Svante E. Cornell Azerbaijan Since Independence <a href="/wiki/M.E._Sharpe" class="mw-redirect" title="M.E. Sharpe">M.E. Sharpe</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780765630049" title="Special:BookSources/9780765630049">9780765630049</a> p. 283 </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> Robert W. Hefner Shariʻa Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a> 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22310-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-22310-4">978-0-253-22310-4</a> p. 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231326/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html">"Field Listing :: Religions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a>. <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html">the original</a> on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2010. <q>Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Field+Listing+%3A%3A+Religions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Ffields%2F2122.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200614103622/https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni">"Sunni"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berkley_Center_for_Religion,_Peace,_and_World_Affairs" title="Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs">Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/essays/sunni">the original</a> on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020. <q>Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sunni&rft.pub=Berkley+Center+for+Religion%2C+Peace%2C+and+World+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fberkleycenter.georgetown.edu%2Fessays%2Fsunni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Newman, Andrew J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii">Shiʿi</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190720054917/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shii">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shi%CA%BFi&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FShii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTayeb_El-Hibri,_Maysam_J._al_Faruqi2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">MacMillan</a> Reference.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sunni+Islam&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Modern+Middle+East+and+North+Africa&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MacMillan+Reference&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Tayeb+El-Hibri%2C+Maysam+J.+al+Faruqi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Corrigan,_Frederick_Denny,_Martin_S_Jaffee,_Carlos_Eire2011" class="citation book cs1">John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S Jaffee, Carlos Eire (2011). Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. Cambridge University Press. 978-0205026340.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Christians%2C+Muslims%3A+A+Comparative+Introduction+to+Monotheistic+Religions&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.au=John+Corrigan%2C+Frederick+Denny%2C+Martin+S+Jaffee%2C+Carlos+Eire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDakake2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Massi_Dakake" title="Maria Massi Dakake">Dakake, Maria Massi</a> (2007). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791470336" title="Special:BookSources/9780791470336"><bdi>9780791470336</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Charismatic+Community%3A+Shi%27ite+Identity+in+Early+Islam&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780791470336&rft.aulast=Dakake&rft.aufirst=Maria+Massi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2012" class="citation book cs1">Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012). "G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161214" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161214"><bdi>9789004161214</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/*-SIM_2439">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=G%CC%B2h%CC%B2ad%C4%ABr+K%CC%B2h%CC%B2umm&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789004161214&rft.aulast=Veccia+Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-of-islam-2%2F%2A-SIM_2439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampo2009257–258-350"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampo2009257–258_350-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampo2009">Campo (2009)</a>, pp. 257–258. </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoody2015" class="citation journal cs1">Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029">"Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Academy_of_Religion" title="Journal of the American Academy of Religion">Journal of the American Academy of Religion</a>. 83 (3). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Religion" title="American Academy of Religion">American Academy of Religion</a>: 599–623. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029">10.1093/jaarel/lfv029</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1477-4585">1477-4585</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7189">0002-7189</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24488178">24488178</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/sc76000837">sc76000837</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1479270">1479270</a>. <q>For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Interiorizing+Islam%3A+Religious+Experience+and+State+Oversight+in+the+Islamic+Republic+of+Iran&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=599-623&rft.date=2015-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24488178%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.eissn=1477-4585&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1479270&rft.issn=0002-7189&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Fsc76000837&rft.aulast=Foody&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjaarel%252Flfv029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoody2015" class="citation journal cs1">Foody, Kathleen (September 2015). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029">"Interiorizing Islam: Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Academy_of_Religion" title="Journal of the American Academy of Religion">Journal of the American Academy of Religion</a>. 83 (3). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Religion" title="American Academy of Religion">American Academy of Religion</a>: 599–623. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029">10.1093/jaarel/lfv029</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1477-4585">1477-4585</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7189">0002-7189</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24488178">24488178</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/sc76000837">sc76000837</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1479270">1479270</a>. <q>For Shiʿi Muslims, Muhammad not only designated Ali as his friend, but appointed him as his successor—as the "lord" or "master" of the new Muslim community. Ali and his descendants would become known as the Imams, divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities, sinless, and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text. The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess; quite to the contrary, their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight. While in theory, the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam, the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation. In practice, Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community, both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Interiorizing+Islam%3A+Religious+Experience+and+State+Oversight+in+the+Islamic+Republic+of+Iran&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=599-623&rft.date=2015-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24488178%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.eissn=1477-4585&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfv029&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1479270&rft.issn=0002-7189&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Fsc76000837&rft.aulast=Foody&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjaarel%252Flfv029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaftary2013" class="citation web cs1">Daftary, Farhad (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104/mode/2up">"A History Of Shi'i Islam"</a>. Internet Archive. Retrieved 22 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=A+History+Of+Shi%27i+Islam&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Daftary&rft.aufirst=Farhad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLalani2000" class="citation book cs1">Lalani, Arzina R. (2000). Early Shi'i Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1850435928" title="Special:BookSources/1850435928"><bdi>1850435928</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Shi%27i+Thought%3A+The+Teachings+of+Imam+Muhammad+al-Baqir&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=1850435928&rft.aulast=Lalani&rft.aufirst=Arzina+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmir-Moezzi2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Amir-Moezzi" title="Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi">Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419">"Ghadīr Khumm"</a>. In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Stewart, Devin J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419">10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004269613" title="Special:BookSources/9789004269613"><bdi>9789004269613</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ghad%C4%ABr+Khumm&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.edition=Third&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419&rft.isbn=9789004269613&rft.aulast=Amir-Moezzi&rft.aufirst=Mohammad+Ali&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMavani2013" class="citation book cs1">Mavani, Hamid (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/">Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415624404" title="Special:BookSources/9780415624404"><bdi>9780415624404</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+Authority+and+Political+Thought+in+Twelver+Shi%27ism%3A+From+Ali+to+Post-Khomeini&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780415624404&rft.aulast=Mavani&rft.aufirst=Hamid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligiousauthori0000mava%2Fmode%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmajani2020" class="citation book cs1">Armajani, Jon (2020). Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. Lanham (Md.): Lexington Books. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-2136-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-2136-8"><bdi>978-1-7936-2136-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shia+Islam+and+Politics%3A+Iran%2C+Iraq%2C+and+Lebanon&rft.place=Lanham+%28Md.%29&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-7936-2136-8&rft.aulast=Armajani&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohlberg1976" class="citation journal cs1">Kohlberg, Etan (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF">"From Imāmiyya to Ithnā-'ashariyya"</a>. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 39 (3): 521–534. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00050989">10.1017/S0041977X00050989</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155070530">155070530</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230714174420/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/abs/from-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya/32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=From+Im%C4%81miyya+to+Ithn%C4%81-%27ashariyya&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=521-534&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X00050989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155070530%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kohlberg&rft.aufirst=Etan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fbulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Ffrom-imamiyya-to-ithnaashariyya%2F32F60507F79BEE8C3732011F4D092CAF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerPriscilla_Mary_Roberts2008" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C.; Priscilla Mary Roberts, eds. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917">The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 917. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-842-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-842-2"><bdi>978-1-85109-842-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024726/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Arab-Israeli+Conflict%3A+A+Political%2C+Social+and+Military+History&rft.pages=917&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-842-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYAd8efHdVzIC%26pg%3DPA917&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWehrey2010" class="citation book cs1">Wehrey, Frederic M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91">The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War</a>. Rand Corporation. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-4788-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-4788-5"><bdi>978-0-8330-4788-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024742/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iraq+Effect%3A+The+Middle+East+After+the+Iraq+War&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Rand+Corporation&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8330-4788-5&rft.aulast=Wehrey&rft.aufirst=Frederic+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di-3LAlfW7DIC%26pg%3DPA91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2011" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson, Daniel (2011). "Zaydiyya". Islamic Studies. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195390155-0153">10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Zaydiyya&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195390155-0153&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Newman" title="Andrew J. Newman">Newman, Andrew J.</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP18">"Introduction"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ">Twelver Shiism: Unity and Diversity in the Life of Islam, 632 to 1722</a>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-7833-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-7833-4"><bdi>978-0-7486-7833-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160501201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=-_M8BQAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Twelver+Shiism%3A+Unity+and+Diversity+in+the+Life+of+Islam%2C+632+to+1722&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-7833-4&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-_M8BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sardeg2-363"><a href="#cite_ref-Sardeg2_363-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEscobar2002" class="citation web cs1">Escobar, Pepe (24 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020603155002/http://atimes.com/c-asia/DE24Ag04.html">"Knocking on heaven's door"</a>. Central Asia/Russia. <a href="/wiki/Asia_Times_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Times Online">Asia Times Online</a>. Archived from the original on 3 June 2002. Retrieved 12 November 2006. <q>our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places... first is Mecca... second is Medina... third belongs to our first imam of Shia, Ali, which is in Najaf. The fourth belongs to our third imam, Hussein, in Kerbala. The last one belongs to the daughter of our seventh imam and sister of our eighth imam, who is called Fatemah, and will be buried in Qom.