Troy - World History Encyclopedia

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# fb: http://ogp.me/ns/fb# article: http://ogp.me/ns/article#"> <title>Troy - World History Encyclopedia</title>   <link rel="preload" fetchpriority="high" href="/template/images/bg_timeline.png" as="image"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.consentmanager.net"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://b.delivery.consentmanager.net">  <link rel="preconnect" href="https://btloader.com"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://tpc.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://adservice.google.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://www.googleadservices.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://sb.scorecardresearch.co">  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <meta name="theme-color" content="#082865" /> <meta name="msapplication-navbutton-color" content="#082865"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="#082865"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="description" content="Troy is the name of the Bronze Age city attacked in the Trojan War, a popular story in the mythology of ancient Greece, and the name given to the archaeological..."> <meta name="keywords" content="Troy,Agamemnon (Person),Agamemnon (Play),Ancient Greece,Bronze Age,City,Greece,Helen of Troy,Iliad,Menelaus"> <meta name="author" content="Mark Cartwright"> <meta name="subjects" content="Places"> <meta name="regions" content="MiddleEast"> <meta name="periods" content="Ancient"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="fr" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-372/troie/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="it" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/it/1-372/troia/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="es" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/1-372/troya/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" /> <meta property="push:bimage" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/750x750/1215.jpg"/> <meta http-equiv="Content-Security-Policy" content="upgrade-insecure-requests"> <meta name="impact-site-verification" value="-720600813" /> <meta name="p:domain_verify" content="b24695bfa00137b2e95cb4ca94c3f5dd"/> <meta property="twitter:account_id" content="4503599627388175" /> <meta name="flattr:id" content="62l7dn">  <meta property="og:type" content="article"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="World History Encyclopedia"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/1215.jpg"> <meta property="og:title" content="Troy"> <meta property="og:description" content="Troy is the name of the Bronze Age city attacked in the Trojan War, a popular story in the mythology of ancient Greece, and the name given to the archaeological site in the north-west of Asia Minor..."> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook"> <meta property="article:author" content="https://www.facebook.com/mark.cartwright.73/">  <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@whencyclopedia"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Troy"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Troy is the name of the Bronze Age city attacked in the Trojan War, a popular story in the mythology of ancient Greece, and the name given to the archaeological site in the north-west of Asia Minor..."> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@MCartwrightWHE"> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/1215.jpg"> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="https://www.worldhistory.org">  <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" />  <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","brand":"World History Encyclopedia","legalName":"World History Publishing Ltd","name":"World History Encyclopedia","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","sameAs":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-954x231px.png","duns":"218445829","address":{"@type":"PostalAddress","addressCountry":"United Kingdom","addressLocality":"Godalming","addressRegion":"Surrey","postalCode":"GU7 1HE","streetAddress":"Brook House, Mint Street"},"logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-318x77px.png","width":318,"height":77}} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction","target":"https://www.worldhistory.org/search/?q={search_term_string}","query-input":"required name=search_term_string"},"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","name":"World History Encyclopedia"} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","about":{"@type":"Thing","name":"Troy","description":"Homeric ancient city in northwest Asia Minor","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22647"},"author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/#person","name":"Mark Cartwright","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/","sameAs":["https://twitter.com/MCartwrightWHE"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-markzcartwright.JPG","description":"Mark is a full-time writer, researcher, historian, and editor. Special interests include art, architecture, and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. He holds an MA in Political Philosophy and is the WHE Publishing Director.","jobTitle":"Publishing Director","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"citation":[{"@type":"Book","name":"Greek Mythology","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Carabatea, M"},"datePublished":"2007","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Pergamos, Peania"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Cline, E.H"},"isbn":"0199873607","datePublished":"2012","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Oxford University Press, USA"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"The Iliad","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Homer"},"isbn":"0140275363","datePublished":"1998","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Penguin Classics"}}],"copyrightNotice":"By: Mark Cartwright - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creditText":"Mark Cartwright (World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org, CC BY-NC-SA)","dateModified":"2024-11-28T05:24:08+0000","datePublished":"2018-05-11T08:56:25+0000","description":"Troy is the name of the Bronze Age city attacked in the Trojan War, a popular story in the mythology of ancient Greece, and the name given to the archaeological site in the north-west of Asia Minor...","headline":"Troy","image":["https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/1215.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1600x900/1215.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x900/1215.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/1215.jpg"],"inLanguage":{"@type":"Language","name":"English","alternateName":"en"},"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","keywords":"Agamemnon (Person),Agamemnon (Play),Ancient Greece,Bronze Age,City,Greece,Helen of Troy,Iliad,Menelaus,Troy,UNESCO","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/","mentions":[{"@type":"Thing","name":"Ancient Greece","description":"Greek civilization from c. 1200 BC to c. 600 AD","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11772"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Helen of Troy","description":"daughter of Zeus in Greek mythology","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164061"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Iliad","description":"epic poem attributed to Homer","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8275"},{"@type":"Thing","name":"Menelaus","description":"mythical king of Sparta, husband of Helen of Troy","sameAs":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171839"}],"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","publishingPrinciples":"https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/","speakable":{"@type":"SpeakableSpecification","cssSelector":["h1","article"]},"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/"} </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> window.AHE = {}; AHE.domain = 'worldhistory.org'; AHE.lastDeploy = '1732096425'; AHE.ayEntityID = 'rBndncCqbjkzwhcPC'; window.idleQueue = []; const coreScriptsLoadedEvent = new Event('coreScriptsReady'); </script>  <script>function async_load_js(script_url,cbfunc,defer){if(defer==undefined)defer=true;var s=document.createElement('script');s.src=script_url;if(defer){s.defer=true}else s.async=true;s.importance='low';s.fetchpriority='low';var x=document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];x.parentNode.append(s);if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('load',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true});if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('error',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true})} function scheduleIdleQueue(){if(window.idleQueue.length>0)if(window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled){return}else{window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=true;if('requestIdleCallback'in window){requestIdleCallback(processIdleQueue,{timeout:2e3})}else processIdleQueue()}} function processIdleQueue(deadline){window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=false;if(typeof deadline==='undefined')deadline={timeRemaining:function(){return Number.MAX_VALUE}};while((deadline.timeRemaining()>0||deadline.didTimeout)&&window.idleQueue.length>0){var queueFunc=window.idleQueue.shift();queueFunc()};scheduleIdleQueue()} function jsQueue(func){window.idleQueue.push(func);if(window.pageIsReady)if(document.readyState=='complete'||document.readyState=='loaded'||document.readyState=='interactive')scheduleIdleQueue()} function getUrlParameter(url,name){name=name.replace(/[\[]/,'\\[').replace(/[\]]/,'\\]');var regex=new RegExp('[\\?&]'+name+'=([^&#]*)'),results=regex.exec(url);return results===null?'':decodeURIComponent(results[1].replace(/\+/g,' '))} function get_media_layout(){var width=document.documentElement.clientWidth;if(width<768){return"mobile"}else if(width<992){return"tablet"}else if(width<1200){return"desktop-narrow"}else return"desktop-wide"} function getCookie(c_name){var i,x,y,ARRcookies=document.cookie.split(";");for(i=0;i<ARRcookies.length;i++){x=ARRcookies[i].substr(0,ARRcookies[i].indexOf("="));y=ARRcookies[i].substr(ARRcookies[i].indexOf("=")+1);x=x.replace(/^\s+|\s+$/g,"");if(x==c_name)return unescape(y)}} function jsonStore(key,value){if(value){return localStorage.setItem(key,JSON.stringify(value))}else return JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(key))}</script>  <script defer class="requiredJS ipJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/ajax/visitor-info.js.php?v=1732096425"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/jquery@3.6.1/dist/jquery.min.js"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/js/ahe-min.js?v=1732096425"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/analytics/pageview.js?v=1732096425"></script>  <script> var url_parts = window.location.href.split("/"); var is_member = 0; var subdomain = url_parts[2].split(".")[0]; var currentURL = window.location.href; </script>  <script> var requiredScripts = document.querySelectorAll('.requiredJS'); var loadedScripts = 0; const scriptsReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { requiredScripts.forEach(function(elem) { elem.addEventListener('load',function(elem) { loadedScripts++; if (loadedScripts == requiredScripts.length) { console.log('scriptsReady'); dispatchEvent(coreScriptsLoadedEvent); document.coreScriptsReady = true; resolve('scriptsLoaded'); } },false) }); }); const ipScriptReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.querySelector('.ipJS').addEventListener('load',function(elem) { console.log('ipScriptReady'); document.ipReady = true; resolve('ipScriptReady'); },false); }); const pageReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function() { scriptsReady.then(function() { setTimeout(function() { window.pageIsReady = true; resolve('pageReady'); },50); }) }); }); const privacyReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.isEU) { AHE.tcfConsentResolved = false; // CMP Listener Loop let cmpListenerInvterval = setInterval(()=>{ if (typeof window.__cmp == 'function') { AHE.consentStatus = __cmp('consentStatus'); AHE.consentData = __cmp('getCMPData'); if (typeof AHE.consentStatus == 'object' && AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists == true) { /* Purpose 1 - Store and/or access information on a device Purpose 2 - Select basic ads Purpose 3 - Create a personalized ads profile Purpose 4 - Select personalized ads Purpose 5 - Create a personalized content profile Purpose 6 - Select personalized content Purpose 7 - Measure ad performance Purpose 8 - Measure content performance Purpose 9 - Apply market research to generate audience insights Purpose 10 - Develop and improve products */ if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === true) { // EU Privacy Rules AHE.usPrivacyString = '1---'; if (typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents == 'object' && typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents[1] == 'boolean') { let purposes = AHE.consentData.purposeConsents; AHE.privacyAdConsent = (purposes[2] && purposes[3] && purposes[4] && purposes[7]) || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = (purposes[5] && purposes[6] && purposes[8]) || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = (purposes[8]) || false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } else if (AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } else if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === false) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } } if (AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },100); // Fallback timeout setTimeout(()=>{ if (!AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.warn('Privacy consent TIMEOUT (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },10000); } else { // No Privacy Rules AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','non-EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } }); }); const deferredLoadedEvent = new Event('deferredLoaded'); const deferredReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener('deferredLoaded',function(elem) { resolve('deferredReady'); }) }); </script>  <script type="text/javascript"> var tag = "troy"; var tags_json = ["Agamemnon_(Person)","Agamemnon_(Play)","Ancient_Greece","Bronze_Age","city","greece","Helen_of_Troy","iliad","Menelaus","troy","UNESCO"]; var media_layout = get_media_layout(); var euCountries = ["at", "be", "bg", "cy", "cz", "de", "dk", "ee", "es", "fi", "fr", "gb", "gr", "hr", "hu", "ie", "it", "is", "lt", "lu", "lv", "mt", "nl", "pl", "pt", "ro", "se", "si", "sk"]; var USDGBP = 0.79369; var EURGBP = 0.83454; var is_admin = 0; var ci_title = "Troy"; var forced_country = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"country"); // A/B Testing let abParameter = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"ab"); if (['a','b','c'].includes(abParameter)) { console.log('Set A/B test to ' + abParameter) AHE.ab = abParameter; } else if (getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'a' || getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'b') { AHE.ab = getCookie('ahe_ab_group'); } else if (Math.random() >= 0.5) { AHE.ab = 'a'; } else { AHE.ab = 'b'; } console.log('A/B group: ',AHE.ab); // Core Definitions AHE.contentLang = 'en'; AHE.siteName = 'World History Encyclopedia'; AHE.ci_id = "1-372"; AHE.ci_type_id = 1; AHE.ci_type = 'Definition'; AHE.ci_author = 'markzcartwright'; AHE.ci_author_id = '6337'; AHE.ci_translator_id = ''; AHE.lang_rtl = 0; AHE.ci_trans = 0; AHE.ci_translator = ''; AHE.siteKeywords = 'history,ancient,antiquity,medieval,education,k12,university,travel,culture,heritage'; AHE.contentKeywords = ["Agamemnon (Person)","Agamemnon (Play)","Ancient Greece","Bronze Age","City","Greece","Helen of Troy","Iliad","Menelaus","Troy","UNESCO"]; AHE.contentKeywords.push('History'); AHE.cattaxIAB = 6; AHE.siteIAB = [ '132', // Education '133', // Adult Education '135', // Secondary Education '137', // College Education '141', // Undergraduate Education '145', // Homeschooling '146', // Homework & Study '148', // Online Education '1001', // Editorial / Professional '1011', // Academic Research Content '1013', // Educational Content '1216', // Professionally Produced ]; AHE.contentTitle = ci_title; AHE.contentUrl = 'https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/'; AHE.canonicalPath = '/troy/'; AHE.contentIAB = Array.from(AHE.siteIAB); AHE.userLoggedin = '0'; AHE.digiTrustMemberID = 'Rk7R77ItMJ'; AHE.digiTrustSiteID = 'blvtF3tRZY'; AHE.userActivityTimeout = 120; AHE.categories = {"ci_subject_ids":[8],"ci_region_ids":[4],"ci_period_ids":[2],"ci_categories":[80]}; AHE.categoriesHuman = {"ci_subject_ids":["Places"],"ci_region_ids":["MiddleEast"],"ci_period_ids":["Ancient"],"ci_categories":["Featured"]}; AHE.media_layout = media_layout; AHE.is_admin = is_admin; AHE.is_member = AHE.is_member || 0; AHE.is_editor = 0; AHE.prebidAuctionRun = false; AHE.adLoadMethod = null; AHE.deferredLoaded = false; AHE.deferredTimeout = 5000; // milliseconds AHE.search_term = null; AHE.usPrivacyString = getCookie('usprivacy') || false; AHE.usPrivacyOptOut = false; AHE.pubcidOptout = getCookie('_pubcid_optout') || false; AHE.cmpLinkMoved = false; AHE.isEU = false; AHE.isUS = false; AHE.deviceType = (AHE.media_layout == 'mobile' || AHE.media_layout == 'tablet') ? 'mobile' : 'desktop'; AHE.idHashSha1 = null || getCookie('esh1') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'es1') || null; AHE.idHashSha256 = null || getCookie('esh') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'esh') || null; AHE.idHashSha256Clean = null || getCookie('esh-clean') || null; AHE.idHashMd5 = null || getCookie('emd') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'emd') || null; AHE.imageErrors = []; AHE.visitCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("visitCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.pageViewCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("pageViewCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.articleReadCount = (getCookie('articleReadCount') || 0) * 1; AHE.interestEmailOptIn = getCookie('interest_email_opt_in'); AHE.interestGroup = getCookie('interestGroup') || null; AHE.mcLists = getCookie('mcLists'); AHE.feedbackThanks = 'Thank you for your feedback!'; AHE.membershipPrices = {"co":{"price":12000,"cursymb":"COP","curticker":"COP","curname":"Colombian Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkpUk1JnvM","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkPcVXm37P"},"ph":{"price":140,"cursymb":"PHP","curticker":"PHP","curname":"Philippine Pisos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkEoLUtx27","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkOYQa1lvS"},"in":{"price":150,"cursymb":"\u20b9","curticker":"INR","curname":"Indian Rupees","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkDIggQ5Kk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdFQe2TOl"},"ca":{"price":6,"cursymb":"CA$","curticker":"CAD","curname":"Canadian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk3h0ZzsHk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk8R6BfmDY"},"ar":{"price":300,"cursymb":"ARS","curticker":"ARS","curname":"Argentine Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkSgP1i7ry","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkmn9cSOWz"},"mx":{"price":60,"cursymb":"MX$","curticker":"MXN","curname":"Mexican Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkJuSy5Bu9","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkWWocq1D9"},"au":{"price":6.5,"cursymb":"A$","curticker":"AUD","curname":"Australian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdjUrjeVm","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdDShq92X"},"eu":{"price":4,"cursymb":"\u20ac","curticker":"EUR","curname":"Euros","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkE9eS0s1w","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkaWNWJlaJ"},"gb":{"price":3.5,"cursymb":"\u00a3","curticker":"GBP","curname":"British Pounds","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkJP6XWDj7","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkWMIAjA35"},"us":{"price":5,"cursymb":"$","curticker":"USD","curname":"US Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkNDtNDiIi","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkYAGjycku"}}; AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; AHE.userDevice = {}; AHE.userID = ''; AHE.appNexusUser = { language: navigator.language.substr(0,2) }; AHE.appNexusSupplyType = media_layout.includes('desktop') ? 