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asia+Times+Online&rft.atitle=Knocking+on+heaven%27s+door&rft.date=2002-05-24&rft.aulast=Escobar&rft.aufirst=Pepe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atimes.com%2Fc-asia%2FDE24Ag04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Brenton_Betts2013" class="citation book cs1">Robert Brenton Betts (31 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15">The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences</a>. Potomac Books. pp. 14–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61234-522-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61234-522-2"><bdi>978-1-61234-522-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231228024743/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFq_KUqqWJMC&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 28 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sunni-Shi%27a+Divide%3A+Islam%27s+Internal+Divisions+and+Their+Global+Consequences&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=Potomac+Books&rft.date=2013-07-31&rft.isbn=978-1-61234-522-2&rft.au=Robert+Brenton+Betts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvFq_KUqqWJMC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffman2012" class="citation book cs1">Hoffman, Valerie Jon (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JNxvMRJM3EAC">The Essentials of Ibadi Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse</a>: <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815650843" title="Special:BookSources/9780815650843"><bdi>9780815650843</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essentials+of+Ibadi+Islam&rft.place=Syracuse&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780815650843&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=Valerie+Jon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJNxvMRJM3EAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Upal_2021-366">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Upal_2021_366-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Upal_2021_366-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUpal2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Afzal_Upal" title="Afzal Upal">Upal, M. 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Vol. 21. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. pp. 637–657. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004435544_034">10.1163/9789004435544_034</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43554-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43554-4"><bdi>978-90-04-43554-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1874-6691">1874-6691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Cultural+Genetics+of+the+A%E1%B8%A5madiyya+Muslim+Jam%C4%81%CA%BFat&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Islamic+Sects+and+Movements&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.series=Brill+Handbooks+on+Contemporary+Religion&rft.pages=637-657&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2021&rft.issn=1874-6691&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004435544_034&rft.isbn=978-90-04-43554-4&rft.aulast=Upal&rft.aufirst=M.+Afzal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turner_2003-367">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turner_2003_367-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turner_2003_367-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2003" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Richard Brent (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4XMuLWlTgjMC&pg=PA109">"The Ahmadiyya Mission to America: A Multi-Racial Model for American Islam"</a>. Islam in the African-American Experience (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Bloomington,_Indiana" title="Bloomington, Indiana">Bloomington, Indiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indianapolis" title="Indianapolis">Indianapolis</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. pp. 109–146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253216304" title="Special:BookSources/9780253216304"><bdi>9780253216304</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003009791">2003009791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ahmadiyya+Mission+to+America%3A+A+Multi-Racial+Model+for+American+Islam&rft.btitle=Islam+in+the+African-American+Experience&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana+and+Indianapolis&rft.pages=109-146&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003009791&rft.isbn=9780253216304&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Richard+Brent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4XMuLWlTgjMC%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drover_2020-368">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drover_2020_368-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drover_2020_368-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drover_2020_368-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drover_2020_368-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drover_2020_368-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrover2020" class="citation book cs1">Drover, Lauren (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9WQGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21">"The Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat: A New Religious Movement Derived from Islam?"</a>. In Kim, David W. (ed.). New Religious Movements in Modern Asian History: Socio-Cultural Alternatives. Ethnographies of Religion. <a href="/wiki/Lanham,_Maryland" title="Lanham, Maryland">Lanham, Maryland</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. pp. 21–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-3403-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-3403-0"><bdi>978-1-7936-3403-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1220880253">1220880253</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ahmadiyya+Muslim+Jamaat%3A+A+New+Religious+Movement+Derived+from+Islam%3F&rft.btitle=New+Religious+Movements+in+Modern+Asian+History%3A+Socio-Cultural+Alternatives&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.series=Ethnographies+of+Religion&rft.pages=21-36&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1220880253&rft.isbn=978-1-7936-3403-0&rft.aulast=Drover&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9WQGEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorbelPreckel2016" class="citation book cs1">Korbel, Jonathan; Preckel, Claudia (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtY6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA426">"Ghulām Aḥmad al-Qādiyānī: The Messiah of the Christians—Peace upon Him—in India (India, 1908)"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dawn.com/news/1057427">the original</a> on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DAWN.COM&rft.atitle=The+1974+ouster+of+the+%27heretics%27%3A+What+really+happened%3F&rft.date=2013-11-21&rft.aulast=Paracha&rft.aufirst=Nadeem+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dawn.com%2Fnews%2F1057427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUddin2014" class="citation book cs1">Uddin, Asma T. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9TVCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">"A Legal Analysis of Ahmadi Persecution in Pakistan"</a>. In Kirkham, David M. (ed.). State Responses to Minority Religions. Ashgate Inform Series on Minority Religions and Spiritual Movements. <a href="/wiki/Farnham" title="Farnham">Farnham, U.K.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burlington,_Vermont" title="Burlington, Vermont">Burlington, Vermont</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>/<a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 81–98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-1647-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-1647-6"><bdi>978-1-4724-1647-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2013019344">2013019344</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Legal+Analysis+of+Ahmadi+Persecution+in+Pakistan&rft.btitle=State+Responses+to+Minority+Religions&rft.place=Farnham%2C+U.K.+and+Burlington%2C+Vermont&rft.series=Ashgate+Inform+Series+on+Minority+Religions+and+Spiritual+Movements&rft.pages=81-98&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2FRoutledge&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2013019344&rft.isbn=978-1-4724-1647-6&rft.aulast=Uddin&rft.aufirst=Asma+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk9TVCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-374"><a href="#cite_ref-374">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170717144752/http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html">"Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1974"</a>. pakistani.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/amendments/2amendment.html">the original</a> on 17 July 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pakistani.org&rft.atitle=Constitution+%28Second+Amendment%29+Act%2C+1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpakistani.org%2Fpakistan%2Fconstitution%2Famendments%2F2amendment.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlgar1989" class="citation web cs1">Algar, Hamid (15 December 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya">"Bektāšīya"</a>. Encyclopaedia Iranica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910201955/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bektasiya">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 13 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.atitle=Bekt%C4%81%C5%A1%C4%ABya&rft.date=1989-12-15&rft.aulast=Algar&rft.aufirst=Hamid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbektasiya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> Jorgen S Nielsen Muslim Political Participation in Europe <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a> 2013 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-748-67753-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-748-67753-5">978-0-748-67753-5</a> page 255 </li> <li id="cite_note-377"><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf">John Shindeldecker: Turkish Alevis Today: II Alevi Population Size and Distribution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161130111738/http://www.alevi.dk/ENGELSK/Turkish_Alevis_Today.pdf">Archived</a> 30 November 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, PDF-Datei, See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm">Encyclopaedia of the Orient: Alevi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613045624/https://i-cias.com/e.o/alevi.htm">Archived</a> 13 June 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, consulted on 30 May 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusa2010" class="citation journal cs1">Musa, Aisha Y. (2010). "The Qur'anists". Religion Compass. 4 (1). John Wiley & Sons: 12–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00189.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion+Compass&rft.atitle=The+Qur%27anists&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-21&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00189.x&rft.aulast=Musa&rft.aufirst=Aisha+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusa2010" class="citation journal cs1">Musa, Aisha Y. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1035742">"The Qur'anists"</a>. Religion Compass. 4 (1): 12–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00189.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00189.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-8171">1749-8171</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220128062123/https://www.academia.edu/1035742">Archived</a> from the original on 28 January 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion+Compass&rft.atitle=The+Qur%27anists&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-21&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00189.x&rft.issn=1749-8171&rft.aulast=Musa&rft.aufirst=Aisha+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1035742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1999" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Daniel W. (4 March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6RPcYgx5u_MC">Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–45, 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65394-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65394-7"><bdi>978-0-521-65394-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Tradition+in+Modern+Islamic+Thought&rft.pages=7-45%2C+68&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999-03-04&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65394-7&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Daniel+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6RPcYgx5u_MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuynboll1969" class="citation book cs1">Juynboll, G. H. A. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xAUVAAAAIAAJ">The Authenticity of the Tradition Literature: Discussions in Modern Egypt,... G.H.A. Juynboll,...</a> Brill Archive. pp. 23–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authenticity+of+the+Tradition+Literature%3A+Discussions+in+Modern+Egypt%2C...+G.H.A.+Juynboll%2C...&rft.pages=23-25&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Juynboll&rft.aufirst=G.+H.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxAUVAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-382"><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf">"Why the name change?"</a> (PDF). Submission Perspective. 57: 1. September 1989. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210731115713/https://www.quranalone.com/SP/57_1989_09.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Submission+Perspective&rft.atitle=Why+the+name+change%3F&rft.volume=57&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1989-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quranalone.com%2FSP%2F57_1989_09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenakis2014" class="citation news cs1">Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160131145036/http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/">"Islamophoobia in Europe!"</a>. New Europe. Brussels. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neurope.eu/article/islamophobia-europe/">the original</a> on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 20 October 2015. <q>Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Europe&rft.atitle=Islamophoobia+in+Europe%21&rft.date=2014-01-13&rft.aulast=Benakis&rft.aufirst=Theodoros&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fneurope.eu%2Farticle%2Fislamophobia-europe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollack2014" class="citation book cs1">Pollack, Kenneth (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQGZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-3393-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4767-3393-7"><bdi>978-1-4767-3393-7</bdi></a>. <q>Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unthinkable%3A+Iran%2C+the+Bomb%2C+and+American+Strategy&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4767-3393-7&rft.aulast=Pollack&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjQGZBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2011" class="citation book cs1">Burns, Robert (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA55">Christianity, Islam, and the West</a>. University Press of America. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5560-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5560-6"><bdi>978-0-7618-5560-6</bdi></a>. <q>40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity%2C+Islam%2C+and+the+West&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DakWUGyN7fwEC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatari2014" class="citation book cs1">Tatari, Eren (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x_4QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA111">Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets</a>. BRILL. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27226-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27226-2"><bdi>978-90-04-27226-2</bdi></a>. <q>Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslims+in+British+Local+Government%3A+Representing+Minority+Interests+in+Hackney%2C+Newham+and+Tower+Hamlets&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-04-27226-2&rft.aulast=Tatari&rft.aufirst=Eren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx_4QBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLopez2008" class="citation book cs1">Lopez, Ralph (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vuNfXxnYWPIC&pg=PA65">Truth in the Age of Bushism</a>. Lulu.com. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4348-9615-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4348-9615-5"><bdi>978-1-4348-9615-5</bdi></a>. <q>Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Truth+in+the+Age+of+Bushism&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4348-9615-5&rft.aulast=Lopez&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvuNfXxnYWPIC%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew-388">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pew_388-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pew_388-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-1-religious-affiliation/#identity">"Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation"</a>. The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>'s Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. 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Retrieved 27 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khit%C4%81n&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fkhitan-Islam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-466"><a href="#cite_ref-466">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnwerSamadBaig-AnsariIftikhar2017" class="citation journal cs1">Anwer, Abdul Wahid; Samad, Lubna; Baig-Ansari, Naila; Iftikhar, Sundus (January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5282422">"Reported Male Circumcision Practices in a Muslim-Majority Setting"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BioMed_Research_International" title="BioMed Research International">BioMed Research International</a>. 2017. <a href="/wiki/Hindawi_Publishing_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindawi Publishing Corporation">Hindawi Publishing Corporation</a>: 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2017%2F4957348">10.1155/2017/4957348</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5282422">5282422</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28194416">28194416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioMed+Research+International&rft.atitle=Reported+Male+Circumcision+Practices+in+a+Muslim-Majority+Setting&rft.volume=2017&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2017-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5282422%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28194416&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2017%2F4957348&rft.aulast=Anwer&rft.aufirst=Abdul+Wahid&rft.au=Samad%2C+Lubna&rft.au=Baig-Ansari%2C+Naila&rft.au=Iftikhar%2C+Sundus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5282422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-467"><a href="#cite_ref-467">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml">"Islam: Circumcision of boys"</a>. Religion & ethics—Islam. <a href="/wiki/Bbc.co.uk" class="mw-redirect" title="Bbc.co.uk">Bbc.co.uk</a>. 13 August 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121112170938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Religion+%26+ethics%E2%80%94Islam&rft.atitle=Islam%3A+Circumcision+of+boys&rft.date=2009-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fislam%2Fislamethics%2Fmalecircumcision.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampo2009136-468"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampo2009136_468-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampo2009">Campo (2009)</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-469"><a href="#cite_ref-469">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathijssenVenhorstVenbruxQuartier2013" class="citation book cs1">Mathijssen, Brenda; Venhorst, Claudia; Venbrux, Eric; Quartier, Thomas (2013). Changing European Death Ways. Austria: Lit. p. 265. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783643900678" title="Special:BookSources/9783643900678"><bdi>9783643900678</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+European+Death+Ways&rft.place=Austria&rft.pages=265&rft.pub=Lit&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9783643900678&rft.aulast=Mathijssen&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rft.au=Venhorst%2C+Claudia&rft.au=Venbrux%2C+Eric&rft.au=Quartier%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage83_83]-470"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStefon2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsislamicbeliefspr0000stefpage83_83]_470-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStefon2010">Stefon (2010)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef/page/83">83</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-471"><a href="#cite_ref-471">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahman2011" class="citation news cs1">Rahman, Rema (25 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15444275">"Who, What, Why: What are the burial customs in Islam?"</a>. BBC. Retrieved 28 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Who%2C+What%2C+Why%3A+What+are+the+burial+customs+in+Islam%3F&rft.date=2011-10-25&rft.aulast=Rahman&rft.aufirst=Rema&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-15444275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-472"><a href="#cite_ref-472">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelikian2011" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Souren_Melikian" title="Souren Melikian">Melikian, Souren</a> (4 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/05/arts/05iht-rartmelikian05.html">"'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 25 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=%27Islamic%27+Culture%3A+A+Groundless+Myth&rft.date=2011-11-04&rft.aulast=Melikian&rft.aufirst=Souren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F11%2F05%2Farts%2F05iht-rartmelikian05.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsposito201056-473"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEsposito201056_473-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEsposito2010">Esposito (2010)</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-474"><a href="#cite_ref-474">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence2021" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence, Bruce (2021). Islamicate Cosmopolitan Spirit. United Kingdom: Wiley. p. xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405155144" title="Special:BookSources/9781405155144"><bdi>9781405155144</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamicate+Cosmopolitan+Spirit&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=xii&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781405155144&rft.aulast=Lawrence&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-475"><a href="#cite_ref-475">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEttinghausenGrabarJenkins-Madina2003" class="citation book cs1">Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3">Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300088670/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08869-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08869-8"><bdi>0-300-08869-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Art+and+Architecture+650-1250&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-08869-8&rft.aulast=Ettinghausen&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Grabar%2C+Oleg&rft.au=Jenkins-Madina%2C+Marilyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780300088670%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-476"><a href="#cite_ref-476">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuarez2010" class="citation book cs1">Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World". The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198606536" title="Special:BookSources/9780198606536"><bdi>9780198606536</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50238944">50238944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=38+The+History+of+the+Book+in+the+Muslim+World&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+the+book&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=331ff&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50238944&rft.isbn=9780198606536&rft.aulast=Suarez&rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-477"><a href="#cite_ref-477">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalim_AyduzIbrahim_KalinCaner_Dagli2014" class="citation book cs1">Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=or-6BwAAQBAJ&q=islamic+art+idolatry+geometry&pg=PA263">The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981257-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-981257-8"><bdi>978-0-19-981257-8</bdi></a>. <q>Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%2C+Science%2C+and+Technology+in+Islam&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-981257-8&rft.au=Salim+Ayduz&rft.au=Ibrahim+Kalin&rft.au=Caner+Dagli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dor-6BwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dislamic%2Bart%2Bidolatry%2Bgeometry%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-478"><a href="#cite_ref-478">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._W._Arnold1919" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._W._Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="T. W. Arnold">T. W. Arnold</a> (June 1919). "An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 34 (195). The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.: 249–252. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/860736">860736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Burlington+Magazine+for+Connoisseurs&rft.atitle=An+Indian+Picture+of+Muhammad+and+His+Companions&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=195&rft.pages=249-252&rft.date=1919-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F860736%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=T.+W.+Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-479"><a href="#cite_ref-479">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsichei1997" class="citation book cs1">Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LgnhYDozENgC&pg=PAPA175&dq=%22mosque%2Bkairouan%2Broman%2Bcolumns%22&q=mosque%2520kairouan%2520roman+columns">A history of African societies to 1870</a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45599-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45599-2"><bdi>978-0-521-45599-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 6 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+African+societies+to+1870&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45599-2&rft.aulast=Isichei&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Allo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLgnhYDozENgC%26pg%3DPAPA175%26dq%3D%2522mosque%252Bkairouan%252Broman%252Bcolumns%2522%26q%3Dmosque%252520kairouan%252520roman%2Bcolumns&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-480"><a href="#cite_ref-480">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTjahjono1998" class="citation book cs1">Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/architecture00indo/page/88">Indonesian Heritage-Architecture</a>. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/architecture00indo/page/88">88–89</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-3018-30-5" title="Special:BookSources/981-3018-30-5"><bdi>981-3018-30-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesian+Heritage-Architecture&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=88-89&rft.pub=Archipelago+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=981-3018-30-5&rft.aulast=Tjahjono&rft.aufirst=Gunawan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farchitecture00indo%2Fpage%2F88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-481"><a href="#cite_ref-481">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Muslim-calendar">"Islamic calendar"</a>. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Islamic+calendar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FMuslim-calendar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-482"><a href="#cite_ref-482">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Esposito, John (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195165203" title="Special:BookSources/9780195165203"><bdi>9780195165203</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+World%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=75-76&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780195165203&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-483"><a href="#cite_ref-483">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAitchisonHopkinsMei-Po_Kwan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cara_Aitchison" title="Cara Aitchison">Aitchison, Cara</a>; Hopkins, Peter E.; <a href="/wiki/Mei-Po_Kwan" title="Mei-Po Kwan">Mei-Po Kwan</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DRnthQxB8lYC&pg=PA147">Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging</a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-8747-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-8747-0"><bdi>978-1-4094-8747-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geographies+of+Muslim+Identities%3A+Diaspora%2C+Gender+and+Belonging&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-8747-0&rft.aulast=Aitchison&rft.aufirst=Cara&rft.au=Hopkins%2C+Peter+E.&rft.au=Mei-Po+Kwan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDRnthQxB8lYC%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-484"><a href="#cite_ref-484">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRassool2015" class="citation book cs1">Rassool, G. Hussein (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o_QsCgAAQBAJ&dq=Muslims+who+are+religiously+unobservant,+secular+or+irreligious+individuals+who+still+identify+with+the+Muslim&pg=PA10">Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice</a>. Routledge. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317441250" title="Special:BookSources/9781317441250"><bdi>9781317441250</bdi></a>. <q>The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Counselling%3A+An+Introduction+to+theory+and+practice&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781317441250&rft.aulast=Rassool&rft.aufirst=G.+Hussein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do_QsCgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DMuslims%2Bwho%2Bare%2Breligiously%2Bunobservant%2C%2Bsecular%2Bor%2Birreligious%2Bindividuals%2Bwho%2Bstill%2Bidentify%2Bwith%2Bthe%2BMuslim%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-485"><a href="#cite_ref-485">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_McLaurin1979" class="citation book cs1">De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse">The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East</a>. Michigan University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalroleofm0000unse/page/114">114</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-052596-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-052596-4"><bdi>978-0-03-052596-4</bdi></a>. <q>Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Role+of+Minority+Groups+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Michigan+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-03-052596-4&rft.aulast=De+McLaurin&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalroleofm0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-486"><a href="#cite_ref-486">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2010" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Shireen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse">The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsofislami0000unse/page/33">33</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34549-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34549-3"><bdi>978-0-253-34549-3</bdi></a>. <q>Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Islamic+Revivalism%3A+Diversity+and+Unity%3A+Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies+%28Washington%2C+D.C.%29%2C+Georgetown+University.+Center+for+Strategic+and+International+Studies&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34549-3&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Shireen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticsofislami0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-487"><a href="#cite_ref-487">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Williams2020" class="citation book cs1">R. Williams, Victoria (2020). Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes]. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 318. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-6118-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-6118-5"><bdi>978-1-4408-6118-5</bdi></a>. <q>As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indigenous+Peoples%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Culture%2C+History%2C+and+Threats+to+Survival+%5B4+volumes%5D&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5&rft.aulast=R.