'web' : 'mobile_web'; AHE.isHumanVerified = getCookie('whe_hv') || 0; AHE.isBot = navigator.webdriver || /bot|crawl|spider|googleother|google-extended|apis-google|mediapartners|baidu|bing|msn|teoma|slurp|yandex|anthropic|claude|chatgpt|cohere/i.test(navigator.userAgent); AHE.isIVT = false; AHE.IPv4 = null; AHE.IPv6 = null; AHE.cfTurnstileKey = '0x4AAAAAAAAwX90u0VMXFYiR'; AHE.gamTags = [].concat(tags_json); AHE.popupShown = null; AHE.cachebuster = Math.round(Math.random()*10000000); // JS-dependent definitions scriptsReady.then(function() { window.userLastActivity = Math.floor(Date.now() / 1000); AHE.privacyAdConsent = AHE.privacyAdConsent || getCookie('privacyAdConsent') || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = AHE.privacyContentConsent || getCookie('privacyContentConsent') || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent || getCookie('privacyAnalyticsConsent') || false; // Store A/B Test Cookie setCookie('ahe_ab_group',AHE.ab); // IP Information if (typeof clientIP == 'string') { if (clientIP.includes(':')) { AHE.IPv6 = clientIP; } else if (clientIP.includes('.')) { AHE.IPv4 = clientIP; } } // Engagement Categories if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 15 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 4) { AHE.userEngagement = 'veryhigh'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 4; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 7 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 2 && AHE.visitCount >= 3) { AHE.userEngagement = 'high'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 3; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'medium'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 2; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'low'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 1; } else { AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; } if (!AHE.idHashMd5) { AHE.knownUser = 0; } else { AHE.knownUser = 1; } if (typeof AHE.mcLists == 'string') { AHE.mcLists = AHE.mcLists.split(','); } else { AHE.mcLists = []; } // Country-Specific JS adminLog("IP Country: " + ipCountry); if (forced_country) { console.log("ipCountry override: " + forced_country); ipCountry = forced_country; } AHE.ipCountry = ipCountry; if (euCountries.includes(ipCountry)) { // EU User AHE.isEU = true; } else if (ipCountry == 'us') { // US User AHE.isUS = true; } else { // Other Country } // Inline JS (if any) }); </script>   <script data-no-optimize="1" data-cfasync="false"> ipScriptReady.then(()=>{ console.log(AHE); if (AHE.is_member) { // Has Membership, Remove Ads console.log('Membership detected!'); pageReady.then(()=>{ handleMemberLayout(); }); } else { // No Membership, Show Ads (function(w, d) { w.adthrive = w.adthrive || {}; w.adthrive.cmd = w. adthrive.cmd || []; w.adthrive.plugin = 'adthrive-ads-manual'; w.adthrive.host = 'ads.adthrive.com';var s = d.createElement('script'); s.async = true; s.fetchPriority = 'high'; s.importance = 'high'; s.referrerpolicy='no-referrer-when-downgrade'; s.src = 'https://' + w.adthrive.host + '/sites/65a6e420255ef424515e267b/ads.min.js?referrer=' + w.encodeURIComponent(w.location.href) + '&cb=' + (Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1); var n = d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; n.parentNode.insertBefore(s, n); })(window, document); try { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_1', value: (AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown')} ); }); window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_2', value: (AHE.contentLang || 'en')} ); }); console.log('Raptive interest group & language set:',(AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown'),(AHE.contentLang || 'en')); } catch (e) { console.warn('Error setting Raptive user group!',e); } } }); </script>   <script> !function(){"use strict";function e(e){const t=e.match(/((?=([a-z0-9._!#$%+^&*()[\]<>-]+))\2@[a-z0-9._-]+\.[a-z0-9._-]+)/gi);return t?t[0]:""}function t(t){return e(a(t.toLowerCase()))}function a(e){return e.replace(/\s/g,"")}async function n(e){const t={sha256Hash:"",sha1Hash:""};if(!("msCrypto"in window)&&"https:"===location.protocol&&"crypto"in window&&"TextEncoder"in window){const a=(new TextEncoder).encode(e),[n,c]=await Promise.all([s("SHA-256",a),s("SHA-1",a)]);t.sha256Hash=n,t.sha1Hash=c}return t}async function s(e,t){const a=await crypto.subtle.digest(e,t);return Array.from(new Uint8Array(a)).map(e=>("00"+e.toString(16)).slice(-2)).join("")}function c(e){let t=!0;return Object.keys(e).forEach(a=>{0===e[a].length&&(t=!1)}),t}function i(e,t,a){e.splice(t,1);const n="?"+e.join("&")+a.hash;history.replaceState(null,"",n)}var o={checkEmail:e,validateEmail:t,trimInput:a,hashEmail:n,hasHashes:c,removeEmailAndReplaceHistory:i,detectEmails:async function(){const e=new URL(window.location.href),a=Array.from(e.searchParams.entries()).map(e=>`${e[0]}=${e[1]}`);let s,o;const r=["adt_eih","sh_kit"];if(a.forEach((e,t)=>{const a=decodeURIComponent(e),[n,c]=a.split("=");if("adt_ei"===n&&(s={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"url"}),r.includes(n)){o={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"sh_kit"===n?"urlhck":"urlh"}}}),s)t(s.value)&&n(s.value).then(e=>{if(c(e)){const t={value:e,created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(t)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",s.emsrc)}});else if(o){const e={value:{sha256Hash:o.value,sha1Hash:""},created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(e)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",o.emsrc)}s&&i(a,s.index,e),o&&i(a,o.index,e)},cb:"adthrive"};const{detectEmails:r,cb:l}=o;r()}(); </script>   <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ window.adthrive = window.adthrive || {}; window.adthrive.cmd = window.adthrive.cmd || []; if (AHE.idHashSha256 && AHE.domain) { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function () { let idHash = AHE.idHashSha256; if (AHE.idHashSha256Clean) { idHash = AHE.idHashSha256Clean; } window.adthrive.identityApi({ source: AHE.domain, sha256: idHash }, ({ success, data }) => { if (success) { // Identity API success! console.log(`Raptive Identity API success: ${data.message}`) } else { // Identity API error, check message console.error(`Error calling Raptive identity API: ${data.message}`) } }) }); } }); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" type="text/css" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Karla:400,700|Libre+Baskerville:400,400i,700&subset=latin-ext&display=swap"> <style>aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar{margin-top:40px !important}aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar>div{top:20px !important}#primis_intext .adthrive-collapse-player{padding:0 !important}.adthrive-collapse-bottom-right{margin-right:10px !important}#footer .adthrive-footer-message{padding-bottom:40px}#footer .adthrive-footer-message>span{border-top:0;padding-top:5px;text-transform:none;color:#e0e0e0}.adthrive-device-phone #footer .adthrive-footer-message{margin-bottom:40px}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link{color:#e0e0e0 !important}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a{color:#fff;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:5px;padding:4px 8px;margin:10px;display:inline-block;font-weight:normal}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a:hover{color:#293744;background-color:#fff}.ad_Mobile_Intext .adcontainer{min-height:250px}a.book_list_item:hover{text-decoration:none}a.book_list_item:hover .book_title{text-decoration:none;color:#b52600;transition:.25s}a.book_list_item{display:block;clear:both;min-height:115px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:20px 0}a.book_list_item:first-of-type{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3}.book_list_item .book_image{float:left;max-width:70px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.book_data{vertical-align:top;margin-left:120px}.book_list_item .book_title{font-size:18px;color:#000}.book_list_item .book_details{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;color:#666}.book_list_item .book_pricing{margin:.33em 0}.book_pricing .amazon_icon,.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-image:url("/images/amazon_icon.svg");width:16px;height:16px;display:inline-block;background-position:0 0;position:relative;top:4px;margin-right:2px;background-size:contain}.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-position:10px 0;width:10px;margin-right:4px;top:3px}.book_list_item .book_price{color:#000;margin-right:1em}a.book_purchase_button{color:#000;display:inline-block;border:1px solid #222;border-radius:5px;padding:50px 15px 10px 15px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;margin-right:20px;margin-bottom:10px;font-weight:normal;min-width:160px;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center 10px;text-align:center}a.book_purchase_button:hover{text-decoration:none;cursor:pointer;border:1px solid #000;background-color:#f3f3f3;transition:.25s}a.book_purchase_button.amazon{background-image:url('/images/amazon-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 15px}a.book_purchase_button.bookshoporg{background-image:url('/images/bookshoporg-logo.svg');background-size:160px;background-position:center center}a.book_purchase_button.bookdepository{background-image:url('/images/book-depository-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 7px}a.book_purchase_button.waterstones{background-image:url('/images/waterstones-logo.svg');background-size:60px;background-position:center 11px}a.book_purchase_button.betterworldbooks{background-image:url('/images/betterworldbooks-logo-150px.png');background-size:150px;background-position:center 10px}a.book_purchase_button .shipping{font-size:14px;color:#999}.book_purchase_buttons{margin:25px 0;background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:15px 20px;border-radius:5px;display:block}.book_purchase_buttons .purchase{text-transform:uppercase;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;margin-right:20px}.book_purchase_buttons .sym{color:#b52600;font-size:20px;position:relative;top:2px;margin-right:5px}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:28px;margin-top:5px}.book_purchase_affiliate_explainer{color:#999;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-top:1em}.btn_book_blacklist{float:right}.headline_button,.content_button_tiny,.grey_button,.ci_rel_type{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#b52600;padding:0 10px;text-transform:uppercase;border-radius:5px;background-color:#f3f3f3;cursor:pointer}.content_button_tiny{top:0;float:right;margin-right:4px;padding:0 5px;line-height:160%;font-size:12px}a.ci_rel_type{font-weight:normal}.headline_button:hover,.content_button_tiny:hover,.grey_button:hover,.ci_rel_type:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.outline_button{border:1px solid #222;padding:3px 10px;border-radius:3px;color:#222;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;font-weight:normal !important;white-space:nowrap}.outline_button:hover,.outline_button.selector:hover{color:#FFF !important;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #222 !important}.outline_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;color:#b52600}.outline_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;color:#FFF}.outline_button.selector{margin:5px 5px 0 0;display:inline-block;line-height:15px;text-transform:none;border:1px solid #999;color:#999}.outline_button.selected{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:white}.outline_button input{display:none}.ci_rel_type{display:inline-block;text-transform:none;cursor:pointer;margin:0 2px;top:auto}.ci_rel_type.selected,.grey_button.selected{background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.ci_rel_type.selected .ci_rel_type_count{color:#BBB}.ci_rel_type_count{display:none;margin-top:-11px;font-size:8pt;color:#666}.grey_button{float:none;line-height:15px;font-size:14px;white-space:pre;padding:7px 10px;margin:3px 7px 7px 0;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.grey_button.green{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14}.grey_button.green:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button,.link_button,input[type=submit],input[type=button],.link_button.external_link,.content_button.external_link{display:block;width:160px;overflow:hidden;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 6px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:white;position:relative;top:0;white-space:nowrap}input[type=submit].content_button,input[type=button].content_button{height:33px;top:-1px}.green_button{display:inline-block;color:#FFF;background-color:#1bb77d;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 12px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #1bb77d;position:relative;top:-1px;white-space:nowrap}.green_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#1bca90;border-color:#1bca90;transition-duration:.25s}input[type=submit],input[type=button]{padding:8px inherit !important}.content_button:hover,.link_button:hover,input[type=submit]:hover,input[type=button]:hover{color:#FFF;text-decoration:none;background:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button_narrow.inline,.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle}.content_button_narrow,.content_button.narrow{width:auto !important}.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;width:inherit;padding-left:20px !important;padding-right:20px !important}.content_button.red,.content_button.dark{display:inline-block;border:0;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;line-height:22px;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important}.content_button.red:hover{background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button.dark{background-color:#222}.content_button.dark:hover{background-color:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}input[disabled],.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{color:silver !important;cursor:default !important}input[disabled].content_button,input[disabled].content_button_tiny,input[disabled].content_button_narrow,.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{border:2px solid silver !important}input[disabled]:hover,.content_button.disabled:hover,.content_button_tiny.disabled:hover,.content_button_narrow.disabled:hover{color:silver !important;background-color:white !important}.social_login_button{display:block;width:174px;height:35px;background-image:url('/images/social_signin_buttons.png');background-color:silver}.social_login_button:hover{opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.social_login_button.google{background-position:0 0}.social_login_button.twitter{background-position:0 -36px}.social_login_button.facebook{background-position:0 71px}.social_login_button.patreon{background-position:0 35px}.big_red_button:hover{text-decoration:none;opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.big_red_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:20px;background-color:#b52600;background-image:url("/template/images/big_red_button_bg.jpg");border-radius:5px;color:white;display:block;font-weight:bold;margin:20px auto 0;padding:5px 16px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;width:250px;cursor:pointer;white-space:nowrap}button.big_red_button{padding:6px 16px 7px;outline:0;border-style:none;font-size:13pt;font-family:hypatia-sans-pro;cursor:pointer}.simple_button{border:1px solid #222;color:#222;font-weight:normal;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:33px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 5px 5px 0;border-radius:5px;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.simple_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#444;border:1px solid #444;color:#EEE;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-weight:bold}.simple_button.disabled{border:1px solid silver;color:silver}.simple_button.disabled:hover{border:1px solid silver;color:silver;background:#fff;cursor:default}.ad_membership_notice{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;position:relative;padding:0 10px;display:inline-block;border-radius:5px;float:right;background-color:#f3f3f3}.ad_membership_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.publish_link span{display:none}.publish_link.publish span.label_publish,.publish_link.unpublish span.label_unpublish,.publish_link.schedule span.label_schedule{display:inline}.content_button.schedule{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;border-color:#293744}.content_button.schedule:hover{background-color:#293744;color:white}.content_button.schedule.inactive:hover{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744}.content_button.scheduled_label{background-color:#8cb2d6;border-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;cursor:default}.content_button.unpublish{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-color:#983e18}.content_button.publish{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-color:#6d9d14}.content_button.publish:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button.unpublish:hover{background-color:#983e18;color:white}#qc-cmp2-ui button,#qc-cmp2-ui button *{cursor:pointer}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2){background-color:#293744;color:#FFF}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2):hover{background-color:#222;border-color:#222}.content_item{display:inline-block;margin:20px 0;padding:0;max-width:350px;vertical-align:top;position:relative}.content_item:hover h3{text-decoration:underline}.content_item:hover .ci_preview,.content_item:hover h3{color:#b52600 !important;transition:.5s}.content_item:hover{text-decoration:none;padding:0;transition:.5s;color:#b52600 !important}.content_item .ci_type_name{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-10px;color:#999;position:relative;top:-2px}.content_item .ci_image{margin:0;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;max-width:100%;width:360px;height:auto}.content_item .ci_header h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:bold !important;text-transform:none;color:#b52600;margin-bottom:4px;line-height:120%;margin-top:6px}.content_item .ci_preview{color:#444;font-weight:normal;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;padding-left:30px;margin-top:-1px}.content_item .featured_ci_marker{float:left;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;padding:1px 15px}.ci_info{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-start;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin:0 0 5px 0;width:100%}.ci_info .block{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:6px}.ci_info .ci_author_image{width:50px;height:50px}.ci_author_image img{border-radius:50%}.ci_header .ci_info.wide{width:100%}.ci_header .rating_stars{margin-left:.5em}.ci_info.wide table{width:100%}.ci_author_and_copyright p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;color:#666}#ci_related_type_list{margin-bottom:30px;margin-top:10px}.filter_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:14px;display:block;margin:2px;margin-top:1em}.ci_type_icon{width:30px;height:30px;background-size:20px;background-color:white;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;border-radius:15px;position:absolute;top:7px;left:7px;opacity:.8}.content_item .ci_header{background:no-repeat left 1px;background-size:20px;padding-left:30px;min-height:21px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .ci_preview{font-size:14px}#ci_status_list_items{padding:0}#ci_status_list_items li{list-style-type:none;padding:.1em 0}*{-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;-moz-osx-font-smoothing:grayscale;font-display:swap !important}body{font-family:"Libre Baskerville","Palatino Linotype","Book Antiqua",Palatino,serif;font-display:auto;color:#333}h1#page_title_text{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:60px;line-height:120%;color:#000;margin-bottom:-12px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin:0;padding-bottom:10px;break-after:avoid-page}#content h2{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:30px;line-height:120%;color:#000;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:10px;margin-top:60px;min-height:36px;break-after:avoid-page}h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:26px;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;margin:20px 0 -10px 0;padding:0;color:#000;break-after:avoid-page}article h3 a{font-weight:normal}.link_nobold a{font-weight:normal}h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;color:#000;font-weight:bold;margin:20px 0 0 0}article th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3}article td,article th{border:1px solid #dadada}strong h3,b h3,h3 strong,h3 b{font-weight:normal !important}dfn{font-weight:bold}cite{font-style:normal}.ci_header h3{margin:4px 0 0 0}#content{font-size:16px;line-height:170%}a{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-decoration:none}a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.messages{display:block;margin:0 auto;width:75%;padding:1em 1em 1em 1em;margin-top:50px}#result_error_messages,.registration_errors,#float_message.msg_error,.errors_in_doc{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;color:#b52600}.errors_in_doc{border:0;border-radius:5px;font-size:18px}#result_messages_in_doc,.info_in_doc{background-color:#ffc600;color:#000;font-size:18px;border-radius:5px}.info_in_doc{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:.5em 1em;line-height:130%;margin:1em 0}#result_messages,#float_message{border:1px solid #999;background-color:#f8ecdd}.error_box{border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;padding:10px;margin:0 -12px}blockquote{font-size:16px;line-height:130%;color:grey;padding-left:5px;margin-bottom:0;padding:1px 1em 1px 80px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin-left:0;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:15px 15px}blockquote p{margin:.5em 0}.light{color:#999}.light.normal{font-weight:normal}textarea{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:.5em}input[type=text],input[type=url],input[type=number],select,input[type=password],input[type=email],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text],#ahe_dialogue_popup select,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email],#TB_window input[type=text],#TB_window select,#TB_window input[type=password],#TB_window input[type=email]{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;position:relative;top:0}input[type=text]:focus,input[type=email]:focus,input[type=url]:focus,input[type=number]:focus,select:focus,input[type=password]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup select:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password]:focus,#TB_window input[type=text]:focus,#TB_window select:focus,#TB_window input[type=password]:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}#content textarea,#TB_window textarea,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;max-width:95%}#content textarea:focus,#TB_window textarea:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}.link_style{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;cursor:pointer}.link_style:hover{text-decoration:underline}.teamprofiles tr{margin-bottom:2em}.teamprofiles td{font-size:10px;vertical-align:top;padding:17px 7px 30px 7px}.teamprofiles p{margin:0 0 1em 0}.team_member_details li{list-style-type:circle}.big_quote{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;float:right;background:url(/template/images/bg_quote.png) center 20px no-repeat;padding:76px 20px 30px;text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;font-size:26px;text-align:center;color:#b52600;margin:10px;display:block;width:300px}.big_quote .quote_author{font-size:16px;color:#e4ded7}.ahe-ad,.sovrn-onetag-ad,.ahe-ad h4,.ahe-promo h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px}.ahe-ad h4,.sovrn-onetag-ad{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}.filter_count{color:#999}.partners_list p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px;line-height:21px}.statistics_table td{padding-left:.5em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}label,.banner-caption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#search_filters li{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.breadcrumb_navigation{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding-top:5px;padding-bottom:5px;font-size:14px}.search_filters{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}input::placeholder{color:#999}.form_field_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:14px;color:#666;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:2px;margin-top:1em}.errors_in_doc{font-family:Karla;padding:10px 20px;display:inline-block;line-height:130%}.errors_in_doc p{margin:.5em 0}input[type=text]:read-only{opacity:.6}select{background-color:#fff}.error{background-color:orangered;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 6px}.error a{color:white !important;text-decoration:underline !important;font-weight:bold}.editorial_review_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;color:#666;line-height:18px;border-top:1px dotted #dadada;border-bottom:1px dotted #dadada;padding:1em 0}.editorial_review_header.translations{margin-top:.5em}.editorial_review_header{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;color:#222;padding-right:.8em;display:block}.yellow_highlight{background-color:#ffc600;padding:2px 5px;border-radius:3px}.yellow_highlight_box{background-color:#ffc600;padding:5px 10px;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.success{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.failure{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.affiliate_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;font-size:14px;color:#999;margin:1em 0}.sans{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}.ahe-ad .ad_header{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}li .count,li a.count{font-weight:normal;color:#999}#header{position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px;width:318px;height:77px}#header_donate_button{position:relative;float:right}.donate_button{display:inline-block;width:90px;height:32px;color:#FFF;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:17px;text-transform:uppercase;background:#b52600;border-radius:5px}.donate_button span{position:relative;top:8px}.donate_button span.hover{display:none}.donate_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.donate_button:hover span.base{display:none}.donate_button:hover span.hover{display:initial}#header_tools .patreon_button{color:white;background-color:#b52600;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;border-radius:5px;padding:6px 10px;float:right;margin-left:0;text-transform:uppercase}#header_tools .patreon_button:hover{background-color:#222;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}#header_wrapper{box-shadow:0 2px 6px silver}.header_sm_link{width:32px;height:32px;display:none;opacity:.25}.header_sm_link svg{width:32px;height:32px}.header_sm_link:hover{opacity:1}.header_sm_link.twitter{background-position:-32px 0;background-position-x:-32px}.header_sm_link.instagram{background-position:-96px 0;background-position-x:-96px}.header_sm_link.youtube{background-position:-128px 0;background-position-x:-128px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:none}.sf-menu ul li:last-child a{border-bottom:0}a img{border:0}.body img,body.mceContentBody img,.image-wrapper .image img,.tag_definition_image,.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image,.shadow_image,.in_text_image{margin:1em auto;display:block;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image_page .copyright{font-size:75%}.image_page .description{margin-top:2em}.image-wrapper .description{margin-top:1em}.image-wrapper figure{margin:0;padding:0;width:100%}figure .image{text-align:center}figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em 0}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption,figure.definition_image figcaption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;text-align:center;margin-top:-7px}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image figcaption .figtitle{color:#222;font-weight:normal}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover,figure.definition_image a:hover{text-decoration:none}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image a:hover figcaption .figtitle{color:#b52600;transition:.5s}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figauthor,figure.definition_image figcaption .figauthor{font-size:14px;font-weight:normal;color:#999;display:block}img.tag_definition_image{max-width:300px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}figure.definition_image{float:right;margin:0 0 10px 10px;display:table;max-width:300px}.image_large{max-width:100%;height:auto}.round_image{box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;border-radius:50%;padding:3px;border:1px solid #e7e7e7}body{padding:0;margin:0;overflow-x:hidden}body.iframe{background-color:#FFF}a img{border:0}#page{background-color:#FFF;width:1101px;border-left:1px solid white;border-right:1px solid white;margin:0 auto}#content_wrapper{padding:40px;padding-top:22px}.left_3_column{float:left;width:681px}.right_1_column{float:left;width:300px;margin-left:40px}.left_1_column{float:left;width:300px}.right_3_column{float:left;width:681px;margin-left:40px}.left_2_column{float:left;width:490px}.right_2_column{float:left;width:490px;margin-left:40px}.right_narrow_column{float:left;width:250px;margin-left:40px}.left_narrow_column{float:left;width:160px}.middle_wide_column{float:left;width:531px;margin-left:40px}.middle_2_column{float:left;width:427px;margin-left:21px}.full_4_column{width:1021px}.clear{clear:both}.pagination{margin:10px auto;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:10px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.pagination a{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px}.pagination a:hover{color:#FFF;background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none}.pagination strong{border:1px solid #b52600;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.float_right{float:right}.hidden{display:none}.searchform input[type=text]{height:21px;margin-right:5px;border:1px solid #dadada}.left_1_column .searchform input[type=text]{width:145px;margin-left:-4px}.about_links,.left_menu{margin:0;padding:0;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3}.left_menu a,.about_link a{display:block;border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:.3em .3em;margin:0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.left_menu a:hover,.about_link a:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3;text-decoration:none}.index_alphabet{display:block;margin:0;width:682px;padding-left:20px;background-image:url('/template/images/index_alphabet_fadout_bg.png');clear:both;max-width:728px}#index_tags_container{display:block;min-height:700px;vertical-align:middle;max-width:400px}input.button_height{font-size:12px;padding:4px}input[type=radio],input[type=checkbox]{position:relative;margin-right:.5em}#content select{height:33px;padding:0 10px;top:0}.uvOverlay1{z-index:2000000001 !important}#delete_reason_wrapper{display:none}table{border-collapse:collapse;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}table th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3;color:#000}table td,table th{border-color:#f3f3f3}.team_member_details b{font-size:14px;line-height:20px}.team_member_details{padding-left:2.5em !important}.teamprofiles td img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}#mce-EMAIL{width:200px;margin-right:5px}.right_narrow_column #mce-EMAIL{width:122px}.right_1_column #mce-EMAIL{width:165px}#mc_embed_signup{background-color:#f3f3f3;margin-top:30px;min-height:436px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}#mc_embed_signup .mc-field-group{line-height:150%}#mc_embed_signup form{padding:1px 15px 12px 15px}#mc_embed_signup h3{background-color:#222;display:inline-block;font-size:14px;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 10px;margin:10px 0 0 0;font-weight:bold}img.newsletter_banner{border-bottom:1px solid #e4ded7}.bottom_float_bar{position:fixed;bottom:0;width:100%;background-color:#353535;left:0;border-top:3px solid #b52600;z-index:10}.youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100%;margin:0 auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}#content.video_page .youtube-embed-wrapper,#content.image3d_page .youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100% !important}.youtube-embed-container{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%;width:100%}.youtube-embed-container iframe,.youtube-embed-container object,.youtube-embed-container embed{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.ad_Flexi_TopRight{margin-bottom:100px;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:250px}.ad_Flexi_LowerRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{max-width:728px;margin:auto}.ad_Mobile_Intext{margin:2em 0;clear:both}@media(max-width:991px){.ad_Mobile_Intext{display:block}.ad_Mobile_Intext .innerwrapper{text-align:center}}@media(min-width:992px){.ad_Mobile_Intext{display:none}.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-3,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-4,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-5{display:block}}.sticky,.ahe-ad iframe.hstryFrame,.ahe-ad institutional_sub_promo{position:sticky;top:20px;display:block}#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{position:sticky;top:20px;margin-top:100px}.right_1_column .shop_promo{margin:100px 0}.image3d_embed{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%}.image3d_embed iframe{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.contribute_page #tag_add_button{float:none}body.iframe{padding:2em}.map_section{margin-top:1em}.pre_article_section{margin:14px 0}.ci_audio_link,.translations_header{clear:both;margin:10px 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.ci_audio_link img.headphones_icon{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:middle;padding-right:13px;position:relative;top:-1px}.translations_header{margin-bottom:6px}.translations_header img{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:top;padding-right:9px;position:relative;top:-7px}.translations_title{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;margin-right:.5em}.translations_links{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top}.inline{display:inline}.collection_contents .ci_listing{margin:2em 0}.collection_contents .ci_listing h3{margin-bottom:.5em}.timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:100px 0}.mosaicflow__column{float:left}.image-list img{float:left;display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image-list .label{margin-left:170px}.image-list .preheader{font-family:Karla;color:#999;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-8px}.image-list h3.header{margin:0}.image-list .image-list-item{margin:60px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both}.image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.6em 0}.image-list-cards img{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;margin:0 auto}.image-list-cards .label{margin-top:15px}.image-list-cards .preheader{color:#999;font-size:14px}.image-list-cards h4{margin:0}.image-list-cards .image-list-item{margin:40px 40px 40px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both;max-width:300px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;position:relative}.image-list-cards .coming_soon{background-color:#ea5b3a;display:inline-block;padding:2px 0;color:#FFF;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;line-height:15px;border-radius:3px;position:absolute;top:137px;width:110px;left:95px;left:calc(50% - 55px);font-weight:bold}.image-list-cards .image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.3em 0;color:#999}.image-list-cards.small .image-list-item{max-width:200px;margin:20px 40px 20px 0}.image-list-cards.small img{max-width:100px}.image-list-cards.small .coming_soon{top:90px}.checkbox_wrapper input[type=checkbox]{margin-right:-20px;position:relative;top:-2px}.checkbox_wrapper label{margin-bottom:.5em !important;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;line-height:130%;margin-left:25px;float:right}.checkbox_wrapper{margin:.5em 0}.adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}.right_1_column .adcontainer{min-height:280px}.right_1_column .adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_TopRight,#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_LowerRight{height:600px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MiddleRight{height:280px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{min-height:90px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky{max-height:90px;overflow:hidden}.publication_status{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:10px}.publication_status.is_published .published{display:block}.publication_status.is_published .suggested{display:none}.publication_status .published{display:none}.publication_status .suggested{display:block}.publication_status .suggested{color:#983e18}.publication_status .published{color:#6d9d14}.publication_status .sym{font-weight:bold}#footer_spacer{clear:both;height:1px}#footer .social svg{width:30px;height:30px;opacity:70%;filter:invert(1);margin-right:5px}#footer .social a:hover svg{opacity:100%}.clear{clear:both}.inline_block_section{display:inline-block;margin:1em 1em 1em 0}.inline_block_section .form_field_label{margin-top:0}#loadingOverlay{display:none;position:fixed;width:100%;height:100%;background-color:#222;z-index:29999999;opacity:.85}#loadingOverlayMessage{color:white;font-size:60px;font-family:Libre Baskerville;position:fixed;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%,-50%)}.membership-below-block-wrapper{min-height:301px}#audio-frame-wrapper{display:none}.highlight_box{display:block;padding:15px;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%}#float_message{display:none;position:fixed;top:0;left:50%;margin-right:-50%;transform:translate(-50%,0%);width:700px;padding:10px;border-top:0;font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;z-index:19999999}#float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid silver;display:block;font-size:10px;text-align:center;padding-top:8px;margin-top:12px}.msg_error #float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid rgba(181,38,0,.3)}#float_message .content_button{margin-right:10px !important}.membership_below_notice{background-color:#b52600;padding:7px;background-size:cover;background-position:right;margin:40px 0}.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 310px 12px 20px;color:#FFF}#content .membership_below_notice h2{margin:10px 0;padding:0;color:#fff !important}.membership_below_notice p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button{display:inline-block;border:2px solid white;background-color:white;color:black;width:auto;padding:6px 17px !important}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button:hover{background-color:#ffc600;border-color:#ffc600}@media(max-width:1199px){.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 10px 12px 20px}}.grey_box p{margin:.5em 0 1em 0;font-family:Karla;line-height:140%;font-size:16px !important}.grey_box p strong{background-color:#ffc600;padding:1px 3px;border-radius:3px}.grey_box{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative}h4.grey_box_title{position:absolute;top:0;margin-top:0;background-color:#222;color:#fff;padding:0 20px;left:0}h4.grey_box_title.red{background-color:#b52600}.editors_only{border-left:5px solid #dadada;padding-left:15px;margin-left:-20px;position:relative}.editors_only::before{content:"Editors Only";position:absolute;left:-108px;background-color:#dadada;color:#222;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:0 10px}.editors_only .editors_only:before{display:none}.right_1_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0 80px 0}.left_3_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0}.grey_box h2{padding:0;margin:0 !important;line-height:120% !important}#mobilenewsletter{display:none;margin:20px -30px;padding:20px 30px}#mobilenewsletter .headline{font-size:24px;font-weight:bold}#mobilenewsletter form{margin-top:-10px}#mobilenewsletter input[type="submit"]{display:inline-block;width:auto;color:#FFF;background-color:#222;border:0;line-height:21px;position:relative}.membership-intext-promo{background:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative;margin:1em 0;clear:both}.membership-intext-promo h5{font-size:20px;margin:0}.membership-intext-promo p{margin:.75em 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.metricoolPixel{position:absolute;top:0;left:-1000px}footer{background-color:#f3f3f3}#membership_sidebar{position:fixed;left:-30px;bottom:100px;width:29px;height:133px;z-index:20}#membership_sidebar:hover{filter:grayscale(1)}.greystripe{background-color:#f3f3f3;box-shadow:0 0 0 100vmax #f3f3f3;clip-path:inset(0 -100vmax)}.right_1_column section{margin:60px 0}.pinterest_button{min-height:28px;position:relative;top:4px;float:right}#primis_intext{min-height:320px;margin-bottom:2em;clear:both;max-width:100%;overflow:hidden}#primis_intext .youtube_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;color:#fff;font-size:14px;background-color:#222;padding:3px 7px;position:relative;display:inline-block;margin-top:15px}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none;color:#fff;transition-duration:.2s}#primis_intext .youtube_notice svg{height:30px;width:30px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle;margin-top:-2px;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1)}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover svg{display:inline-block}.tooltip.help{cursor:help}.grid{display:grid;gap:20px}.grid.four_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr 1fr}.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr}hr.red_bar{width:15%;background-color:#b52600;height:3px;margin:0 auto;border:0}.ad_Flexi_MobileSticky{position:fixed;bottom:0;left:0;padding:0;width:100%;text-align:center;z-index:100;bottom:env(safe-area-inset-bottom)}.pre_article_buttons{margin:1em 0}.left_bar_highlight{border-left:5px solid #b52600;background-color:#B526000a;margin-left:-15px !important;padding-left:10px !important;padding-right:10px;padding-top:.5em;padding-bottom:.5em}.left_bar_highlight.yellow{border-left:5px solid #ffc600;background-color:#ffc6000f}.print_only{display:none}@media print{.print_only{display:unset}}aside .donate_message:first-child{margin-top:60px}.aws_book_item_short a{display:block;text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px solid silver;font-size:.8em;color:#000 !important;padding:2px}.aws_book_item_short .title{font-weight:bold}.aws_book_item_short a:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF !important}#title_search_response{display:block;float:right;width:350px}#references{margin-top:0;font-size:14px;line-height:130%}body.contribute #references{border-top:0}.ref_list.tag_definition{margin:1.5em 0}.lang_rtl #page,.lang_rtl .trans,.lang_rtl .original_article_link{direction:rtl}lang_rtl blockquote{background-position:right 15px;padding:1px 80px 1em 1px;margin-right:0}.lang_rtl .big_quote{float:left}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author_image{float:right;margin-left:8px;top:7px}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author{direction:rtl;float:right}.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl h1,.