+Williams&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-488"><a href="#cite_ref-488">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Grafton2009" class="citation book cs1">D. Grafton, David (2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. <a href="/wiki/Wipf_and_Stock_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wipf and Stock Publishers">Wipf and Stock Publishers</a>. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63087-718-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-63087-718-7"><bdi>978-1-63087-718-7</bdi></a>. <q>In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Piety%2C+Politics%2C+and+Power%3A+Lutherans+Encountering+Islam+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-63087-718-7&rft.aulast=D.+Grafton&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-489"><a href="#cite_ref-489">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoonawala1999" class="citation journal cs1">Poonawala, Ismail K. (July–September 1999). "Review: The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning by Heinz Halm". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society" title="Journal of the American Oriental Society">Journal of the American Oriental Society</a>. 119 (3). <a href="/wiki/American_Oriental_Society" title="American Oriental Society">American Oriental Society</a>: 542. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F605981">10.2307/605981</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0279">0003-0279</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/605981">605981</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/12032032">12032032</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47785421">47785421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Review%3A+The+Fatimids+and+Their+Traditions+of+Learning+by+Heinz+Halm&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=542&rft.date=1999-07%2F1999-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F605981%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F605981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47785421&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F12032032&rft.issn=0003-0279&rft.aulast=Poonawala&rft.aufirst=Ismail+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-490"><a href="#cite_ref-490">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryer1975b" class="citation journal cs1">Bryer, David R. W. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239">"The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Der_Islam" title="Der Islam">Der Islam</a>. 52 (2): 239–262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1975.52.2.239">10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1613-0928">1613-0928</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162363556">162363556</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Islam&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+the+Druze+Religion+%28Fortsetzung%29&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=239-262&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162363556%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1613-0928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1975.52.2.239&rft.aulast=Bryer&rft.aufirst=David+R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1975.52.2.239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-491"><a href="#cite_ref-491">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoltz2013" class="citation book cs1">Foltz, Richard (7 November 2013). "Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan". Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 219. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-307-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-307-3"><bdi>978-1-78074-307-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Two+Kurdish+Sects%3A+The+Yezidis+and+the+Yaresan&rft.btitle=Religions+of+Iran%3A+From+Prehistory+to+the+Present&rft.pages=219&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2013-11-07&rft.isbn=978-1-78074-307-3&rft.aulast=Foltz&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-492"><a href="#cite_ref-492">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouse_of_Justice" class="citation web cs1">House of Justice, Universal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/ocf-8.html">"One Common Faith"</a>. reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=reference.bahai.org&rft.atitle=One+Common+Faith&rft.aulast=House+of+Justice&rft.aufirst=Universal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freference.bahai.org%2Fen%2Ft%2Fbic%2FOCF%2Focf-8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-493"><a href="#cite_ref-493">^</a> Elsberg, Constance (2003), Graceful Women. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tennessee_Press" title="University of Tennessee Press">University of Tennessee Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57233-214-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57233-214-0">978-1-57233-214-0</a>. pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-494"><a href="#cite_ref-494">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx">Writings by St John of Damascus</a>. The Fathers of the Church. Vol. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved 8 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=St.+John+of+Damascus%27s+Critique+of+Islam&rft.btitle=Writings+by+St+John+of+Damascus&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.series=The+Fathers+of+the+Church&rft.pages=153-160&rft.pub=Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1958&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orthodoxinfo.com%2Fgeneral%2Fstjohn_islam.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFahlbusch_et_al2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyaecVMhMWaECpgPA759_759]-495"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFahlbusch_et_al2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyaecVMhMWaECpgPA759_759]_495-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFahlbusch_et_al2001">Fahlbusch et al (2001)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC&pg=PA759">759</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-496"><a href="#cite_ref-496">^</a> Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2015 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-50637-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-50637-3">978-0-521-50637-3</a> pp. 18–20 </li> <li id="cite_note-497"><a href="#cite_ref-497">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Minou_Reeves" title="Minou Reeves">Reeves, Minou</a>, and P. J. Stewart. 2003. Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">NYU Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7564-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7564-6">978-0-8147-7564-6</a>. p. 93–96. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stone-498">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stone_498-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stone_498-1">b</a> Stone, G. 2006. Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8309-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8309-1">978-1-4039-8309-1</a>. p. 53-54. </li> <li id="cite_note-499"><a href="#cite_ref-499">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmann2003" class="citation book cs1">Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie">Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tolerancecoercio00frie/page/n31">18</a>, 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02699-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02699-4"><bdi>978-0-521-02699-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tolerance+and+Coercion+in+Islam%3A+Interfaith+Relations+in+the+Muslim+Tradition&rft.pages=18%2C+35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-02699-4&rft.aulast=Friedmann&rft.aufirst=Yohanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftolerancecoercio00frie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-500"><a href="#cite_ref-500">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFModood2006" class="citation book cs1">Modood, Tariq (6 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo">Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach</a> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/multiculturalism00modo/page/n43">29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35515-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35515-5"><bdi>978-0-415-35515-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multiculturalism%2C+Muslims+and+Citizenship%3A+A+European+Approach&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006-04-06&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35515-5&rft.aulast=Modood&rft.aufirst=Tariq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmulticulturalism00modo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed2006" class="citation book cs1">Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean (2006). Signs in the heavens. Vol. 2. Amana Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59008-040-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-59008-040-8"><bdi>1-59008-040-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Signs+in+the+heavens&rft.pub=Amana+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-59008-040-8&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Imad-ad-Dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1896" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Thomas (1896). The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Preaching+of+Islam%3A+A+History+of+the+Propagation+of+the+Muslim+Faith.&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Bennett" title="Clinton Bennett">Bennett, Clinton</a> (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. <a href="/wiki/Continuum_International_Publishing_Group" title="Continuum International Publishing Group">Continuum International Publishing Group</a>. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9944-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9944-8"><bdi>978-0-8264-9944-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreting+the+Qur%27an%3A+a+guide+for+the+uninitiated&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-9944-8&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Clinton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankinship2008" class="citation book cs1">Blankinship, K. (2008). "The early creed". In T. Winter (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL9780521780582.003">10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78058-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78058-2"><bdi>978-0-521-78058-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+early+creed&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Classical+Islamic+Theology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Religion&rft.pages=33-54&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCCOL9780521780582.003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78058-2&rft.aulast=Blankinship&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockopp2003" class="citation book cs1">Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina_Press" title="University of South Carolina Press">University of South Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57003-471-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57003-471-8"><bdi>978-1-57003-471-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Ethics+of+Life%3A+abortion%2C+war+and+euthanasia&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57003-471-8&rft.aulast=Brockopp&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBulliet2005" class="citation book cs1">Bulliet, Richard (2005). The Earth and Its Peoples. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-42770-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-42770-8"><bdi>0-618-42770-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earth+and+Its+Peoples&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-618-42770-8&rft.aulast=Bulliet&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurge2015" class="citation book cs1">Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-50473-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-50473-0"><bdi>978-1-136-50473-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Angels+in+Islam%3A+Jalal+al-Din+al-Suyuti%27s+al-Haba%27ik+fi+akhbar+al-mala%27ik&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-136-50473-0&rft.aulast=Burge&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÇakmak2017" class="citation book cs1">Çakmak, Cenap (2017). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. 4 volumes. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-217-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-217-5"><bdi>978-1-61069-217-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Worldwide+Encyclopedia&rft.series=4+volumes&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-217-5&rft.aulast=%C3%87akmak&rft.aufirst=Cenap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampo2009" class="citation book cs1">Campo, Juan E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OZbyz_Hr-eIC">Encyclopedia of Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Infobase Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5454-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-5454-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1&rft.aulast=Campo&rft.aufirst=Juan+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOZbyz_Hr-eIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChittick2008" class="citation book cs1">Chittick, William C (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LI0kjBlXS5UC">Sufism: A Beginner's Guide</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-052-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-052-2"><bdi>978-1-78074-052-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sufism%3A+A+Beginner%27s+Guide&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-78074-052-2&rft.aulast=Chittick&rft.aufirst=William+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLI0kjBlXS5UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen-Mor2001" class="citation book cs1">Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513398-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513398-1"><bdi>978-0-19-513398-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Matter+of+Fate%3A+The+Concept+of+Fate+in+the+Arab+World+as+Reflected+in+Modern+Arabic+Literature&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513398-1&rft.aulast=Cohen-Mor&rft.aufirst=Dalya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis2005" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guidetofoodlawsr0000curt">A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Blackwell Publishing Professional</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-1946-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-1946-4"><bdi>978-0-8138-1946-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Food+Laws+and+Regulations&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing+Professional&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8138-1946-4&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Patricia+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fguidetofoodlawsr0000curt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo">Islam: The Straight Path</a> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511234-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511234-4"><bdi>978-0-19-511234-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Straight+Path&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511234-4&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamstraightpat0000espo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito1999" class="citation book cs1">—, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john">The Oxford History of Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9"><bdi>978-0-19-510799-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510799-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordhistoryofi00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2000" class="citation book cs1">—, ed. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john">The Oxford History of Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510799-9"><bdi>978-0-19-510799-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510799-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordhistoryofi00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2002a" class="citation book cs1">— (2002a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unholywarterrori0000espo">Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516886-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516886-0"><bdi>978-0-19-516886-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unholy+War%3A+Terror+in+the+Name+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516886-0&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funholywarterrori0000espo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2002b" class="citation book cs1">— (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515713-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515713-0"><bdi>978-0-19-515713-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know+about+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515713-0&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2005" class="citation book cs1">— (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0001espo">Islam: The Straight Path</a> (Revised 3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518266-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518266-8"><bdi>978-0-19-518266-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Straight+Path&rft.edition=Revised+3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518266-8&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamstraightpat0001espo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2010" class="citation book cs1">— (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539600-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539600-3"><bdi>978-0-19-539600-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Straight+Path&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-539600-3&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2011" class="citation book cs1">— (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979413-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979413-3"><bdi>978-0-19-979413-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know+about+Islam&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979413-3&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080204031050/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/Public/book_wenkai.html">Lay summary</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEspositoHaddad2000" class="citation book cs1">Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muslimsonamerica00yvon">Muslims on the Americanization Path?</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513526-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513526-8"><bdi>978-0-19-513526-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslims+on+the+Americanization+Path%3F&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513526-8&rft.aulast=Esposito&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Haddad%2C+Yvonne+Yazbeck&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuslimsonamerica00yvon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarah1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caesar_E._Farah" title="Caesar E. Farah">Farah, Caesar</a> (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Barron%27s_Educational_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="Barron's Educational Series">Barron's Educational Series</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8120-1853-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8120-1853-0"><bdi>978-0-8120-1853-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+Beliefs+and+Observances&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational+Series&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8120-1853-0&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=Caesar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarah2003" class="citation book cs1">— (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islambeliefsobse00fara_0">Islam: Beliefs and Observances</a> (7th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Barron%27s_Educational_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="Barron's Educational Series">Barron's Educational Series</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-2226-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-2226-2"><bdi>978-0-7641-2226-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+Beliefs+and+Observances&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Barron%27s+Educational+Series&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7641-2226-2&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=Caesar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislambeliefsobse00fara_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirestone1999" class="citation book cs1">Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512580-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512580-1"><bdi>978-0-19-512580-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jihad%3A+The+Origin+of+Holy+War+in+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512580-1&rft.aulast=Firestone&rft.aufirst=Reuven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldschmidtDavidson2005" class="citation book cs1">Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr.; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof0008gold">A Concise History of the Middle East</a> (8th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4275-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4275-7"><bdi>978-0-8133-4275-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Middle+East&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-4275-7&rft.aulast=Goldschmidt&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Jr.&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Lawrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof0008gold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithSavage2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Marie_Griffith" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruth Marie Griffith">Griffith, Ruth Marie</a>; <a href="/wiki/Barbara_D._Savage" title="Barbara D. Savage">Savage, Barbara Dianne</a> (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8370-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8370-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-8370-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Religion+in+the+African+Diaspora%3A+Knowledge%2C+Power%2C+and+Performance&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8370-5&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Ruth+Marie&rft.au=Savage%2C+Barbara+Dianne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaddadSmith2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Idleman_Smith" title="Jane Idleman Smith">Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck</a>; Smith, Jane I. (2002). Muslims in the West: Visible and Invisible. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslims+in+the+West%3A+Visible+and+Invisible&rft.place=Walnut+Creek%2C+CA&rft.pub=Altamira&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Haddad&rft.aufirst=Yvonne+Yazbeck&rft.au=Smith%2C+Jane+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHedayetullah2006" class="citation book cs1">Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. <a href="/wiki/Trafford_Publishing" title="Trafford Publishing">Trafford Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55369-842-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55369-842-5"><bdi>978-1-55369-842-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynamics+of+Islam%3A+An+Exposition&rft.pub=Trafford+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-55369-842-5&rft.aulast=Hedayetullah&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltLewis1977" class="citation book cs1">Holt, P.M.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29136-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29136-1"><bdi>978-0-521-29136-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29136-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltLambtonLewis1977" class="citation book cs1">Holt, P.M.; <a href="/wiki/Ann_Lambton" title="Ann Lambton">Lambton, Ann K.S.</a>; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29137-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29137-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltLambtonLewis2000" class="citation book cs1">Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00holt_798">The Cambridge History of Islam</a>. Vol. 1A. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21946-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21946-4"><bdi>978-0-521-21946-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21946-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgehistory00holt_798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourani2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Hourani" title="Albert Hourani">Hourani, Albert</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo0122hour_06BYS">A History of the Arab Peoples</a>. <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01017-8"><bdi>978-0-674-01017-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Arab+Peoples&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01017-8&rft.aulast=Hourani&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofarabpeo0122hour_06BYS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsmāʻīl_ibn_ʻUmar_Ibn_Kathīr2012" class="citation book cs1">Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr (2012). The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah. Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-603-500-080-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-603-500-080-2"><bdi>978-603-500-080-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caliphate+of+Banu+Umayyah+the+first+Phase%2C+Ibn+Katheer%2C+Taken+from+Al-Bidayah+wan-Nihayah&rft.place=Riyadh&rft.pub=Maktaba+Dar-us-Salam&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-603-500-080-2&rft.au=Ism%C4%81%CA%BB%C4%ABl+ibn+%CA%BBUmar+Ibn+Kath%C4%ABr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKobeisy2004" class="citation book cs1">Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Praeger Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32472-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32472-7"><bdi>978-0-313-32472-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Counseling+American+Muslims%3A+Understanding+the+Faith+and+Helping+the+People&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32472-7&rft.aulast=Kobeisy&rft.aufirst=Ahmed+Nezar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1987" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-0453-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-0453-3"><bdi>978-0-8133-0453-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shi%27Ism%2C+Resistance%2C+and+Revolution&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-0453-3&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLapidus2002" class="citation book cs1">Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77933-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77933-3"><bdi>978-0-521-77933-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Islamic+Societies&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77933-3&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (1984). The Jews of Islam. <a href="/wiki/Routledge_%26_Kegan_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Routledge & Kegan Paul">Routledge & Kegan Paul</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7102-0462-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7102-0462-2"><bdi>978-0-7102-0462-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Islam&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-7102-0462-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1993" class="citation book cs1">— (1993). The Arabs in History. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285258-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285258-8"><bdi>978-0-19-285258-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabs+in+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285258-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1997" class="citation book cs1">— (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/middleeastbriefh0000lewi">The Middle East</a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Scribner</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83280-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83280-7"><bdi>978-0-684-83280-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-684-83280-7&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmiddleeastbriefh0000lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2001" class="citation book cs1">— (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islaminhistory00bern">Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Open_Court_Publishing_Company" title="Open Court Publishing Company">Open Court Publishing Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9518-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8126-9518-2"><bdi>978-0-8126-9518-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+History%3A+Ideas%2C+People%2C+and+Events+in+the+Middle+East&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Open+Court+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8126-9518-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislaminhistory00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2003" class="citation book cs1">— (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whatwentwrongcl00lewi">What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East</a> (reprint ed.). <a href="/wiki/Harper_Perennial" title="Harper Perennial">Harper Perennial</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051605-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-051605-5"><bdi>978-0-06-051605-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Went+Wrong%3F%3A+The+Clash+Between+Islam+and+Modernity+in+the+Middle+East&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-06-051605-5&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhatwentwrongcl00lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2004" class="citation book cs1">— (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crisisofislam00bern">The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Random House, Inc.">Random House, Inc.</a>, New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6785-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6785-2"><bdi>978-0-8129-6785-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+of+Islam%3A+Holy+War+and+Unholy+Terror&rft.pub=Random+House%2C+Inc.%2C+New+York&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-6785-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrisisofislam00bern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadelung1996" 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The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64696-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64696-3"><bdi>978-0-521-64696-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Succession+to+Muhammad%3A+A+Study+of+the+Early+Caliphate&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64696-3&rft.aulast=Madelung&rft.aufirst=Wilferd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalikHinnells2006" class="citation book cs1">Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R. (2006). Sufism in the West. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27408-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27408-1"><bdi>978-0-415-27408-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sufism+in+the+West&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27408-1&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Jamal&rft.au=Hinnells%2C+John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMomen1987" class="citation book cs1">Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03531-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03531-5"><bdi>978-0-300-03531-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Shi%27i+Islam%3A+The+History+and+Doctrines+of+Twelver+Shi%27ism&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-300-03531-5&rft.aulast=Momen&rft.aufirst=Moojan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasr2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Nasr, Seyed Hossein</a> (2003). 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108582124">10.1017/9781108582124</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-58212-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-58212-4"><bdi>978-1-108-58212-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211657444">211657444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%2C+Literature+and+Society+in+Mongol+Anatolia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211657444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108582124&rft.isbn=978-1-108-58212-4&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=A.C.