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl .left_3_column{float:right;padding-right:0}@media(max-width:1199px) and (min-width:992px){.right_1_column{margin-left:0;margin-right:40px}}.lang_rtl .headphones_icon{padding-left:13px;padding-right:0}.lang_rtl>#ahe_dialogue_popup{direction:rtl}#tag_index_wrapper{margin-top:0}#tag_edit_form p{margin:0}#tag_update_response{position:relative;top:2em}.related_pages ul{list-style-type:none;margin:0;padding:0}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper{width:430px;border:1px solid #DDD;padding:2px}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper img{padding:2px;cursor:pointer}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper .selected_tag_image{border:2px solid #b52600 !important;padding:0}#image_selector_ajax_loader{margin:34px}.tag_definition_image{margin-left:.5em}#tag_to_add{position:relative;top:1px;width:170px;margin-right:5px;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:10px}#tag_to_add:focus{color:#222}.ci_tag_item,.item_box{padding:5px 10px;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;margin:5px;display:inline-block;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;line-height:16px;position:relative;padding-right:30px}.ci_tag_item a,.item_box a{font-weight:normal}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link,.item_box .remove{margin-left:5px;background-color:#e0e0e0;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;line-height:26px;padding:0 7px;border-radius:5px}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link:hover,.item_box .remove:hover{color:#fff;background-color:#b52600;transition:.5s;text-decoration:none}#tag_index_wrapper{padding-top:.2em}#time_list{list-style-type:none;margin:0 0 -20px 0 !important;padding:0;width:100%;padding-right:20px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.timeline_entry{margin:1.9em 0}.timeline_entry:last-child{border-bottom:0}.timeline_entry .date{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:20px;margin:1em 0 .2em 0}#content .timeline_wrapper h2{margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0}#timeline_search_form select{padding:3px;border:1px solid #dadada}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td{vertical-align:top;padding-right:4em;width:300px;padding-left:1px}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table{margin:0;padding:0;border-spacing:0}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table td{width:auto;padding:0;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.tt_category_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;display:block;width:150px;margin-bottom:2px}.tt_legend_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;padding-right:4px;margin-right:4px}.tt_legend_wrapper input{display:none}.tt_legend_wrapper label{padding-left:2px}.visual_timeline_button{margin:0 auto !important}#form_timeline_search #txt_book_search_submit{position:relative;top:-5px}.timeline_search_section{width:300px;float:left}.timeline_page .right_1_column #timeline_search_form{min-height:1000px}.timeline_types_wrapper{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#user_management_form small{line-height:12px;font-size:10px}#user_management_form input[type=text]{margin-bottom:.75em;width:200px}#user_management_form label{margin-bottom:.1em}#contact_user_message{width:95%;margin:1em 0}#user_navigation .link_button{float:none !important;display:block;clear:left !important;margin:6px 0}#image_result{margin-bottom:20px;position:relative}#image_result img{display:inline-block;border-radius:100%;width:50px;height:50px}#image_result span{position:absolute;display:inline-block;width:300px;bottom:35%;padding-left:10px}.user_short_bio{padding:15px 15px 15px 125px;min-height:100px;margin:10px 0}.user_short_bio img.avatar_image{float:left;margin-left:-125px;max-width:100px}.user_short_bio .user_name{font-size:20px;margin-bottom:5px}.sm_links{margin-top:10px}.user_biography{margin-left:200px}.user_biography .bio_image{float:left;margin-left:-200px;border-radius:50%}#lead_image_preview{max-width:300px;max-height:300px;width:auto;height:auto}.xres_headline{font-weight:bold}.xres_domain{color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.xres_preview{color:#444;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin-top:3px}.card .xres picture,.card .xres img{width:100%;height:auto}.card .xres{position:relative;max-width:100%;break-inside:avoid;margin-bottom:0;overflow:hidden;border-bottom:1px solid #dadada;padding-bottom:10px;padding-top:10px}.card .xres a{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.card .xres .outline_button{position:absolute;right:10px;top:20px;z-index:2;background:white}.card .xres .xres_text{padding:10px 0}.card .xres .xres_domain{display:inline}.card .xres:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3}.card .xres picture{display:block;margin-bottom:-6px}.card .xres .editor_view_link.grey_button{display:none}.xres_categories .simple_button{clear:both}.xres_wrapper.card{margin-top:-20px}.xres_card_default_container .xres{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:10px 15px}.list .xres{margin:0;position:relative;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.list .xres:first-of-type{margin-top:1em}.list .xres .editor_view_link{position:absolute;top:11px;right:0;z-index:2;font-weight:normal}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button:not(:hover){background-color:white}.list .xres .xres_domain.external_link{display:inline;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;position:relative;top:-5px}.list .xres .grey_button,.xres.listitem .grey_button{float:right}.list .xres picture,.list .xres img{display:none}.list .xres .xres_preview{display:none}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{display:none}.list .xres.listitem{margin:.3em 0}.xres .xres_domain{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#moderate_ajax_container .xres.listitem .xres_domain{display:inline-block;position:relative;top:-8px}.xres.listitem .xres_headline,.xres.listitem a{font-weight:normal}.xres.listitem{margin:.2em 0}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_wrapper_outside{border:1px solid #999;padding:10px;border-radius:5px;display:block;max-width:600px}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_header{margin-bottom:5px;display:block}body{background-color:#fff}.img-responsive{height:auto;max-width:100%}.img-responsive-full{height:auto;width:100%}#header_wrapper{background:url('/template/images/header/subject_headers/mesopotamia_shadow.jpg') center bottom repeat-x;padding-bottom:163px}#header{width:930px;margin:0 auto;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px;position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px 40px 36px 0;float:left}#header_tools{float:right;padding-top:50px}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:inline-block;float:left;padding-top:6px;color:#999;font-size:17px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_follow_buttons .addthis_32x32_style span{border-radius:100% !important}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:40px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#title_bar{width:100%;padding-top:20px;min-height:108px}#title_bar .box_wrapper{padding-bottom:5px;margin-bottom:10px}#nav_bar{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;width:100%;text-align:center}.box_wrapper{width:930px;margin:0 auto}.v_spacing{padding:20px 0}#footer_wrapper #sponsors_box,#footer_wrapper #partners_list,#footer_wrapper #footer{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#sponsors_box{padding:25px 20px;margin:0}.sponsors_logos_wrapper a>img{display:inline-block;margin:15px}#page{width:990px;border:0 solid #FFF}#content_wrapper{padding:0 15px}#content{width:960px}.left_narrow_column{width:150px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_narrow_column{width:250px;padding:15px;margin:0}.middle_wide_column{width:470px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_3_column,.right_3_column{width:600px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_2_column{width:435px;padding-right:15px;padding-left:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:435px;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#map_container{width:100% !important}#grid_submissions{width:100%}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:335px}.item_1_col{width:21%;margin:0 1% 15px;float:left}.item_1_col img{width:100%;height:auto}.teamprofiles p{font-size:15px}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.team_member_details b{font-size:19px;line-height:27px}.team_pic{float:left;width:20%;margin:0;padding:0}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:73%;margin-left:5%;margin:0;padding:0}.timeline_wrapper{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px}.timeline_entry{margin:12px 0;border-bottom:1px dashed #e3e3e3;padding:0 0 12px}.content_button_alphabet{display:inline-block;width:35px;height:35px;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0;margin:0;margin-bottom:8px;cursor:pointer;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;background:none;transition:all .25s;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.content_button_alphabet.selected{background-color:#222;color:#fff}.content_button_alphabet:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;border-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.index_alphabet{width:100%;padding-left:0;background-color:white;clear:both;z-index:1000 !important}.related_pages{margin-top:40px}.related_pages h2{margin-bottom:30px !important}.ci_author_image{float:left;width:32px;margin-right:10px}h3.highlight_box{font-size:20px}.registration_message_page{width:930px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}h2 i{color:#e5c357;font-size:31px}.section-team h3{text-align:center;letter-spacing:-1px;font-size:30px;text-transform:none;margin-bottom:15px}.tab-links{list-style:none;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:60px;padding:0}.tab-links li{width:33%;float:left;text-align:center}.tab-links.two li{width:50%}.tab-links.three li{width:33%}.tab-links.four li{width:25%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:16px;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.tab-links li a:hover{text-decoration:none}.section-team.initial-on{display:block}.item-wrapper{padding:20px;background:#FFF;text-align:center}.tm-grid-item img{margin:0 auto 15px;float:none}.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%}.tm-grid-item .tm-name{display:block;font-weight:bold;font-size:19px}.tm-grid-item .tm-studies{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-bottom:0}.tm-grid-item .tm-description{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:130%}.tm-grid-item .tm-position{font-size:15px}.tm-grid-item .tm-summary{color:#666;font-size:16px}.clearfix:before,.clearfix:after{content:'.';display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;font-size:0;line-height:0;width:0;height:0}.clearfix:after{clear:both}.clr{clear:both;display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;width:0;height:0}#accordion-home{border-radius:5px;box-shadow:0 8px 16px -12px #666;margin:0 15px 15px;height:280px}.kwicks{display:block;list-style-type:none;list-style:none;position:relative;margin:0;padding:0}.kwicks>*{display:block;overflow:hidden;padding:0;margin:0}.kwicks.kwicks-processed>*{margin:0;position:absolute}.kwicks-horizontal>*{float:left}.kwicks-horizontal>:first-child{margin-left:0}.kwicks-vertical>:first-child{margin-top:0}.kwicks{height:280px}.kwicks>li{height:280px}.kwicks>a{height:280px;width:125px;margin-left:5px;float:left}#panel-1{background:url('/template/images/accordion/encyclopedia.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-2{background:url('/template/images/accordion/education.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-3{background:url('/template/images/accordion/translation.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-4{background:url('/template/images/accordion/medialibrary.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-5{background:url('/template/images/accordion/books.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-6{background:url('/template/images/accordion/maps.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-7{background:url('/template/images/accordion/membership.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}.pagination strong,.pagination a{display:inline-block;width:auto;height:35px;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0 10px 0;margin:1px;cursor:pointer;font-size:17px;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;transition:all .25s}.book_recommendation_list .book_detail.book_image.book_smallimage{left:15px;top:-45px}.book_recommendation_list h3{line-height:24px;margin:5px 0 0 75px;padding:0}.book_recommendation_list p{margin-top:20px}.content_main_full_width,#map_area{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.full_4_column{width:auto;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.contribute_page td p{padding-right:20px}.tooltipster-default{border-radius:5px;border:1px solid #f3f3f3;background:#f3f3f3;color:#000}.tooltipster-default .tooltipster-content{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:16px;padding:8px 10px;overflow:hidden;max-width:350px}.tooltipster-icon{cursor:help;margin-left:4px}.tooltipster-base{padding:0;font-size:0;line-height:0;position:absolute;left:0;top:0;z-index:19999999;pointer-events:none;width:auto;overflow:visible}.tooltipster-base .tooltipster-content{overflow:hidden}.tooltipster-arrow{display:block;text-align:center;width:100%;height:100%;position:absolute;top:1px;left:0;z-index:-1}.tooltipster-arrow span,.tooltipster-arrow-border{display:block;width:0;height:0;position:absolute}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-top:8px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-top:9px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:0;right:0;margin:0 auto}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{left:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span{right:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{right:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-left:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;right:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-left:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-arrow-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;left:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-fade{opacity:0}.tooltipster-fade-show{opacity:1}.tooltipster-grow{transform:scale(0,0);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-grow-show{transform:scale(1,1);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-swing{opacity:0;transform:rotateZ(4deg);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-swing-show{opacity:1;transform:rotateZ(0deg);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.230,.635,.495,2.4)}.tooltipster-fall{top:0;transition-property:top;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-fall.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;top:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-slide{left:-40px;transition-property:left;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-slide.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;left:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-content-changing{opacity:.5;transform:scale(1.1,1.1)}@media(min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_1_column{width:200px}.right_3_column{width:700px}.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:320px}.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(odd){margin-left:50px}.right_1_column{margin-left:40px}.left_3_column{width:560px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:255px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:40px}#books_preview .booklistentry:nth-child(5){display:none}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin-right:40px;max-width:255px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:255px;height:143px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n){margin-right:0 !important}.xres_wrapper.card{column-count:2}}@media(min-width:992px){.right_1_column #time_list{max-height:500px;overflow:scroll;overflow-y:scroll;overflow-x:hidden}#nav_bar ul li.toplevel>a{padding-right:2.5em}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul{padding-right:2.5em;*padding-right:1em;}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul:after{content:'';position:absolute;top:50%;right:1em;margin-top:-3px;height:0;width:0;border:5px solid transparent;border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows>li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows>li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows>.sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul .sf-with-ul:after{margin-top:-5px;margin-right:-3px;border-color:transparent;border-left-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows ul li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows ul .sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-left-color:white}.ci_rel_type{margin-bottom:8px !important}#primis_video_mobile_container{display:none}}@media(max-height:800px){#header_wrapper{background-size:auto 80px;padding-bottom:70px !important}.sf-menu a{padding-top:15px !important;padding-bottom:15px !important}}@media(min-width:1200px){#header{width:1140px}#page{width:1200px}#content{width:1170px}.left_narrow_column{width:190px}.right_narrow_column{width:250px}.middle_wide_column{width:600px;padding:15px 35px 15px}.left_3_column{width:750px;padding-right:75px}.right_3_column{width:790px;padding-left:35px}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:1140px}.first-menu-item{padding-left:0 !important}.index_alphabet{z-index:1000 !important;top:0 !important;padding-top:15px !important;background-color:#FFF}.left_2_column{width:540px;padding-right:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:540px;padding-left:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}#header_donate_button{margin-left:60px}.header_sm_link{display:inline-block}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:100px !important}.membership-intext-promo p,.membership-intext-promo h5{margin:0;width:500px}.membership-intext-promo .content_button.red{position:absolute;right:30px;top:35px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{padding-top:0}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#header_tools .patreon_button{margin-left:60px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:300px !important}.registration_message_page{width:1140px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even),.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:70px}.left_3_column .content_item,.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:335px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:220px;height:123px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:220px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}}@media screen{@media(max-width:767px){.left_1_column,#primis_intext{display:none}#audio-frame-close{top:60px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:block}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons{position:absolute;top:8px;left:15px;margin:0 !important;z-index:1000000}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_link{display:inline-block;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1);opacity:1}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons .pinterest{display:none}#mobile_sm_buttons strong{display:none}#nav_bar{display:none !important}#meanmenu{min-height:48px}a.meanmenu-reveal{display:none}h1#page_title_text{font-size:40px !important}.home_page .membership-below-block-wrapper{display:none}.pagination .pagination_page{display:none !important}.mean-container .mean-bar{float:left;width:100%;position:relative;background:#b52600;padding:4px 0 0;min-height:42px;z-index:999999;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal{width:22px;height:22px;padding:13px 13px 11px 13px;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;cursor:pointer;color:#fff;text-decoration:none;font-size:16px;text-indent:-9999em;line-height:22px;font-size:1px;display:block;font-family:Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:700}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal span{display:block;background:#fff;height:3px;margin-top:3px}.mean-container .mean-nav{float:left;width:100%;background:#b52600;margin-top:44px}.mean-container .mean-nav ul{padding:0;margin:0;width:100%;list-style-type:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li{position:relative;float:left;width:100%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a{display:block;float:left;width:90%;padding:1em 5%;margin:0;text-align:left;color:#fff;border-top:1px solid #383838;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.5);text-decoration:none;text-transform:uppercase}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li a{width:80%;padding:1em 10%;border-top:1px solid #f1f1f1;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.25);opacity:.