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2003" class="citation book cs1">Peters, F. 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe">Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11553-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11553-5"><bdi>978-0-691-11553-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Guide+for+Jews+and+Christians&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11553-5&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamguideforjew00fepe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life2009" class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf">Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>. October 2009. Retrieved 25 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Mapping+the+Global+Muslim+Population%3A+A+Report+on+the+Size+and+Distribution+of+the+World%27s+Muslim+Population&rft.pub=Pew+Research+Center&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F7%2F2009%2F10%2FMuslimpopulation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/">Overview</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRippin2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Rippin" title="Andrew Rippin">Rippin, Andrew</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muslimstheirreli0000ripp">Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21781-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21781-1"><bdi>978-0-415-21781-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslims%3A+Their+Religious+Beliefs+and+Practices&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-21781-1&rft.aulast=Rippin&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuslimstheirreli0000ripp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerjeant1978" class="citation journal cs1">Serjeant, R.B. (1978). "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib". <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_School_of_Oriental_and_African_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies">Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</a>. 41. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 1–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00057761">10.1017/S0041977X00057761</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161485671">161485671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Sunnah+Jami%27ah%2C+pacts+with+the+Yathrib+Jews%2C+and+the+Tahrim+of+Yathrib&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=1-42&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X00057761&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161485671%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Serjeant&rft.aufirst=R.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSachedina1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abdulaziz_Sachedina" title="Abdulaziz Sachedina">Sachedina, Abdulaziz</a> (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511915-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511915-2"><bdi>978-0-19-511915-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Just+Ruler+in+Shi%27ite+Islam%3A+The+Comprehensive+Authority+of+the+Jurist+in+Imamite+Jurisprudence&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511915-2&rft.aulast=Sachedina&rft.aufirst=Abdulaziz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Idleman_Smith" title="Jane Idleman Smith">Smith, Jane I.</a> (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515649-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515649-2"><bdi>978-0-19-515649-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+Understanding+of+Death+and+Resurrection&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515649-2&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jane+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStefon2010" class="citation book cs1">Stefon, Matt, ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamicbeliefspr0000stef">Islamic Beliefs and Practices</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Britannica_Educational_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannica Educational Publishing">Britannica Educational Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-060-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61530-060-0"><bdi>978-1-61530-060-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Beliefs+and+Practices&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Britannica+Educational+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61530-060-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamicbeliefspr0000stef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFṬabāṭabāʼī1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Allameh_Tabatabaei" class="mw-redirect" title="Allameh Tabatabaei">Ṭabāṭabāʼī, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn</a> (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-272-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87395-272-9"><bdi>978-0-87395-272-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shi%27ite+Islam&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-87395-272-9&rft.aulast=%E1%B9%ACab%C4%81%E1%B9%ADab%C4%81%CA%BC%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Sayyid+Mohammad+Hosayn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeece2003" class="citation book cs1">Teece, Geoff (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islam0000teec_a5d6">Religion in Focus: Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Grolier" title="Grolier">Franklin Watts Ltd</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7496-4796-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7496-4796-4"><bdi>978-0-7496-4796-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+Focus%3A+Islam&rft.pub=Franklin+Watts+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7496-4796-4&rft.aulast=Teece&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislam0000teec_a5d6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrimingham1998" class="citation book cs1">Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512058-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512058-5"><bdi>978-0-19-512058-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sufi+Orders+in+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512058-5&rft.aulast=Trimingham&rft.aufirst=John+Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2006" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34106-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34106-6"><bdi>978-0-415-34106-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+the+Basics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-34106-6&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1998" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17458-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17458-9"><bdi>978-0-415-17458-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weber+and+Islam&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-17458-9&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Bryan+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaines2003" class="citation book cs1">Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53906-7"><bdi>978-0-521-53906-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53906-7&rft.aulast=Waines&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Montgomery_Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="William Montgomery Watt">Watt, W. Montgomery</a> (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-245-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85224-245-2"><bdi>978-0-85224-245-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Formative+Period+of+Islamic+Thought&rft.pub=University+Press+Edinburgh&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-85224-245-2&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=W.+Montgomery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt1974" class="citation book cs1">— (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt">Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman</a> (New ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881078-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881078-0"><bdi>978-0-19-881078-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad%3A+Prophet+and+Statesman&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-19-881078-0&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=W.+Montgomery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuhammadprophets00watt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_G._Weiss" title="Bernard G. Weiss">Weiss, Bernard G.</a> (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Academic publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12066-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12066-2"><bdi>978-90-04-12066-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Islamic+Legal+Theory&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12066-2&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Bernard+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encyclopedias_and_dictionaries">Encyclopedias and dictionaries</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islām". In <a href="#CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(2nd_ed.)2012">Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012)</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0387">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Encyclopædia Britannica. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahlbusch_et_al2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaecVMhMWaEC">The Encyclopedia of Christianity</a>. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11695-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11695-5"><bdi>978-90-04-11695-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11695-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyaecVMhMWaEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(1st_ed.)1913–1936" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martijn_Theodoor_Houtsma" title="Martijn Theodoor Houtsma">Houtsma, M.T.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnold" title="Thomas Walker Arnold">Arnold, T.W.</a>; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R., eds. (1913–1936). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a> (1st ed.). Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08265-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08265-6"><bdi>978-90-04-08265-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1913%2F1936&rft.isbn=978-90-04-08265-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(2nd_ed.)2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peri_Bearman" title="Peri Bearman">Bearman, P.J.</a>; Bianquis, Th.; <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C.E.</a>; van Donzel, E.; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W.P.</a>, eds. (2012). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a> (2nd ed.). Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16121-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16121-4"><bdi>978-90-04-16121-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912">1573-3912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=1573-3912&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16121-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d." class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peri_Bearman" title="Peri Bearman">Bearman, P.J.</a>; Bianquis, Th.; <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C.E.</a>; van Donzel, E.; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W.P.</a>, eds. (n.d.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/package/eio?language=en">Encyclopaedia of Islam Online</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912">1573-3912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam+Online&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.issn=1573-3912&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fpackage%2Feio%3Flanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: year">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse">Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World</a>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Reference_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Reference Books">Macmillan Reference Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomson-Gale" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson-Gale">Thomson-Gale</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865603-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865603-8"><bdi>978-0-02-865603-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Islam+and+the+Muslim+World&rft.series=Macmillan+Reference+Books&rft.pub=Thomson-Gale&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865603-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofis0001unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAuliffen.d." class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Dammen_McAuliffe" title="Jane Dammen McAuliffe">McAuliffe, Jane Dammen</a>, ed. (n.d.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an">Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Qur%27an+Online&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: year (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_year" title="Category:CS1 maint: year">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAuliffe2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2002). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n" title="Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān">Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān</a>. Vol. 2. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAuliffe2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2003). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n" title="Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān">Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān</a>. Vol. 3. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalamone2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Salamone, Frank, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre00sala">Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals</a>. Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society. Vol. 6 (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94180-8"><bdi>978-0-415-94180-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1jd94wq">j.ctt1jd94wq</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religious+Rites%2C+Rituals%2C+and+Festivals&rft.series=Routledge+Encyclopedias+of+Religion+and+Society&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1jd94wq%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-415-94180-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofre00sala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassé2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas">The New Encyclopedia of Islam</a>. Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. <a href="/wiki/AltaMira_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="AltaMira Press">AltaMira Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0190-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0190-6"><bdi>978-0-7591-0190-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.series=Revised+Edition+of+the+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0190-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopediao0000glas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Esposito, John, ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0"><bdi>978-0-19-512558-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512558-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxforddictionary00bada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001</a> – via Oxford Reference.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Esposito, John, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975726-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975726-8"><bdi>978-0-19-975726-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975726-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE324pQEEQQcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeaman2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C">The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32639-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32639-1"><bdi>978-0-415-32639-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Qur%27an%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32639-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DisDgI0-0Ip4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Islam at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Islam" class="extiw" title="wikt:Islam">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Islam" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Islam">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Islam" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Islam">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Islam" class="extiw" title="q:Islam">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Islam" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Islam">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Islam" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Islam">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Islam" class="extiw" title="v:Islam">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Islam" class="extiw" title="voy:Islam">Travel information</a> from Wikivoyage</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q432" class="extiw" title="d:Q432">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/encyclopedia-of-sahih-al-bukhari-arabic-virtual-translation-center/1134457685?ean=2940160787701">Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari</a> by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, <a href="/wiki/Barnes_%26_Noble" title="Barnes & Noble">Barnes & Noble</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-359-67265-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-359-67265-3">978-0-359-67265-3</a>). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.</li> <li>Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: <a href="/wiki/Bethany_House_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethany House Publishers">Bethany House Publishers</a>. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87123-553-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87123-553-6">0-87123-553-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmad2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Imad-ad-Dean_Ahmad" title="Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad">Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Islam"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 256–258. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n155">10.4135/9781412965811.n155</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=256-258&rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n155&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=Ahmad&rft.aufirst=Imad-ad-Dean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkyol2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Akyol" title="Mustafa Akyol">Akyol, Mustafa</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamwithoutextr0000akyo">Islam Without Extremes</a> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton_%26_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="W.W. Norton & Company">W.W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07086-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07086-6"><bdi>978-0-393-07086-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+Without+Extremes&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-393-07086-6&rft.aulast=Akyol&rft.aufirst=Mustafa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamwithoutextr0000akyo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArberry1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._J._Arberry" class="mw-redirect" title="A. J. Arberry">Arberry, A.J.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/koraninterpreted00ajar">The Koran Interpreted: A Translation</a> (1st ed.). Touchstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82507-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82507-6"><bdi>978-0-684-82507-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Koran+Interpreted%3A+A+Translation&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Touchstone&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82507-6&rft.aulast=Arberry&rft.aufirst=A.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkoraninterpreted00ajar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: <a href="/wiki/Wadsworth_Publishing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Wadsworth Publishing Company">Wadsworth Publishing Company</a> 1975. xiii, 145 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8221-0139-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8221-0139-4">0-8221-0139-4</a>.</li> <li>Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42120-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42120-9">0-521-42120-9</a>; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhanAl-Hilali_KhanMuhammad_Taqi-ud-Din1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Muhsin_Khan" title="Muhammad Muhsin Khan">Khan, Muhammad Muhsin</a>; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dar-us-Salam_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Dar-us-Salam Publications">Dar-us-Salam Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9960-740-79-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-9960-740-79-9"><bdi>978-9960-740-79-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Noble+Quran&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Dar-us-Salam+Publications&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-9960-740-79-9&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Muhsin&rft.au=Al-Hilali+Khan&rft.au=Muhammad+Taqi-ud-Din&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Khanbaghi, A, (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. <a href="/wiki/I._B._Tauris" class="mw-redirect" title="I. B. Tauris">I. B. Tauris</a>.</li> <li>Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-915677-55-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-915677-55-5">0-915677-55-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Kramer" title="Martin Kramer">Kramer, Martin</a>, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-224-040-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-224-040-8"><bdi>978-965-224-040-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Discovery+of+Islam%3A+Studies+in+Honor+of+Bernard+Lewis&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-965-224-040-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuban1974" class="citation book cs1">Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-03813-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-03813-4"><bdi>978-90-04-03813-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Religious+Architecture&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-90-04-03813-4&rft.aulast=Kuban&rft.aufirst=Dogan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1994" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamwest00lewi_0">Islam and the West</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509061-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509061-1"><bdi>978-0-19-509061-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+West&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509061-1&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamwest00lewi_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1996" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturesinconfli0000lewi">Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510283-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510283-3"><bdi>978-0-19-510283-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultures+in+Conflict%3A+Christians%2C+Muslims%2C+and+Jews+in+the+Age+of+Discovery&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510283-3&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fculturesinconfli0000lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMubarkpuri2002" class="citation book cs1">Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. <a href="/wiki/Dar-us-Salam_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Dar-us-Salam Publications">Dar-us-Salam Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59144-071-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59144-071-0"><bdi>978-1-59144-071-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sealed+Nectar%3A+Biography+of+the+Prophet&rft.pub=Dar-us-Salam+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-59144-071-0&rft.aulast=Mubarkpuri&rft.aufirst=Saifur-Rahman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNajeebabadi2001" class="citation book cs1">Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. <a href="/wiki/Dar-us-Salam_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Dar-us-Salam Publications">Dar-us-Salam Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59144-034-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59144-034-5"><bdi>978-1-59144-034-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Dar-us-Salam+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-59144-034-5&rft.aulast=Najeebabadi&rft.aufirst=Akbar+Shah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahman1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fazlur_Rahman_Malik" title="Fazlur Rahman Malik">Rahman, Fazlur</a> (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810">Islam</a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-70281-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-70281-0"><bdi>978-0-226-70281-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-226-70281-0&rft.aulast=Rahman&rft.aufirst=Fazlur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780226702810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchimmel1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" title="Annemarie Schimmel">Schimmel, Annemarie</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190422154518/https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/deciphering-signs-god-phenomenological-approach-islam">Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1982-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1982-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-1982-3</bdi></a>. 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Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Nova_Science_Publishers" title="Nova Science Publishers">Nova Science Publishers</a>, New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60692-731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60692-731-1"><bdi>978-1-60692-731-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+1.3+Billion+Muslims+Really+Think%3A+An+Answer+to+a+Recent+Gallup+Study%2C+Based+on+the+%22World+Values+Survey%22.+Foreword+Mansoor+Moaddel%2C+Eastern+Michigan+University&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Nova+Science+Publishers%2C+New+York&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60692-731-1&rft.aulast=Tausch&rft.aufirst=Arno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTauschHeshmatiKaroui2015" class="citation book cs1">Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Nova_Science_Publishers" title="Nova Science Publishers">Nova Science Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62948-899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62948-899-8"><bdi>978-1-62948-899-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+political+algebra+of+global+value+change.+General+models+and+implications+for+the+Muslim+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Nova+Science+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-62948-899-8&rft.aulast=Tausch&rft.aufirst=Arno&rft.au=Heshmati%2C+Almas&rft.au=Karoui%2C+Hichem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"> Prepublication text available at: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTauschHeshmatiKaroui2014" class="citation web cs1">Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218">"The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world"</a>. ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ResearchGate&rft.atitle=The+political+algebra+of+global+value+change.+General+models+and+implications+for+the+Muslim+world&rft.date=2014-01&rft.aulast=Tausch&rft.aufirst=Arno&rft.au=Heshmati%2C+Almas&rft.au=Karoui%2C+Hichem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F290349218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTausch2023" class="citation book cs1">Tausch, Arno (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2">Political Islam and Religiously Motivated Political Extremism</a>. SpringerBriefs in Political Science (1st ed.). Cham: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer Nature</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-24854-2">10.1007/978-3-031-24854-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-24853-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-24853-5"><bdi>978-3-031-24853-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256852082">256852082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Islam+and+Religiously+Motivated+Political+Extremism&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=SpringerBriefs+in+Political+Science&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256852082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-24854-2&rft.isbn=978-3-031-24853-5&rft.aulast=Tausch&rft.aufirst=Arno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-24854-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Walker_(author)" title="Benjamin Walker (author)">Walker, Benjamin</a> (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Owen_Publishers" title="Peter Owen Publishers">Peter Owen Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7206-1038-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7206-1038-3"><bdi>978-0-7206-1038-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Islam%3A+The+Making+of+a+World+Faith&rft.pub=Peter+Owen+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7206-1038-3&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIslam" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_topics" title="Template talk:Islam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islam_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/5237148997646559870007">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td 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href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by 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Template:Cite_encyclopedia"," 4.01% 199.550 1 Template:Infobox_religion"," 3.91% 194.737 1 Template:Infobox"," 3.32% 165.247 32 Template:ISBN"," 3.26% 162.067 30 Template:Cite_journal"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"3.303","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25015800,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA.C._Brown2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbdullah_Saeed2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAboo_Yahyaa2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams,_Charles_J.1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdas1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAfsaruddin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAfsaruddinn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmad2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAitchisonHopkinsMei-Po_Kwan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkgündüzÖztürk2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkyol2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-BiladhuriHitti1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Buraey1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Jawzi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Khalili2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl_Faruqi1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlatas2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlgar1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlgar1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAliLeaman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlmukhtarPeçanhaWallace2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlvi\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmir-Moezzi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAn-Na\u0026#039;im1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnwerSamadBaig-AnsariIftikhar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArberry1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArberry1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAriff1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArmajani2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArmstrong2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBa-YunusKone,_Kassim2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBabou2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalzani\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBani_Issa2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBausani1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenakis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennett2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeversluis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeydoun\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBindel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlankinship2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoweringMirzaCrone2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowker2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrague2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrockopp2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryer1975b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuhlWelchn.d.