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);text-shadow:none !important;visibility:visible;text-transform:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li.mean-last a{border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:0}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li a{width:70%;padding:1em 15%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li a{width:60%;padding:1em 20%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li li a{width:50%;padding:1em 25%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a:hover{background:#252525;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1)}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand{margin-top:1px;width:26px;height:25px;padding:12px !important;text-align:center;position:absolute;right:0;top:0;z-index:2;font-weight:700;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1);border:0 !important;border-left:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.4) !important;border-bottom:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.2) !important}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand:hover{background:rgba(0,0,0,0.9)}.mean-container .mean-push{float:left;width:100%;padding:0;margin:0;clear:both}.mean-nav .wrapper{width:100%;padding:0;margin:0}.mean-container .mean-bar,.mean-container .mean-bar *{-webkit-box-sizing:content-box;-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box}.mean-remove{display:none !important}.ad img{box-shadow:none}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin:auto;width:320px;min-height:50px !important}#page{margin-bottom:40px}#header{padding-left:0;padding-right:0;width:100%}#header_wrapper{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;padding-bottom:0 !important;background-image:none;box-shadow:none}#header_ahe_logo{float:none;display:block;text-align:center;margin:25px auto;padding-top:20px}.header_row_top{display:none}#header_tools{float:none;padding-top:0}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:center;float:none;margin-right:0}#title_bar{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;width:auto;padding-top:5px;text-align:center}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.home #title_bar,.index #title_bar{display:none}.index #page,.home #page{padding-top:30px}.box_wrapper{width:100%}.membership-intext-promo{margin-left:-100px;margin-right:-100px;padding-left:100px;padding-right:100px}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr}.tab-links{margin-bottom:30px}.tab-links li{width:33%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:18px;letter-spacing:-1px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.content_item{max-width:100%}.left_1_column,.right_3_column{width:100%;padding:15px 0;margin:0}.left_menu{display:none}.subscribe_button_container{display:block;width:90% !important;padding-left:5% !important;padding-right:5% !important}.content_button.subscribe_button{display:inline-block !important;margin:0 auto;width:80%;line-height:23px}.content_main_full_width{padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.benefit,.reason{width:45% !important;padding-left:1.25%;padding-right:1.25%;padding-top:30px;margin:0 !important}.reasons_list{margin-bottom:40px}.hide-in-mobile{display:none}#accordion-home{display:none}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#page{width:100%;min-width:320px;overflow:hidden !important}#content{width:100%}.left_3_column,.right_1_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.map_section{margin-top:40px}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{margin-bottom:30px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin-top:30px}.footer_phrase{margin-top:1px;line-height:130%}#footer{padding-bottom:70px}#footer_contents{background-position:center 80px}.footer_section{margin-right:20px !important;margin-left:20px !important}.footer_section .center,.footer_section .right{margin:60px 0 !important;text-align:center;display:block !important;width:auto !important}.footer_section p{font-size:14px}.footer_section .partners img{margin:15px 15px}.shop_promo{margin-bottom:0 !important}#footer_spacer{height:1px;margin:0}#editor_tools,.gravity_widget_wrapper,.gravity_right_col,#middle_float_ad_container,.addthis-smartlayers-desktop,.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,#squinchpix_results,.share_this,#sponsors_box,#partners_list,.bottomRightStickySpacer,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{display:none}.search_page .ci_related_content_outer_wrapper{display:block !important}.ci_related_content_outer_wrapper #ci_related_type_list{display:none}.ci_two_cols .columns{column-count:1}#content .search_form_in_content{display:none !important}.search_results_page h2.search_header{display:none}.static_page .left_1_column{display:none}.user_biography .bio_image{float:none;margin:1em 0;display:block}.user_biography{margin-left:0}#txt_book_search.wide{width:100%;max-width:300px}#txt_book_search_submit{display:none}.reasons_list{padding-left:10px;padding-right:10px}.shop_sections_wrapper{text-align:center}.shop_section{margin-right:0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{margin-top:20px;margin-bottom:20px;overflow:initial}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:0}}@media(max-width:560px){.big_quote{float:none;padding:76px 5% 30px;margin:20px 0;display:block;width:90%}img.tag_definition_image{float:none}figure.definition_image{float:none;margin:0;display:block;width:100%;max-width:100%}.body img,img.tag_definition_image,img.in_text_image,.video_link img,figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em -8px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.left_2_column,.right_2_column{padding-right:0;padding-left:0;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.item-map{margin-bottom:25px;margin-top:10px}.benefit,.reason{width:100% !important;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.tm-lg-2{width:100%}.tm-lg-3{width:100%}.tm-lg-4{width:100%}.tm-lg-5{width:100%}.ci_audio_link img.soundcloud_icon{display:none}.book_review_text img.book_image.reviews_img{float:none;display:block;max-width:100%;height:auto}}@media(max-width:360px){.latest_content_items .content_item img.ci_image{margin:1em -15px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.featured_ci_marker{margin-left:-15px !important}}}@media screen{@media(max-width:991px){.print_button{display:none}#mc_embed_signup{background:none;min-height:auto}aside .newsletter_promo{display:none}.right_1_column .institutional_sub_promo{margin:0 !important;padding:0 !important;background-color:transparent}#header_tools .patreon_button{display:none}.mobile-band{margin-left:-40px !important;margin-right:-40px !important;padding-left:40px !important;padding-right:40px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{height:initial !important;max-height:initial !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper h2{display:block;margin-top:15px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:80px 0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper{background:transparent;padding:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry{border-bottom:0;margin:0}.right_1_column #time_list{margin:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry .date{background-color:#f3f3f3;display:inline-block;padding:5px 15px 5px 200px;margin-left:-200px}#mobilenewsletter{display:block;margin:20px -40px;padding:20px 40px}body.home .membership_below_notice,body.home .membership-below-block-wrapper,img.newsletter_banner,.latest_content_items.featured,.our_videos_wrapper,.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper .timeline_add,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky,#primis_intext{display:none}}@media(min-width:768px){.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin:20px 40px 20px 0 !important}}@media(min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){#header{width:708px}#page{width:768px}#content{width:738px}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:708px}.left_3_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.left_1_column{display:none}.right_3_column{width:100%}.right_1_column{width:100%;padding:0}#accordion-home{display:none}.content_item.featured .ci_preview_content{padding-left:395px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:340px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:50px}.left_3_column .content_item.featured:nth-child(even){margin-left:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:215px !important;margin-right:40px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:215px;height:121px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}.video_embed .right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:708px;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px}.ci_info .ci_social_media_buttons{display:none}img.tag_definition_image{margin:20px 0 20px 20px}.follow_us{display:none !important}.right_3_column .big_quote,.left_3_column .big_quote{margin-left:0;margin-right:0;width:338px}.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:382px}.item_1_col{width:46%;margin:0 2% 0;float:left}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:10px}.team_pic{float:none;width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;padding-bottom:15px}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin:0;padding:0}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_search_button_new,.common_search_button_new{left:234px !important}#header_tools{padding-top:46px}#footer_contents .footer_connect,#footer_contents .footer_about{width:12%}#footer_contents .footer_contribute{width:16%}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px;margin-right:0 !important}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:34px !important}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right !important}#header_follow_buttons{display:none !important}.registration_message_page{width:708px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,.bottomRightStickySpacer{display:none}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr}}@media(min-width:768px){header nav{min-height:60px}#nav_bar{border-top:0 solid #e3e3e3;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;background:url('/template/images/bg_timeline.png') left top repeat}.sf-menu{padding-top:0;margin:0 auto}.sf-menu a{padding:20px 1em}#header_wrapper{padding-bottom:156px}.sf-menu,.sf-menu *{margin:0;padding:0;list-style:none}.sf-menu li{position:relative}.sf-menu ul{position:absolute;display:none;top:100%;left:50%;z-index:99;width:180px;margin-left:-96px}.sf-menu>li{float:left}.sf-menu li:hover>ul,.sf-menu li.sfHover>ul{display:block}.sf-menu a{display:block;position:relative}.sf-menu ul ul{top:0;left:100%}.sf-menu{margin-bottom:1em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:0 auto;margin-bottom:-4px !important;display:inline-block;text-transform:uppercase}.sf-menu ul{box-shadow:2px 2px 6px rgba(0,0,0,.2);min-width:12em;*width:12em;padding-top:18px !important;background:url('/template/images/bg_nav_ul.png') top left no-repeat rgba(0,0,0,0) !important;border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-web-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1);box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1)}.sf-menu ul li{text-transform:none}.sf-menu a{text-decoration:none;zoom:1;transition:all .25s}.sf-menu a{color:#494949;cursor:pointer}.sf-menu li{white-space:nowrap;*white-space:normal;transition:background .25s}.sf-menu ul li{background:#FFF}.sf-menu ul li a{border-bottom:1px solid #f0f0f0;padding:11px 8px;transition:all .25s;margin-left:10px;margin-right:10px;font-size:14px}.sf-menu ul li a:hover{color:#b52600}.sf-menu li:hover,.sf-menu li.sfHover{transition:none}}}</style>  <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="World History Encyclopedia RSS Feed" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/rss2/?lang=en"> <link rel="image_src" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1215.jpg?v=1645022703" /> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-16px.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-32px.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-64px.png" sizes="64x64"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-96px.png" sizes="96x96"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-128px.png" sizes="128x128"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-192px.png" sizes="192x192"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-196px.png" sizes="196x196"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-120px.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-152px.png" sizes="152x152"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-167px.png" sizes="167x167"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-180px.png" sizes="180x180">  <script> jsQueue(function(){ wheAnalyticsPageview(); }); </script>   <script defer src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DMCY1BLGCJ"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ // Consent Mode Defaults if (AHE.isEU) { if (AHE.is_member) { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied' }); } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } async_load_js('/js/ga4.js?v=1732096425'); }); }); </script>  <script> jsQueue(()=> { async_load_js('/js/deferred-min.js?v=1732096425',false,true); }); </script>  <script> window.addEventListener('load', () => { processIdleQueue(); }); </script> </head> <body class="tag adthrive-cat-agamemnon_person adthrive-cat-agamemnon_play adthrive-cat-ancient_greece adthrive-cat-bronze_age adthrive-cat-city adthrive-cat-greece adthrive-cat-helen_of_troy adthrive-cat-iliad adthrive-cat-menelaus adthrive-cat-troy adthrive-cat-unesco">  <img fetchpriority="low" src="https://tracker.metricool.com/c3po.jpg?hash=583da8995f3bf53448b13ddf790ada6c" class="metricoolPixel" /> <div id="mobile_sm_buttons"></div> <div id="meanmenu"></div> <header id="header_wrapper"> <div id="header"> <a href="/" id="logo_link"> <div id="header_ahe_logo" style="width: 318px; height: 77px; position: relative;"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 496.06 120.11"><defs><style>.c{fill:#fff;}.d{fill:#b52600;}.e{fill:#231f20;}</style></defs><g id="a"><path class="e" d="m175.92,47.11h.15c.99-3.38,4.39-14.03,5.68-18.73.37-1.36.41-1.87.41-2.35,0-.66-.4-1.1-2.09-1.1-.18,0-.33-.11-.33-.26,0-.18.18-.26.62-.26,1.87,0,3.42.11,3.75.11.26,0,1.84-.11,2.98-.11.33,0,.52.07.52.22,0,.18-.11.3-.33.3-.15,0-.84.03-1.25.18-1.1.4-1.69,1.95-2.39,3.96-1.62,4.67-5.34,16.35-6.78,20.46-.96,2.72-1.14,3.16-1.55,3.16-.37,0-.59-.48-1.1-1.91l-7.18-20.44h-.07c-1.33,3.53-6.37,16.97-7.7,20.39-.59,1.54-.77,1.94-1.21,1.94-.37,0-.55-.4-1.28-2.9l-6.52-21.79c-.59-1.95-1.06-2.5-2.02-2.87-.47-.18-1.39-.22-1.65-.22-.18,0-.33-.04-.33-.26,0-.18.22-.26.59-.26,1.91,0,3.93.11,4.34.12.33,0,1.95-.11,3.78-.11.52,0,.66.11.66.26,0,.22-.18.26-.37.26-.3,0-.99,0-1.43.22-.22.11-.48.4-.48.88s.33,1.76.7,3.38c.55,2.35,4.36,15.84,4.91,17.79h.07l7.81-20.93c.55-1.5.7-1.69.92-1.69.26,0,.48.48.91,1.73l7.29,20.84Z"/><path class="e" d="m203.84,23.92c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m226.05,35.1c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m256.83,41.67c0,5.4.14,7.75.8,8.41.59.59,1.54.85,4.41.85,1.95,0,3.56-.04,4.45-1.1.48-.59.85-1.5.96-2.2.04-.3.11-.48.33-.48.18,0,.22.15.22.55,0,.4-.26,2.61-.56,3.67-.26.84-.37.99-2.32.99-5.29,0-7.71-.23-9.85-.23-.15,0-.77.04-1.5.03-.74.04-1.54.07-2.1.07-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.87-.11,3.97-.11c.41,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.77.04-1.21.11-1.07.18-1.36.81-1.44,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m275.49,35.15c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11.44,0,2.76-.11,4.96-.11,3.64,0,10.36-.32,14.73,4.2,1.83,1.91,3.56,4.96,3.55,9.34,0,4.63-1.92,8.19-3.98,10.36-1.58,1.65-4.89,4.22-11.14,4.21-3.16,0-7.79-.45-8.16-.45-.18,0-2.5.11-3.6.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm3.08,3.97c0,3.89.03,7.27.07,7.97.04.92.11,2.39.4,2.79.48.7,1.91,1.47,6.24,1.48,3.42,0,6.58-1.24,8.75-3.41,1.91-1.87,2.94-5.4,2.95-8.78,0-4.67-2.01-7.68-3.52-9.26-3.45-3.64-7.64-4.16-12.01-4.16-.74,0-2.09.11-2.39.26-.33.15-.44.33-.44.74-.04,1.25-.04,5-.04,7.82v4.56Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.28,41.68c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.98.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.73-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-3.86c0-.15-.11-.22-.22-.22h-15.58c-.11-.01-.22.02-.22.2v3.86c0,3.53,0,6.43.17,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.17-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v.77c0,.18.11.22.22.22h15.58c.11.01.22-.02.22-.21v-.77c0-5.73,0-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.29-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.29-.07-.29-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.29.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m359.43,41.7c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.44-1.87-1.25-2.06-.4-.11-.88-.15-1.14-.15-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.21,0,3.53.11,3.71.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.29,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.47Z"/><path class="e" d="m370.14,51.89c-.51-.26-.55-.4-.55-1.4,0-1.84.15-3.31.19-3.89.04-.4.11-.59.29-.59.22,0,.26.11.26.4,0,.33,0,.85.11,1.36.55,2.72,2.97,3.75,5.43,3.75,3.53,0,5.25-2.53,5.26-4.88,0-2.54-1.06-4.01-4.22-6.62l-1.65-1.36c-3.89-3.2-4.77-5.48-4.77-7.98,0-3.93,2.95-6.61,7.61-6.61,1.43,0,2.5.15,3.42.37.7.15.99.19,1.29.19s.37.07.37.26-.15,1.4-.15,3.89c0,.59-.07.85-.26.84-.22,0-.26-.18-.3-.48-.04-.44-.25-1.43-.47-1.84s-1.21-1.95-4.59-1.95c-2.54,0-4.52,1.58-4.52,4.26,0,2.09,1.02,3.34,4.48,6.18l1.03.81c4.34,3.42,5.36,5.7,5.36,8.64,0,1.51-.59,4.3-3.13,6.1-1.58,1.1-3.56,1.54-5.55,1.54-1.72,0-3.42-.26-4.92-1Z"/><path class="e" d="m401.26,41.74c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.96,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-15.54s-5.42.07-5.42.07c-2.28.04-3.16.29-3.75,1.17-.41.62-.52.88-.63,1.14-.11.3-.22.37-.37.37-.11,0-.18-.11-.18-.33,0-.37.74-3.52.81-3.82.07-.22.22-.7.37-.7.26,0,.62.37,1.62.45,1.06.11,2.46.19,2.9.19h13.78c1.18.01,2.02-.1,2.61-.17.55-.11.88-.18,1.03-.18.18,0,.18.22.18.44,0,1.1-.12,3.64-.12,4.04,0,.33-.11.48-.26.48-.18,0-.26-.11-.3-.63l-.04-.4c-.15-1.1-.99-1.95-4.52-2.02l-4.63-.08v15.54Z"/><path class="e" d="m428.03,24.13c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z"/><path class="e" d="m450.24,35.32c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.12,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z"/><path class="e" d="m481.28,42.95c0-1.98-.37-2.79-.84-3.86-.26-.59-5.17-8.68-6.46-10.59-.92-1.36-1.84-2.28-2.5-2.72-.55-.37-1.25-.59-1.58-.59-.18,0-.37-.07-.37-.26,0-.15.15-.26.48-.26.7,0,3.45.11,3.64.11.26,0,1.65-.11,3.09-.11.4,0,.48.11.48.26s-.22.18-.55.33c-.3.15-.48.37-.48.66,0,.44.18.88.48,1.43.59,1.07,6.09,10.55,6.75,11.62.7-1.54,5.37-9.58,6.11-10.8.48-.77.63-1.39.63-1.87,0-.51-.15-.92-.59-1.03-.33-.11-.55-.18-.55-.37,0-.15.22-.22.59-.22.95,0,2.13.11,2.42.11.22,0,2.87-.11,3.56-.11.26,0,.48.07.48.22,0,.18-.18.3-.48.3-.4,0-1.11.15-1.69.51-.74.44-1.14.88-1.95,1.87-1.22,1.47-6.37,10.1-7.03,11.68-.55,1.32-.55,2.46-.55,3.67v3.16c0,.59,0,2.13.1,3.67.07,1.06.4,1.87,1.5,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15,1.06-.95,1.14-2.02.11-1.54.11-3.09.11-3.67v-3.16Z"/><path class="e" d="m153.78,81.94c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.4.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m179.6,95.34c.08,3.33.48,4.38,1.58,4.71.77.2,1.66.24,2.03.24.2,0,.32.08.32.24,0,.24-.24.32-.73.32-2.31,0-3.93-.13-4.3-.13s-2.07.12-3.89.12c-.41,0-.65-.04-.65-.33,0-.16.12-.24.32-.24.32,0,1.05-.04,1.66-.24,1.01-.28,1.22-1.46,1.22-5.15l.06-23.24c0-1.58.12-2.03.45-2.03.32,0,1.01.89,1.42,1.3.61.69,6.65,7.22,12.88,13.92,4.01,4.3,8.43,9.26,9.72,10.59l-.43-20.6c-.04-2.64-.32-3.53-1.58-3.86-.73-.16-1.66-.21-1.99-.21-.28,0-.32-.12-.32-.28,0-.24.32-.28.81-.28,1.82,0,3.77.13,4.22.13s1.79-.12,3.45-.12c.45,0,.73.04.73.29,0,.16-.16.28-.45.28-.2,0-.49,0-.98.12-1.34.28-1.5,1.17-1.5,3.61l-.1,23.77c0,2.68-.08,2.88-.37,2.88-.33,0-.81-.45-2.96-2.6-.45-.41-6.28-6.37-10.58-11-4.7-5.07-9.28-10.19-10.57-11.65l.51,19.43Z"/><path class="e" d="m217.2,97.08c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.15-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.12,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.2.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.21,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.12,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.45-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.29.28.61,0,.28-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.92-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m254.67,90.43c0-2.19-.4-3.08-.93-4.26-.29-.65-5.71-9.58-7.13-11.69-1.01-1.5-2.02-2.52-2.76-3-.61-.41-1.38-.65-1.74-.65-.2,0-.41-.08-.41-.28,0-.16.16-.29.53-.29.77,0,3.81.13,4.02.13.28,0,1.82-.12,3.41-.12.45,0,.53.12.53.29s-.24.2-.61.36c-.33.16-.53.41-.53.73,0,.49.2.97.53,1.58.65,1.18,6.72,11.65,7.45,12.82.77-1.7,5.93-10.58,6.74-11.92.53-.85.69-1.54.69-2.07,0-.57-.16-1.02-.65-1.14-.37-.12-.61-.2-.61-.41,0-.16.24-.24.65-.24,1.05,0,2.35.12,2.68.12.24,0,3.16-.12,3.93-.12.28,0,.53.08.53.24,0,.2-.2.32-.53.32-.45,0-1.22.16-1.87.57-.81.49-1.26.97-2.15,2.07-1.34,1.62-7.03,11.15-7.76,12.89-.61,1.46-.61,2.72-.61,4.05v3.49c0,.65,0,2.35.11,4.06.08,1.18.44,2.07,1.66,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.98.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.18-1.05,1.26-2.23.12-1.7.12-3.41.12-4.05v-3.49Z"/><path class="e" d="m276.58,97.14c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.16-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.13,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.21.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.2,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.13,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.44-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.28.28.61,0,.29-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.93-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z"/><path class="e" d="m312.35,89.31c0,5.96.15,8.56.88,9.29.65.65,1.7.93,4.86.94,2.15,0,3.94-.04,4.91-1.21.53-.65.93-1.66,1.06-2.43.04-.33.12-.53.37-.53.2,0,.24.16.24.61s-.29,2.88-.61,4.05c-.29.93-.41,1.09-2.55,1.09-5.84,0-8.52-.25-10.87-.25-.16,0-.85.04-1.66.04-.81.04-1.7.08-2.31.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13s3.16-.12,4.38-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.28,0-.85.04-1.34.12-1.18.2-1.5.89-1.58,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.22Z"/><path class="e" d="m343.36,69.79c9.12,0,15.93,5.77,15.92,15.22,0,9.08-6.42,16.58-16.2,16.57-11.11,0-15.73-8.65-15.72-15.95,0-6.57,4.8-15.85,16-15.84Zm.82,30.26c3.65,0,11.2-2.1,11.21-13.9,0-9.73-5.91-14.97-12.32-14.98-6.77,0-11.84,4.45-11.85,13.33,0,9.45,5.66,15.54,12.96,15.55Z"/><path class="e" d="m367.89,82.14c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.26.13,4.58.13.89,0,3.25-.12,5.11-.12,5.07,0,6.89,1.71,7.54,2.32.89.85,2.03,2.68,2.02,4.83,0,5.76-4.23,9.65-9.99,9.64-.2,0-.65,0-.85-.04-.2,0-.45-.08-.45-.28,0-.33.24-.37,1.09-.37,3.94,0,7.02-2.87,7.03-6.6,0-1.34-.12-4.06-2.27-6.25-2.15-2.19-4.62-2.03-5.55-2.03-.69,0-1.38.08-1.74.24-.24.08-.32.36-.32.77l-.02,16.67c0,3.89,0,7.1.2,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.82.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.78-.13-4.99-.13-.12,0-2.68.12-3.89.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m393.32,82.17c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.41.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.08,0-.77.04-1.62.04-.81.04-1.74.08-2.35.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m418.06,82.19c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.49,0,3.04-.12,5.48-.12,4.02,0,11.44-.35,16.26,4.64,2.02,2.11,3.93,5.48,3.92,10.31,0,5.11-2.12,9.04-4.39,11.43-1.74,1.82-5.39,4.66-12.29,4.65-3.49,0-8.6-.49-9-.49-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Zm3.4,4.38c0,4.3.03,8.03.07,8.8.04,1.01.12,2.63.45,3.08.52.77,2.1,1.62,6.89,1.63,3.77,0,7.26-1.37,9.66-3.76,2.11-2.07,3.25-5.96,3.25-9.69,0-5.15-2.22-8.48-3.88-10.22-3.81-4.02-8.43-4.59-13.26-4.6-.81,0-2.31.12-2.63.28-.37.16-.49.37-.49.81-.04,1.38-.04,5.52-.05,8.64v5.03Z"/><path class="e" d="m458.26,89.36c0,3.89,0,7.1.19,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.33-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.97.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.49-2.07-1.38-2.27-.45-.12-.97-.16-1.26-.16-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.34,0,3.89.13,4.1.13s2.76-.12,3.97-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.29,0-.53.04-1.02.12-1.09.2-1.42.89-1.5,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.14Z"/><path class="e" d="m478.55,71.5c.49-1.34.65-1.58.89-1.58s.41.2.89,1.46c.61,1.54,6.96,18.3,9.43,24.46,1.45,3.61,2.63,4.26,3.48,4.5.61.21,1.22.24,1.62.25.24,0,.41.04.41.24,0,.24-.37.33-.81.32-.61,0-3.57,0-6.37-.09-.77-.04-1.22-.04-1.22-.29,0-.16.12-.24.29-.28.24-.08.49-.45.24-1.09l-3.76-9.98c-.08-.16-.16-.24-.37-.24h-8.72c-.2,0-.33.11-.41.31l-2.44,7.18c-.37,1.01-.57,1.99-.57,2.72,0,.81.85,1.18,1.54,1.18h.41c.28,0,.41.08.41.24,0,.24-.24.32-.61.32-.97,0-2.72-.13-3.16-.13s-2.68.12-4.58.12c-.53,0-.77-.08-.77-.33,0-.16.16-.24.37-.24.29,0,.85-.04,1.18-.08,1.87-.24,2.68-1.78,3.41-3.81l9.23-25.18Zm4.2,16.23c.2,0,.2-.12.16-.28l-3.84-10.95c-.2-.61-.4-.61-.61,0l-3.58,10.95c-.08.2,0,.28.12.28h7.75Z"/><path class="d" d="m15.26,0h89.58c8.42,0,15.26,6.84,15.26,15.26v89.59c0,8.42-6.84,15.26-15.26,15.26H15.25c-8.42,0-15.25-6.83-15.25-15.25V15.26C0,6.84,6.84,0,15.26,0Z"/><path class="c" d="m101.37,23.07c-1.15,2.45-2.13,5.56-2.94,9.32-.82,3.76-1.49,7.91-2.02,12.45-.53,4.54-.94,9.26-1.23,14.16-.29,4.91-.51,9.71-.67,14.41-.16,4.7-.31,9.12-.43,13.24-.12,4.13-.27,7.66-.43,10.61v1.72c0,.82-.04,1.64-.12,2.45-.08.82-.23,1.53-.43,2.15-.21.61-.47.92-.8.92-.25,0-.45-.33-.61-.98-.16-.65-.29-1.41-.37-2.27-.08-.86-.14-1.67-.18-2.45-.04-.78-.06-1.29-.06-1.53-.16-2.94-.31-6.48-.43-10.61-.12-4.13-.27-8.54-.43-13.24-.17-4.7-.41-9.5-.74-14.41-.33-4.91-.76-9.63-1.29-14.16-.53-4.54-1.19-8.71-1.96-12.51-.78-3.8-1.74-6.89-2.88-9.26-.41-.98-.96-1.96-1.66-2.94-.7-.98-1.53-2.04-2.51-3.19-.57-.65-.8-1.06-.67-1.23.12-.16.55-.16,1.29,0,1.47.17,2.72.72,3.74,1.66,1.02.94,2.1,1.86,3.25,2.76,2.13,1.55,3.96,2.33,5.52,2.33s3.39-.78,5.52-2.33c1.14-.9,2.23-1.82,3.25-2.76,1.02-.94,2.31-1.49,3.86-1.66.74-.08,1.16-.06,1.29.06.12.12-.1.51-.67,1.17-1.96,2.29-3.35,4.33-4.17,6.13Zm-63.61,78.59c-1.02,1.63-1.28,2.58-.77,2.82.51.25,1.74-.61,3.69-2.58l38.61-40.47c.62-.66.92-1.1.92-1.35s-.31-.7-.92-1.35L40.69,18.39c-1.85-1.88-3.05-2.74-3.61-2.58-.56.16-.33,1.1.69,2.82,3.79,6.46,7.1,11.87,9.92,16.25,2.82,4.37,5.15,8.09,7,11.16,1.85,3.07,3.26,5.66,4.23,7.79.98,2.13,1.46,4.17,1.46,6.13s-.49,4-1.46,6.13c-.97,2.13-2.41,4.74-4.31,7.85-1.9,3.11-4.23,6.87-7,11.28-2.77,4.41-6.05,9.89-9.84,16.43Zm-20.4-42.2c2.16.44,4.32.94,6.48,1.5,2.16.56,4.3,1.39,6.41,2.49,2.12,1.11,4.25,2.63,6.41,4.57,2.16,1.94,4.32,4.52,6.48,7.73.99,1.33,1.4,1,1.21-1-.09-1.66-.43-3.19-1.01-4.57-.58-1.38-1.21-2.74-1.89-4.07-.67-1.33-1.26-2.66-1.75-3.99-.49-1.33-.74-2.72-.74-4.16s.25-2.85.74-4.24c.5-1.38,1.08-2.74,1.75-4.07.67-1.33,1.31-2.69,1.89-4.07.59-1.39.92-2.85,1.01-4.41.09-1.22.02-1.86-.2-1.91-.22-.05-.56.19-1.01.75-2.25,3.22-4.43,5.79-6.55,7.73-2.11,1.94-4.23,3.47-6.34,4.57-2.11,1.11-4.25,1.94-6.41,2.49-2.16.56-4.32,1.05-6.48,1.5-.81.22-1.6.44-2.36.67-.76.22-1.15.56-1.15,1,0,.33.38.61,1.15.83.77.22,1.55.44,2.36.67Z"/></g><g id="b"><path d="m485.74,74.37c0-2.59,1.98-4.47,4.68-4.47s4.68,1.88,4.68,4.47-1.98,4.42-4.68,4.42-4.68-1.93-4.68-4.42Zm8.49-.05c0-2.19-1.63-3.66-3.81-3.66s-3.81,1.47-3.81,3.66,1.63,3.71,3.86,3.71,3.76-1.58,3.76-3.71Zm-5.54-.71c0-.76-.05-1.12-.05-1.37,0-.31-.15-.36-.56-.36-.05,0-.15-.05-.15-.1,0-.1.1-.15.25-.15h.25c.1,0,.51.05.66.05.46,0,.66-.05,1.07-.05.86,0,2.13.15,2.13,1.37,0,.51-.15.92-.91,1.52l.86,1.07c.66.81.86.86.97.86s.15.05.15.1c0,.1-.05.15-.36.15-.66,0-1.02.05-1.78-.97l-.71-.97h-.91v.46c0,1.02.05,1.07.1,1.12.1.05.36.1.51.1.1,0,.15,0,.15.1s-.1.15-.2.15h-.2c-.1,0-.56-.05-.81-.05-.15,0-.66.05-.76.05h-.25c-.1,0-.2,0-.2-.1s.1-.15.2-.15q.46,0,.51-.31c0-.25.05-.61.05-1.42v-1.12Zm.92.61c.15.1.46.15.76.15.15,0,.36-.05.51-.15.25-.15.46-.41.46-.91,0-.71-.46-1.22-1.27-1.22-.05,0-.36,0-.46.1v2.03Z"/></g></svg> </div> </a> <div id="header_tools"> <div class="header_row_top"> <span class="header_sm_buttons"> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" rel="external" class="header_sm_link facebook"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" rel="external" class="header_sm_link twitter"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" rel="external" class="header_sm_link instagram"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" rel="external" class="header_sm_link youtube"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </span> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-button&utm_campaign=membership" class="donate_button membership no_external" id="header_donate_button" rel="nofollow"> <span class="base">Membership</span> <span class="hover">No ads</span> </a> <div class="clr"></div> </div> <div class="header_row_bottom"> <search> <form accept-charset="utf-8" action="/search/"> <div class="search_wrapper"> <input name="q" size="" class="autocomplete_tags_readable ancient_search_btn common_search_field" type="text" value="" placeholder="Search..."> </div> </form> </search> <div class="media_search_clear"></div> <script type="text/javascript"> jsQueue(()=>{ $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").change(function(e) { var ci_types_list = []; $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").each(function() { if (this.checked) { ci_types_list.push(this.value); } }); var ci_types_string = ci_types_list.join(','); console.log("CI types selected: " + ci_types_string); $("#ci_types_filter").val(ci_types_string); }); }); </script> <style> .media_search_type_filters { clear: both; position: relative; margin-bottom: 1em; } .search_checkbox input[type=checkbox] { position: relative; top: -1px; } .half_column { display: inline-block; width: 300px; } </style> <div class="clr"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clr"></div> <nav> <div id="nav_bar"> <ul class="sf-menu" id="example"> <li class="toplevel"> <a class="first-menu-item" href="/index/">Encyclopedia</a> <ul> <li><a href="/index/">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/timeline/">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/mapselect/">Maps</a></li> <li><a href="/books/">Book Reviews</a></li> <li><a href="/measure/">Weights & Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/trans/">Translations</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/edu/">Education</a> <ul> <li><a href="/edu/teaching-resources/">Teaching Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/xres/">Link Database</a></li> <li><a href="/type/11/1/">Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/category/100/1/">Primary Sources</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/collections/">Collections</a></li> <li><a href="/edu/subscription/?utm_campaign=institutional_subscription&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav" id="institutional-sub-header-link">School Subscription</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/medialibrary/">Media</a> <ul> <li><a href="/medialibrary/">Media Library</a></li> <li><a href="/audio/">Audio Articles</a></li> <li><a href="https://experts.worldhistory.org">Podcast</a></li> <li><a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube">Youtube Channel</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="hide-in-mobile toplevel"> <a href="/contribute/">Contribute</a> <ul> <li><a href="/contribute/">Submissions</a></li> <li><a href="/static/needed/">Needed Content</a></li> <li><a href="/static/style_guide/">Style Guide</a></li> <li><a href="/static/legal_terms/">Terms & Conditions</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.worldhistory.foundation/volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/donate/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-nav&utm_campaign=donate_en" rel="nofollow">Donate</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/shop/" title="Ancient History Shop">Shop</a> <ul> <li><a href="/books/">Books</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/#!/wall+prints+map+posters?q=P180-map">Map Posters</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/magazines/">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/shop/posters/" rel="nofollow">Wall Charts</a></li> <li><a href="https://worldhistory.store/">Clothing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <ul> <li><a href="/static/about/">About</a></li> <li><a href="/team/">Our Team</a></li> <li><a href="/static/editorial-policy/">Editorial Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/static/reports/">Annual Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_campaign=membership&utm_medium=header-nav">Membership</a></li> <li><a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a href="/login/" class="login_link">Login</a> <ul> <li><a href="/login/?ui_lang=en" title="Login" class="login_link">Login</a></li> <li><a href="/register/?ui_lang=en" title="Registration" class="login_link">Register</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </nav> </header> <div id="title_bar"> <div class="box_wrapper v_spacing"> <h1 id="page_title_text" class="trans">Troy</h1> </div> </div> <div id="page"> <div id="content_wrapper"> <div id="content" class="troy_page">  <script> function darkMode() { let css = document.createElement("link"); css.id = 'darkCSS'; css.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet") css.setAttribute("type", "text/css") css.setAttribute("media","screen"); css.setAttribute("href", "/template/css/exclude/dark.css?v=1732096425"); document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(css) document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Agamemnon_%28Person%29+Agamemnon_%28Play%29+Ancient_Greece+Bronze_Age+city+greece+Helen_of_Troy+iliad+Menelaus+troy+UNESCO" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=markzcartwright" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/1215.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" data-pin-description="Troy is the name of the Bronze Age city attacked in the Trojan War, a popular story in the mythology of ancient Greece, and the name given to the archaeological site in the north-west of Asia Minor (now Turkey) which has revealed a large and prosperous city occupied over millennia. There has been..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Mark Cartwright" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-markzcartwright.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/markzcartwright/" rel="author" title="User Page: Mark Cartwright">Mark Cartwright</a> <br/> published on 11 May 2018 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/fr/1-372/troie/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/it/1-372/troia/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Italian</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-372/troya/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Spanish</a></div> </div> <style> .podcastco_wrapper { margin: 15px 0px -5px -5px; } </style> <div class="podcastco_wrapper"> <div class="podcastdotco-wrapper"><iframe data-target="ancient-history-encyclopedia/troy" src="https://play.pod.co/ancient-history-encyclopedia/troy?mini=true" frameborder="0" width="100%" scrolling="no" style="overflow:hidden;max-width:none;height:40px;"class="podcastdotco-player podcastdotco-player--mini"></iframe><script defer src="https://play.pod.co/embed/frame-v1.js"></script></div> </div> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Agamemnon_%28Person%29+Agamemnon_%28Play%29+Ancient_Greece+Bronze_Age+city+greece+Helen_of_Troy+iliad+Menelaus+troy+UNESCO" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=markzcartwright" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/1215/the-trojan-horse/" title="The Trojan Horse"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1215.jpg.webp?v=1717284674 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/1215.jpg.webp?v=1717284674 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1215.jpg?v=1717284674 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/1215.jpg?v=1717284674 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1215.jpg?v=1717284674" width="300" height="206" alt="The Trojan Horse (by Tetraktyas, CC BY-SA)" title="The Trojan Horse (by Tetraktyas, CC BY-SA)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Trojan Horse</div><div class="figauthor">Tetraktyas (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1215/the-trojan-horse/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1215/the-trojan-horse/","caption":"A scene from the end of the Trojan War. The Greeks, to infiltrate the city, had taken the advice of Odysseus and tricked the Trojans into believing the Greek forces had left Troy. Leaving behind the offering of a massive horse the Greeks hoped the Trojans would take the horse into their city, which they did. Hiding inside, though, was a contingent of Greek warriors who opened the gates of Troy and allowed the returning army to finally sack the city. (From a painting by Henri Motte).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/1215.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Tetraktyas - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Tetraktyas"},"creditText":"Tetraktyas / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T05:24:09+0000","datePublished":"2013-05-14T15:00:34+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Trojan Horse","height":"412","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Beware_of_Greeks_bearing_gifts.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1215/the-trojan-horse/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1215/the-trojan-horse/","width":"600"} </script> <p><dfn>Troy</dfn> is the name of the <a href="/disambiguation/Bronze_Age/">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/city/">city</a> attacked in the <a href="/Trojan_War/">Trojan War</a>, a popular story in the <a href="/mythology/">mythology</a> of ancient <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>, and the name given to the archaeological site in the north-west of <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Asia Minor</a> (now <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Turkey</a>) which has revealed a large and prosperous city occupied over millennia. There has been much scholarly debate as to whether mythical Troy actually existed and if so whether the archaeological site was the same city; however, it is now almost universally accepted that the archaeological excavations have revealed the city of <a href="/homer/">Homer</a>'s <em><a href="/iliad/">Iliad</a></em>. Other names for Troy include Hisarlik (Turkish), Ilios (Homer), Ilion (<a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a>) and Ilium (<a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a>). The archaeological site of Troy is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.</p> <h3>Troy in myth</h3> <p>Troy is the setting for Homer's <em>Iliad </em>in which he recounts the final year of the Trojan <a href="/war/">War</a> sometime in the 13th century BCE. The war was in fact a ten-year siege of the city by a coalition of Greek forces led by King <a href="/disambiguation/Agamemnon/">Agamemnon</a> of <a href="/mycenae/">Mycenae</a>. The purpose of the expedition was to reclaim <a href="/disambiguation/Helen/">Helen</a>, wife of <a href="/Menelaus/">Menelaus</a>, king of <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> and brother of Agamemnon. Helen was abducted by the Trojan prince <a href="/disambiguation/paris/">Paris</a> and taken as his prize for choosing <a href="/Aphrodite/">Aphrodite</a> as the most beautiful goddess in a competition with <a href="/athena/">Athena</a> and <a href="/Hera/">Hera</a>. The Trojan War is also told in other sources such as the Epic Cycle poems (of which only fragments survive) and is also briefly mentioned in Homer's <em><a href="/Odyssey/">Odyssey</a></em>. Troy and the Trojan War later became a staple myth of Classical Greek and <a href="/Roman_Literature/">Roman literature</a>.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <div class="big_quote">In the Iliad, Homer describes Troy as 'well-founded', 'strong-built' & 'well-walled'.</div> <p>Homer describes Troy as 'well-founded', 'strong-built' and 'well-walled'; there are also several references to fine battlements, towers and 'high' and 'steep' walls. The walls must have been unusually strong in order to withstand a ten-year siege and in fact, Troy fell through the trickery of the Trojan horse ruse rather than any defensive failing. Indeed, in <a href="/Greek_Mythology/">Greek mythology</a> the walls were so impressive that they were said to have been built by <a href="/poseidon/">Poseidon</a> and <a href="/apollo/">Apollo</a> who after an act of impiety were compelled by <a href="/zeus/">Zeus</a> to serve the Trojan king Laomedon for one year. However, the fortifications did not help the king when <a href="/hercules/">Hercules</a> sacked the city with an expedition of only six ships. The sacking was Hercules' revenge for not being paid for his services to the king when he killed the sea-serpent sent by Poseidon. This episode was traditionally placed one generation before the Trojan War as the only male survivor was Laomedon's youngest son Priam, the Trojan king in the later conflict.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="512"> <a href="/image/512/black-figured-amphora-wine-jar-signed-by-exekias-a/" title="Black-figured amphora (wine-jar) signed by Exekias as potter and attributed to him as painter" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/512.jpg.webp?v=1665496088 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/512.jpg.webp?v=1665496088 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/512.jpg?v=1665496088 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/512.jpg?v=1665496088 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/512.jpg?v=1665496088" alt="Black-figured amphora (wine-jar) signed by Exekias as potter and attributed to him as painter" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Black-figured amphora (wine-jar) signed by Exekias as potter and attributed to him as painter</div><div class="figauthor">Trustees of the British Museum (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/512/black-figured-amphora-wine-jar-signed-by-exekias-a/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/512/black-figured-amphora-wine-jar-signed-by-exekias-a/","caption":"Greek, about 540-530 BC\r\nMade in Athens, Greece; found at Vulci (now in Lazio, Italy)\r\n\r\nAchilles killing the Amazon Queen Penthesilea\r\n\r\nPenthesilea brought her Amazon warriors to help the Trojans defend their city, but was killed in combat with Achilles, the greatest of the Greek warriors. The scene on this vase shows Achilles looming above her as she sinks to the ground. Achilles's face is masked and protected by his helmet; Penthesilea's helmet is pushed back to expose her features and emphasize her vulnerability at this vital moment. Her spear passes harmlessly across Achilles's chest, while his pierces her throat and blood spurts out. According to a later version of the story, at this very moment the eyes of the two warriors met and they fell, too late, in love.\r\n\r\nOn the other side of the vase, Dionysos, god of wine, is shown with his son Oinopion.\r\n\r\nThe vase is signed, just behind Achilles's right arm, by Exekias as potter. The painting has also been attributed to him. The amphora's taut and rounded shape is emphasized by the spirals around each handle, and the figures, the pattern decoration and the writing are all immaculately rendered. Exekias was perhaps the finest of all painters to use the black-figure technique.\r\n\r\nL. Burn, The British Museum book of Gre (London, The British Museum Press, 1991)\r\n\r\nD. Williams, Greek vases (London, The British Museum Press, 1999)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/512.