\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFBulliet2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurge2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuzpinar2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampo2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampo2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenter2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChittick2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen-Mor2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCornell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD.W._Brownn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD._Grafton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaftary2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDakake2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_McLaurin1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Sondy2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDillon1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoi1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDomat2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoran1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrews2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrover2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaton2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElias2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(1st_ed.)1913–1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_(2nd_ed.)2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_Islam_Onlinen.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEscobar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2002a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2002b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEspositoDeLong-Bas2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEspositoHaddad2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEttinghausenGrabarJenkins-Madina2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahd,_T.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahd_Salem_Bahammam\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahlbusch_et_al2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairak2014\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFarah1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarah2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarmer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirestone1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoltz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoody2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFoster2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancescan.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedmann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFG._Rabil2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGandhi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardet,_L.n.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardet2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardetJomier2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorge_W._Braswell2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibb1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGimaret2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlassé2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlassé2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlubb\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldschmidtDavidson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorini2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffithSavage2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHackett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaddadSmith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHajjar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarney2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartner,_W.Tj_Boer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHava_Lazarus-Yafehn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaviland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaywood2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHedayetullah2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltLambtonLewis1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltLambtonLewis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltLewis1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHourani2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHouse_of_Justice\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoutsmaWensinckLévi-ProvençalGibb1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbn-ʿAǧībaAresmoukFitzgeraldIbn-ʿAǧība2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImamuddin1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsichei1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsmāʻīl_ibn_ʻUmar_Ibn_Kathīr2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._Kuiper2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ._Robsonn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Corrigan,_Frederick_Denny,_Martin_S_Jaffee,_Carlos_Eire2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Richard_Thackrah2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohns1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuynboll1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaramustafan.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasim2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatzBarton2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhanAl-Hilali_KhanMuhammad_Taqi-ud-Din1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirkpatrick2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKobeisy2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoetsier2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohlberg1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorbelPreckel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuban1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLalani2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandau1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauziere2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeaman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLegge1880\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeviSela2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisChurchill2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipkaHackett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLopez2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald,_D._B.Madelung,_W.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadelung1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahmutćehajić2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalikHinnells2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMamouri2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathijssenVenhorstVenbruxQuartier2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMavani2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAuliffe2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAuliffe2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcAuliffen.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeghna_GuhathakurtaWillem_van_Schendel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeisami2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelchert2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelikian2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerchant,_Brian2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetcalf2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichigan_Consortium_for_Medieval_and_Early_Modern_Studies1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFModood2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMojzes2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMomen1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoshe_Sharon1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMubarkpuri2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMusa2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMusa2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNader_Hashemi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNajeebabadi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasir2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewby2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNigosian2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoel_James_Coulson1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver_Holmes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParacha2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacock2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPechilisRaj2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerrin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Crawford2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPew_Forum_for_Religion_\u0026amp;_Public_Life2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollack2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoonawala1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuchala2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._Williams2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadtkeLoryZarconeDeWeese2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahman1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamadanali2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRassool2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatno_Lukito\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReeves2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Eaton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidgeon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinggren\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRippin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Brenton_Betts2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_L._Canfield2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachedina1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaid2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalamone2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaleh2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalim_AyduzIbrahim_KalinCaner_Dagli2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanyal1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchachtn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchimmel\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSchimmel1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuon1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSerjeant1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlackman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlackman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpevack2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStefon2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuarez2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSubtelny1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFT._W._Arnold1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTatari2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTausch2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTausch2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTauschHeshmatiKaroui2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTauschHeshmatiKaroui2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTayeb_El-Hibri,_Maysam_J._al_Faruqi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeece2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThames2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTjahjono1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToelle2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToomer1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrimingham1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuckerPriscilla_Mary_Roberts2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyan,_E.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUddin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUpal2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_der_Vyer1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeccia_Vaglieri2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaines2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatt1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatt1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatt2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebbn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWehrey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelchMoussalliNewby2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYavuz1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYazbeck_Haddad2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZAROUG1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZabel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZineBabana-HamptonMazidBullock\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÇakmak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÜnal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFالوطنwebmaster2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFوالخلفاء2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFṬabāṭabāʼī1979\"] = 1,\n [\"Etymology\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 205,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 42,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 30,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 71,\n [\"Doi\"] = 11,\n [\"Doi-inline\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 4,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 17,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 24,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 53,\n [\"IPA\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 32,\n [\"Increase\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox religion\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam and iman\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 12,\n [\"Langx\"] = 27,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 26,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Qref\"] = 4,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Religion topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Script\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 19,\n [\"Seealso\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 73,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 2,\n [\"Sup\"] = 2,\n [\"Transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 19,\n [\"Under discussion inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 18,\n [\"Wide image\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","660","20.0"],["?","320","9.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","320","9.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","260","7.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","220","6.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","160","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","120","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","120","3.6"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","3.0"],["[others]","900","27.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-pvdvh","timestamp":"20241122210122","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Islam","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Islam","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q432","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q432","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-15T00:37:57Z","dateModified":"2024-11-22T21:01:08Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/79\/The_Kaaba_during_Hajj.jpg","headline":"Abrahamic religion founded by Muhammad"}</script> </body> </html>