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Trustees of the British Museum - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Trustees of the British Museum"},"creditText":"Trustees of the British Museum / Trustees of the British Museum","dateModified":"2024-11-28T05:24:09+0000","datePublished":"2012-04-26T07:45:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Black-figured amphora (wine-jar) signed by Exekias as potter and attributed to him as painter","height":"600","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_greece_and_rome/room_13_greece_1050-520_bc.aspx"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/512/black-figured-amphora-wine-jar-signed-by-exekias-a/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/512/black-figured-amphora-wine-jar-signed-by-exekias-a/","width":"600"} </script> </p> <h3>Troy in <a href="/Archaeology/">Archaeology</a></h3> <p>Inhabited from the Early <a href="/disambiguation/bronze/">Bronze</a> Age (3000 BCE) through to the 12th century CE the archaeological site which is now called Troy is 5 km from the coast but was once next to the sea. The site was situated in a bay created by the mouth of the river Skamanda and occupied a strategically important position between <a href="/aegean/">Aegean</a> and Eastern civilizations by controlling the principal point of access to the Black Sea, <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Anatolia</a> and the Balkans from both directions by land and sea. In particular, the difficulty in finding favourable winds to enter the Dardanelles may well have resulted in ancient sailing vessels standing by near Troy. Consequently, the site became the most important Bronze Age city in the North Aegean, reaching the height of its prosperity in the middle Bronze Age, contemporary with the <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean civilization</a> on the Greek mainland and the <a href="/hittite/">Hittite</a> <a href="/empire/">empire</a> to the East.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Troy was first excavated by Frank Calvert in 1863 CE and visited by Heinrich Schliemann who continued excavations from 1870 CE until his <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a> in 1890 CE; in particular, he attacked the conspicuous 20 m high artificial mound which had been left untouched since antiquity. Initial finds by Schliemann of <a href="/gold/">gold</a> and <a href="/Silver/">silver</a> jewellery and vessels seemed to vindicate his belief that the site was actually the Troy of Homer. However, these have now been dated to more than a thousand years before a probable date for the Trojan War and indicated that the history of the site was much more complex than previously considered. Indeed, perhaps unwittingly, Schliemann would add 2000 years to Western history, which had previously gone back only as far as the first Olympiad of 776 BCE.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="15242"> <a href="/image/15242/the-world-of-the-iliad-c-1200-bce/" title="The World of the Iliad, c. 1200 BCE" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15242.png.webp?v=1730727496-1730727657 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15242.png.webp?v=1730727496-1730727657 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15242.png.webp?v=1730727496-1730727657 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/15242.png.webp?v=1730727496-1730727657 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15242.png?v=1730727496-1730727657 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15242.png?v=1730727496-1730727657 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15242.png?v=1730727496-1730727657 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/15242.png?v=1730727496-1730727657 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15242.png?v=1730727496-1730727657" alt="The World of the Iliad, c. 1200 BCE" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The World of the Iliad, c. 1200 BCE</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15242/the-world-of-the-iliad-c-1200-bce/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15242/the-world-of-the-iliad-c-1200-bce/","caption":"A map illustrating the location of notable towns and the distribution of rulers and heroes as mentioned in Homer's Iliad, retelling the final year of the Achaean (Ancient Greek) War against the city of Troy in western Anatolia. The Trojan War is variously dated sometime between 1135 BCE and 1330 BCE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/15242.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher passionate about the human stories behind past events. He believes every image should tell a story and spark interaction, while each map leads on a journey, blending imagination with education.","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-04T13:40:57+0000","datePublished":"2022-02-11T07:26:14+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"The World of the Iliad, c. 1200 BCE","height":2791,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15242/the-world-of-the-iliad-c-1200-bce/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15242/the-world-of-the-iliad-c-1200-bce/","width":4962} </script> </p> <p>The excavations continued throughout the 20th century CE and continue to the present day and they have revealed nine different <a href="/city/">cities</a> and no less than 46 levels of inhabitation at the site. These have been labelled Troy I to Troy IX after Schliemann's (and his successor Dorpfeld's) original classification. This has since been slightly adjusted to incorporate radio-carbon dating results from the early 21st century CE.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p><strong>Troy I </strong>(c. 3000-2550 BCE) was a small village settlement surrounded by stone walls. <a href="/pottery/">Pottery</a> and <a href="/disambiguation/metal/">metal</a> finds match those on <a href="/lesbos/">Lesbos</a> and Lemnos in the Aegean and in northern Anatolia.</p> <p><strong>Troy II </strong>(c. 2550-2300 BCE) displays larger buildings (40 m long), mud-brick and stone fortifications with monumental gates. Schliemann's 'treasure' finds - objects in gold, silver, electrum, bronze, carnelian and lapis lazuli - most likely come from this period. This 'treasure' includes 60 earrings, six bracelets, two magnificent diadems and 8750 rings, all in solid gold. Once again, finds of foreign materials suggest <a href="/disambiguation/trade/">trade</a> with Asia.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="15243"> <a href="/image/15243/the-trojan-plain-c-1200-bce/" title="The Trojan Plain c. 1200 BCE" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15243.png.webp?v=1731005285-1730727777 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15243.png.webp?v=1731005285-1730727777 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15243.png.webp?v=1731005285-1730727777 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/15243.png.webp?v=1731005285-1730727777 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15243.png?v=1731005285-1730727777 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15243.png?v=1731005285-1730727777 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15243.png?v=1731005285-1730727777 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/15243.png?v=1731005285-1730727777 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15243.png?v=1731005285-1730727777" alt="The Trojan Plain c. 1200 BCE" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Trojan Plain c. 1200 BCE</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15243/the-trojan-plain-c-1200-bce/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15243/the-trojan-plain-c-1200-bce/","caption":"A map illustrating the layout of the battlefield of the Trojan War, a conflict between the Achaeans (Ancient Greeks) and the people of Troy in western Anatolia, as it was around 1200 BCE. Homer's description of the Trojan battlefield is now supported by geological findings and sediment analysis of the ancient coastline.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/15243.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher passionate about the human stories behind past events. He believes every image should tell a story and spark interaction, while each map leads on a journey, blending imagination with education.","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-04T13:42:57+0000","datePublished":"2022-02-11T10:41:19+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"The Trojan Plain c. 1200 BCE","height":2790,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15243/the-trojan-plain-c-1200-bce/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15243/the-trojan-plain-c-1200-bce/","width":4960} </script> </p> <p><strong>Troy III - Troy V</strong> (c. 2300-1750 BCE) is the most difficult period to reconstruct as the layers were hastily removed in early excavations in order to reach the lower levels. Generally speaking, the period seems a less prosperous one but foreign contact is further evidenced by the presence of Anatolian influenced dome ovens and <a href="/article/391/minoan-pottery/">Minoan pottery</a>.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <div class="big_quote">The archaeological site of Troy has impressive fortification walls 5 m thick & up to 8 m high constructed from large limestone blocks.</div> <p><strong>Troy VI</strong> (c. 1750-1300 BCE) is the period most visible today at the site and is the most likely candidate for the besieged city of Homer's Trojan War. Impressive fortification walls 5 m thick and up to 8 m high constructed from large limestone blocks and including several towers (with the rectangular plan as in Hittite fortifications) demonstrate the prosperity but also a concern for defence during this period. The walls would have once been topped by a mud brick and wood superstructure and with closely fitting stonework sloping inwards; as the walls rise they certainly fit the Homeric description of 'strong-built Troy'. In addition, sections of the walls are slightly offset every 10 m or so in order to curve around the site without the necessity for corners (a weak point in <a href="/wall/">wall</a> defence). This feature is unique to Troy and displays an independence from both <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean</a> and Hittite influence. The walls included five gateways allowing entrance to the inner city composed of large structures, once of two stories and with central courts and collonaded halls similar to those of contemporary Mycenaean cities such as <a href="/tiryns/">Tiryns</a>, <a href="/Pylos/">Pylos</a> and Mycenae itself. Outside the fortified citadel the lower town covers an impressive 270,000 square metres protected by an encircling rock-cut ditch. The size of the site is now much bigger than first thought when Schliemann excavated and suggests a population of as high as 10,000, much more in keeping with Homer's grand <a href="/Polis/">city-state</a>.</p> <p>Finds at the site point to the existence of a thriving wool industry and the first use of horses, recalling Homer's oft-used epithet 'horse-taming Trojans'. Pottery very similar to that on the Greek mainland has been discovered, principally the Grey Minyan ware which imitates metal vessels. There are also imported ceramics from <a href="/crete/">Crete</a>, <a href="/cyprus/">Cyprus</a> and the <a href="/levant/">Levant</a>. In marked contrast to Mycenaean palaces, there is no evidence of <a href="/disambiguation/Sculpture/">sculpture</a> or <a href="/disambiguation/Fresco/">fresco</a>-painted walls.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="168"> <a href="/image/168/map-of-troy/" title="Map of Troy" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/168.png.webp?v=1697950206 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/168.png.webp?v=1697950206 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/168.png?v=1697950206 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/168.png?v=1697950206 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/168.png?v=1697950206" alt="Map of Troy" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="452" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Map of Troy</div><div class="figauthor">Bibi Saint-Pol (Public Domain)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/168/map-of-troy/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/168/map-of-troy/","caption":"Plan of the archeological site of Troy/Hisarlik.\r\n\r\nLegend:\r\n1: Gate\r\n2: City Wall\r\n3: Megarons\r\n4: FN Gate\r\n5: FO Gate\r\n6: FM Gate and Ramp\r\n7: FJ Gate\r\n8: City Wall\r\n9: Megarons\r\n10: City Wall\r\n11: VI. S Gate\r\n12: VI. H Tower\r\n13: VI. R Gate\r\n14: VI. G Tower\r\n15: Well-Cistern\r\n16: VI. T Dardanos Gate\r\n17: VI. I Tower\r\n18: VI. U Gate\r\n19: VI. A House\r\n20: VI. M Palace-Storage House\r\n21: Pillar House\r\n22: VI. F House with columns\r\n23: VI. C House\r\n24: VI. E House\r\n25: VII. Storage\r\n26: Temple of Athena\r\n27: Entrance to the Temple (Propylaeum)\r\n28: Outer Court Wall\r\n29: Inner Court Wall\r\n30: Holy Place\r\n31: Water Work\r\n32: Parliament (Bouleuterion)\r\n33: Odeon\r\n34: Roman Bath","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/168.png","copyrightNotice":"Bibi Saint-Pol - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Bibi Saint-Pol"},"creditText":"Bibi Saint-Pol / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T05:24:09+0000","datePublished":"2012-04-26T07:45:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Map of Troy","height":"599","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plan_Troy-Hisarlik-en.svg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/168/map-of-troy/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/168/map-of-troy/","width":"664"} </script> </p> <p><strong>Troy VI</strong> was partially destroyed but the exact cause is not known beyond some evidence of fire. Intriguingly, bronze arrow heads, spear tips and sling shots have been found on the site and even some embedded in the fortification walls, suggesting some sort of conflict. The dates of these (c. 1250 BCE) and the site destruction correlate with <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a>' dates for the Trojan War. Conflicts over the centuries between Mycenaeans and <a href="/hittite/">Hittites</a> are more than probable and may well have been the origin of the epic Trojan War in Greek mythology. There is very little evidence of any large-scale war but the possibility of smaller conflicts is evidenced in Hittite texts where 'Ahhiyawa' is recognised as referring to Mycenaean Greeks and 'Wilusa' as the region of which Ilios was the capital. These documents tell of local unrest and Mycenaean support of local rebellion against Hittite control in the area of Troy and suggest a possible motive for regional rivalry between the two civilizations. Intriguingly, there is also a bronze Mycenaean sword taken as war booty and found in Hattusa, the Hittite capital.<br /> <br /> <strong>Troy VIIa</strong> (c. 1300-1180 BCE) and <strong>Troy VIIb </strong>(c. 1180-950 BCE) both display an increase in the size of the lower town and some reconstruction of the fortifications but also a marked decline in architectural and artistic quality in respect to Troy VI. For example, there is a return to handmade pottery after centuries of wares made on the wheel. Once again, this correlates well with the Greek tradition that following the Trojan War the city was sacked and abandoned, at least for a time. Both Troy VIIa and Troy VIIb were destroyed by fires.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YnsbiSS0TuY?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=en" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="The True Story of Troy: Ancient War - Full Documentary"></iframe></div></div> <p><strong>Troy VIII</strong> and <strong>Troy IX</strong> (c. 950 BCE to 550 CE) are the sites of Greek Ilion and Roman Ilium respectively. There is evidence that the site was populated throughout the so-called Dark Ages but the settlement did not return to a level of significant development until the 8th century BCE. Ancient Troy was never forgotten though. The Persian King <a href="/Xerxes_I/">Xerxes</a> is said by Herodotus to have sacrificed over a thousand oxen at the site prior to his invasion of Greece and <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a> also visited the site before his expedition in the opposite direction in order to <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> Asia.</p> <p>A Doric <a href="/temple/">temple</a> to Athena was constructed in the early 3rd century BCE along with new fortifications under <a href="/Lysimachus/">Lysimachos</a> (c. 301-280 BCE). The Romans also held Troy in high regard and even referred to the city as 'Sacred Ilium'. In Roman tradition, the Trojan hero <a href="/Aeneas/">Aeneas</a>, son of <a href="/venus/">Venus</a>, had fled Troy and settled in <a href="/italy/">Italy</a> thus giving the Romans a divine ancestry. <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a> in 48 BCE and Emperor <a href="/augustus/">Augustus</a> (reign 27 BCE -14 CE) rebuilt much of the city and <a href="/hadrian/">Hadrian</a> (reign 117-138 CE) also added buildings which included an odeion, <a href="/Gymnasium/">gymnasium</a> and baths. Emperor <a href="/disambiguation/Constantine/">Constantine</a> (reign 324-337 CE) even planned to build his new capital at Troy and some construction work began until <a href="/Constantinople/">Constantinople</a> was chosen instead. Over time the site declined, most probably because the harbour had silted up and the once great city of Troy was finally abandoned, not to be rediscovered for another 1500 years.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Agamemnon_%28Person%29+Agamemnon_%28Play%29+Ancient_Greece+Bronze_Age+city+greece+Helen_of_Troy+iliad+Menelaus+troy+UNESCO" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <div class="map_section"> <h3>Map</h3> <div class="map_wrapper"> <div class="map_container"> <iframe data-src="/template/files/map_animation.php?loc_id=30" id="map_iframe" width="100%" height="385" frameborder="0"></iframe> </div> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__2bfcaa14ff025c175afc1f862191430f"> <cite class="bib_text">Carabatea, M. <i>Greek Mythology.</i> Pergamos, Peania, 2007</cite> </li> <li id="bibID__75a6c850a07217f79bfafd1d1fd090c1"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0199873607/" rel="sponsored">Cline, E.H. <i>The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean.</i> Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__0f8ce159b1bb46bd0e072afde217e3c0"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0140275363/" rel="sponsored">Homer. <i>The Iliad.</i> Penguin Classics, 1998.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=markzcartwright" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/markzcartwright/" rel="nofollow" title="Mark Cartwright"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-markzcartwright.JPG?v=1588174056" width="100" height="100" alt="Mark Cartwright" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/markzcartwright/" rel="author" title="Mark Cartwright">Mark Cartwright</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Mark is a full-time writer, researcher, historian, and editor. Special interests include art, architecture, and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. He holds an MA in Political Philosophy and is the WHE Publishing Director. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/mark.cartwright.73/" title="Mark Cartwright" class="sm_tiny_sprite facebook no_external"></a> <a href="https://twitter.com/MCartwrightWHE" title="Mark Cartwright" class="sm_tiny_sprite twitter no_external"></a> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/cartwright1797/" title="Mark Cartwright" class="sm_tiny_sprite pinterest no_external"></a> <a href="https://champagnecollection.weebly.com/" title=" Champagne Collection" class="sm_tiny_sprite website no_external" rel="ugc"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="translations_notice"> <h2 class="translations">Translations</h2> <a href="/trans/fr/1-372/troie/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">French</a> <a href="/trans/it/1-372/troia/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Italian</a> <a href="/trans/es/1-372/troya/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Spanish</a> <p>We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and <a href="/trans/x/1-372/edit/" class="translation_add_button" rel="nofollow">translate this definition</a> into another language!</p> </div> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Related Content</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"> <span class="filter_label">Filters:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type selected">All<span class="ci_rel_type_count"> </span></div> <div rel="1" class="ci_type_1 ci_rel_type ">Definitions<span class="ci_rel_type_count">60</span></div> <div rel="2" class="ci_type_2 ci_rel_type ">Articles<span class="ci_rel_type_count">18</span></div> <div rel="3" class="ci_type_3 ci_rel_type ">Images<span class="ci_rel_type_count">14</span></div> <div rel="6" class="ci_type_6 ci_rel_type ">Videos<span class="ci_rel_type_count">6</span></div> <div rel="9" class="ci_type_9 ci_rel_type ">Collections<span class="ci_rel_type_count">1</span></div> </div> <div id="ci_related_content"> <div class="ci_related_content_wrapper ci_two_cols three_cols"> <div class="columns"> <a href="/Helen_(Play)/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-19329"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/13205.jpg.webp?v=1730068926 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/13205.jpg.webp?v=1730068926 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/13205.jpg?v=1730068926 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/13205.jpg?v=1730068926 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/13205.jpg?v=1730068926" width="360" height="202" alt="Helen (Play)" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Helen (Play)</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Helen is a Greek tragedy by Euripides (c. 484-407 BCE). It is usually... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Helen_of_Troy/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11645"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/13343.jpg.webp?v=1725269584 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/13343.jpg.webp?v=1725269584 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/13343.jpg?v=1725269584 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/13343.jpg?v=1725269584 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/13343.jpg?v=1725269584" width="360" height="202" alt="Helen of Troy" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Helen of Troy</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Helen of Troy (sometimes called Helen of Sparta) is a figure from... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Menelaus/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-18822"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11994.jpg.webp?v=1730068930 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11994.jpg.webp?v=1730068930 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11994.jpg?v=1730068930 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/11994.jpg?v=1730068930 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/11994.jpg?v=1730068930" width="360" height="202" alt="Menelaus" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Menelaus</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Menelaus (also Menelaos) is a figure from ancient Greek mythology... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Agamemnon_(Person)/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-17386"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1235.jpg.webp?v=1730899926 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1235.jpg.webp?v=1730899926 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1235.jpg?v=1730899926 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1235.jpg?v=1730899926 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1235.jpg?v=1730899926" width="360" height="202" alt="Agamemnon (Person)" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Agamemnon (Person)</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Agamemnon was the legendary king of Mycenae and leader of the Greek... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Agamemnon_(Play)/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-10307"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5289.jpg.webp?v=1713994023 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5289.jpg.webp?v=1713994023 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5289.jpg?v=1713994023 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5289.jpg?v=1713994023 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5289.jpg?v=1713994023" width="360" height="202" alt="Agamemnon (Play)" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Agamemnon (Play)</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The play Agamemnon was written by one of the greatest Greek tragedians... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Iphigenia_in_Aulis/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-17671"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5561.jpg.webp?v=1699448163 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5561.jpg.webp?v=1699448163 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5561.jpg?v=1699448163 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/5561.jpg?v=1699448163 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5561.jpg?v=1699448163" width="360" height="202" alt="Iphigenia in Aulis" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Iphigenia in Aulis</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Iphigenia in Aulis (or at Aulis) was written by Euripides, the... </div> </div> </a> </div> <nav class="pagination"> <strong class="pagination_page">1</strong> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="2" rel="next ">2</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="3" rel="">3</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="4" rel="">4</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="5" rel="">5</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="6" rel="">6</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="7" rel="">7</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="8" rel="">8</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="9" rel="">9</a> <a href="#" class="pagination_page" data-page="10" rel="">10</a> <a href="#" data-page="2" rel="next">Next &rsaquo;</a> <a href="#" data-page="17" rel="">Last »</a> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var wrapper_selector_prefix = '#ci_related_wrapper '; var pag = 1; var cit = "0"; var cist = ""; function handle_related_pagination_click() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper .pagination a").off().one("click",function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var newpage = $(this).attr("data-page"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=troy+agamemnon+%28person%29+agamemnon+%28play%29+ancient+greece+bronze+age+city+greece+helen+of+troy+iliad+menelaus+troy+unesco&caching=1&ci_id=1-372&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-372%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + newpage + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); if (document.getElementById('ci_related_type_list')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_type_list').offset().top; } else if (document.getElementById('ci_related_content_outer_wrapper')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper').offset().top; } if (eTop > 0) { $(window).scrollTop(eTop); } updateBrowserURL(cit,newpage,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); } function updateBrowserURL(cit,page,cist) { let urlComponents = []; let url = ''; if (cit) { urlComponents.push('type:'+cit); } if (page) { urlComponents.push('page:'+page); } if (cist) { urlComponents.push('subtype:'+cist); } url = '#ci_related_filters=' + urlComponents.join('&'); window.location = url; } function applyBrowserURLFilters() { if (window.location.hash) { let filters = window.location.hash.match(/ci_related_filters=type:([0-9]+)&page:([0-9]+)(&subtype:([0-9]+))?/); if (filters) { let type = filters[1] ?? 0; let page = filters[2] ?? 0; let subtype = filters[4] ?? 0; if (type || page || subtype) { console.log('Applying filters!'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=troy+agamemnon+%28person%29+agamemnon+%28play%29+ancient+greece+bronze+age+city+greece+helen+of+troy+iliad+menelaus+troy+unesco&caching=1&ci_id=1-372&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-372%22%7D&cit=" + type + "&lim=6&pag=" + page + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + subtype,function() { jsQueue(()=>{ // Change UI selection $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_type_'+type).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector[data-subtype-id=2]").addClass("selected"); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); } } } } jsQueue(()=>{ applyBrowserURLFilters(); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").click(function() { cit = $(this).attr('rel'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + "#ci_related_type_current_selection").html(null); $(this).clone().appendTo("#ci_related_type_current_selection"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=troy+agamemnon+%28person%29+agamemnon+%28play%29+ancient+greece+bronze+age+city+greece+helen+of+troy+iliad+menelaus+troy+unesco&caching=1&ci_id=1-372&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-372%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector').click(function() { cist = $(this).attr('data-subtype-id'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=troy+agamemnon+%28person%29+agamemnon+%28play%29+ancient+greece+bronze+age+city+greece+helen+of+troy+iliad+menelaus+troy+unesco&caching=1&ci_id=1-372&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%221-372%22%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); }); </script> <div class="membership-below-block-wrapper"> <div class="membership_below_notice"> <div class="membership_below_notice_inner"> <h2 class="no_toc">Free for the World, Supported by You</h2> <p class="a"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. For only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month you can become a member and support our mission to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. </p> <p class="b"> World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. Please support free history education for millions of learners worldwide for only <span class="mem_monthly_price">$5</span> per month by becoming a member. Thank you! </p> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=below-content-a&utm_campaign=membership" class="content_button member-button" rel="nofollow">Become a Member</a>   <a href="/donate/?utm_campaign=donation&utm_medium=below_content_a&utm_source=membership_block_en" class="content_button donate-button" rel="nofollow">Donate</a> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var membership_below_block_bg = '/template/images/membership-below-block-bg-princess.jpg'; pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.ab == 'b') { $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .member-button').attr('href').replace('below-content-a','below-content-b')); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href',$('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').attr('href').replace('below_content_a','below_content_b')); $('.membership_below_notice p.a').hide(); $('.membership_below_notice p.b').show(); // A/B Testing Code Below // A/B Testing Code End } observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',function() { $('.membership_below_notice').attr("style","background-image: url('"+membership_below_block_bg+"');"); }); observedElementInView('.membership_below_notice',()=>{ ga4Event('membership-below-block-viewed','version-' + AHE.ab); },0,true); $('.membership_below_notice .member-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .donate-button').click(function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var targetUrl = this.href; console.log("Link clicked: " + targetUrl); window.setTimeout(function() { console.log("Google Analytics timeout!"); top.window.location.href = targetUrl; },2000); ga4Event('membership-below-block-clicked','version-' + AHE.ab,targetUrl,()=>{ top.window.location.href = targetUrl; }); }); $('.membership_below_notice .mem_monthly_price').html(getMembershipPriceMonthly()); }); </script> <style> .membership_below_notice p.b { display: none; } </style> </div> <div class="xres_list_wrapper"> <a href="/xres/add/ci_id:1-372/" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Add External Link</a> <h2>External Links</h2> <div class="xres_wrapper list"> <div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://ed.ted.com/lessons/did-ancient-troy-really-exist-einav-zamir-dembin" title="Did ancient Troy really exist? - Einav Zamir Dembin" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">Did ancient Troy really exist? - Einav Zamir Dembin </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> ted.com </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01j6srl" title="In Our Time, The Trojan War" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">In Our Time, The Trojan War </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> bbc.co.uk </div> </div><div class="xres listitem"> <a href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/search-lost-city-troy" title="The search for the lost city of Troy | British Museum" rel="external noopener" class="xres_headline"> <div class="xres_headline">The search for the lost city of Troy | British Museum </div> </a> <div class="xres_domain external_link"> britishmuseum.org </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="citation_info"> <h2>Cite This Work</h2> <div class="citation_apa"> <h4>APA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Cartwright, M. (2018, May 11). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" class="no_external">Troy</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Cartwright, Mark. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" class="no_external">Troy</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified May 11, 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Cartwright, Mark. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/" class="no_external">Troy</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 11 May 2018. Web. 28 Nov 2024. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/markzcartwright/" rel="author" title="User Page: Mark Cartwright">Mark Cartwright</a>, published on 11 May 2018. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=troy&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_371" title=""> <div class="date">3000 BCE - 2550 BCE</div> <a href="/troy/">Troy</a> I - First stone-walled village settlement </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_372" title=""> <div class="date">2550 BCE - 2300 BCE</div> <a href="/troy/">Troy</a> II - origin of <a href="/gold/">gold</a> 'treasure' found by Schliemann </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_373" title=""> <div class="date">2300 BCE - 1750 BCE</div> <a href="/troy/">Troy</a> III - Troy V </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_374" title=""> <div class="date">1750 BCE - 1300 BCE</div> <a href="/troy/">Troy</a> VI - probable Troy of <a href="/homer/">Homer</a>'s <a href="/iliad/">Iliad</a>. <a href="/city/">City</a> at its zenith. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_384" title=""> <div class="date">1334 BCE</div> <a href="/Trojan_War/">Trojan War</a>, according to Duris of <a href="/samos/">Samos</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_375" title=""> <div class="date">1300 BCE - 950 BCE</div> <a href="/troy/">Troy</a> VIIa - VIIb Notable decline in architectural and artisitic standards </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_382" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1250 BCE</div> <a href="/Trojan_War/">Trojan War</a>, according to <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_383" title=""> <div class="date">1184 BCE</div> <a href="/Trojan_War/">Trojan War</a>, according to <a href="/Eratosthenes/">Eratosthenes</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_380" title=""> <div class="date">c. 950 BCE - 550 CE</div> <a href="/troy/">Troy</a> VIII <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> Ilion - Troy IX <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/troy/">Ilium</a> </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_521" title=""> <div class="date">c. 800 BCE - c. 700 BCE</div> <a href="/homer/">Homer</a> of <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> writes his <i><a href="/iliad/">Iliad</a></i> and <i><a href="/Odyssey/">Odyssey</a></i>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1503" title=""> <div class="date">c. 301 BCE - c. 320 BCE</div> Doric <a href="/temple/">temple</a> to <a href="/athena/">Athena</a> and fortifications of <a href="/Lysimachus/">Lysimachus</a> built at <a href="/troy/">Troy</a>. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1732096425" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. If you liked this content, please consider donating at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/donate/</strong>. To remove this message from printouts, you can become a supporting member at <strong>www.worldhistory.org/membership/</strong>. Thank you for supporting our work! </p> </div> <div id="footer_wrapper"> <div id="recommended_list"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <p> Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including <a href="https://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/about/curious-minds-explore">Oxford University</a>. Our publication has been reviewed for educational use by <a href="https://www.commonsense.org/education/website/world-history-encyclopedia">Common Sense Education</a>, <a href="https://scout.wisc.edu/report/2017/1020">Internet Scout (University of Wisconsin)</a>, <a href="https://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewCompositeReview.htm?id=1270309">Merlot (California State University)</a>, <a href="https://www.oercommons.org/courses/world-history-encyclopedia">OER Commons</a> and the <a href="https://www.slj.com/?detailStory=unbury-the-past-apps-and-websites-for-exploring-ancient-worlds-mix-it-up">School Library Journal</a>. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. </p> </div> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <div id="footer_contents"> <div class="footer_section top"> <div class="mission center"> <strong>Our Mission</strong> Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. </div> <div class="social right"> <strong>Follow Us</strong> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" class="footer_sm_link facebook no_external" title="Follow us on Facebook" rel="me"><svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" class="footer_sm_link twitter no_external" title="Follow us on Twitter" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/pinterest" class="footer_sm_link pinterest no_external" title="Follow us on Pinterest" rel="me"><?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 24 24" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path d="m12 0c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12 0 5.1 3.2 9.4 7.6 11.2-0.1-0.9-0.2-2.4 0-3.4 0.2-0.9 1.4-6 1.4-6s-0.3-0.8-0.3-1.8c0-1.7 1-2.9 2.2-2.9 1 0 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.7 0 1-0.7 2.6-1 4-0.3 1.2 0.6 2.2 1.8 2.2 2.1 0 3.8-2.2 3.8-5.5 0-2.9-2.1-4.9-5-4.9-3.4 0-5.4 2.6-5.4 5.2 0 1 0.4 2.1 0.9 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.3 1.2-0.3 1.4-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 0.2-1.5-0.7-2.4-2.9-2.4-4.6 0-3.8 2.7-7.3 7.9-7.3 4.2 0 7.4 3 7.4 6.9 0 4.1-2.6 7.5-6.2 7.5-1.2 0-2.4-0.6-2.8-1.4l-0.7 2.9c-0.3 1-1 2.3-1.5 3.1 1 0.3 2.2 0.5 3.4 0.5 6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12s-5.4-12-12-12"/> </svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/linkedin" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Linkedin" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm-2 16h-2v-6h2v6zm-1-6.891c-.607 0-1.1-.496-1.1-1.109 0-.612.492-1.109 1.1-1.109s1.1.497 1.1 1.109c0 .613-.493 1.109-1.1 1.109zm8 6.891h-1.998v-2.861c0-1.881-2.002-1.722-2.002 0v2.861h-2v-6h2v1.093c.872-1.616 4-1.736 4 1.548v3.359z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Instagram" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z"/></svg></a> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" class="footer_sm_link youtube no_external" title="Follow us on YouTube" rel="me"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z"/></svg></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="links"> <a href="/static/about/">About</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/contact/">Contact</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/advertise/">Advertise</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/privacy/">Privacy Policy</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/partners/">Partners</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/static/supporters/">Supporters</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/newsletter/">Newsletter</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="/config/en/">Settings</a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered"> <p> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Publishing</a> is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom.<br> <a href="/static/contact/">World History Foundation</a> is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. </p>  <p> Some Rights Reserved (2009-2024) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. </p> <p> The World History Encyclopedia logo is a <a href="https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmcase/page/Results/1/UK00003762855">registered trademark</a>. </p> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered partners"> <strong>Featured Partner</strong> <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/archives" title="UNESCO Digital Archives" rel="nofollow"><img src="/images/partners/unesco_archives_white.png" width="216" height="125" alt="UNESCO Archives" loading="lazy"></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section ccpa"> <div class="centered"> <div id="ccpa_message"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section exec"> <div class="centered"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  </footer> <div id="float_message"></div>  <script type="text/javascript" async src="https://btloader.com/tag?o=5698917485248512&upapi=true&domain=worldhistory.org"></script> <script>!function(){"use strict";var e;e=document,function(){var t,n;function r(){var t=e.createElement("script");t.src="https://cafemedia-com.videoplayerhub.com/galleryplayer.js",e.head.appendChild(t)}function a(){var t=e.cookie.match("(^|[^;]+)\s*__adblocker\s*=\s*([^;]+)");return t&&t.pop()}function c(){clearInterval(n)}return{init:function(){var e;"true"===(t=a())?r():(e=0,n=setInterval((function(){100!==e&&"false" !== t || c(), "true" === t && (r(), c()), t = a(), e++}), 50))}}}().init()}(); </script>   <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/deferred.css?v=1732096425" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/print.css?v=1732096425" media="print"> <script> document.querySelectorAll('img, picture').forEach(function(imgItem) { imgItem.addEventListener('error',function(e) { AHE.imageErrors.push(this.src); }); }); </script> <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'8e9b7edbaa3c44bf',t:'MTczMjgwODgzNi4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>

CINXE.COM

Troy - World History Encyclopedia