Warfare - World History Encyclopedia

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onclick="pdfButtonClicked();">PDF</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } function pdfButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ahe_dialogue('/template/files/print-to-pdf-dialogue.php?v='+AHE.lastDeploy,400,null,'PDF') }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12950.png" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/" data-pin-description="Warfare is generally understood to be the controlled and systematic waging of armed conflict between sovereign nations or states, using military might and strategy, until one opponent is defeated on the field or sues for peace in the face of inevitable destruction and greater loss of human life. The..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 02 September 2009 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/zh/1-154/" class="translation_link zh " rel="alternate">Chinese</a>, <a href="/trans/fr/1-154/guerre/" class="translation_link fr " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-154/guerra/" class="translation_link es " rel="alternate">Spanish</a></div> </div> <div id="audio-outer-wrapper"> <iframe id="audio-frame-contents" data-src="/audioplayer/en/1-154/" height="80" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no"></iframe> </div> <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ let litPlayer = $('#audio-frame-contents'); if (litPlayer) { litPlayer.attr('src',litPlayer.attr('data-src')); } }); }); </script> <style> #audio-outer-wrapper { height: 80px; width: 100%; margin: 1em 0em; } #audio-frame-contents { background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; max-height: 80px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Battle_of_Actium+Battle_of_Gaixia+Battle_of_Gaugamela+Battle_of_Ipsus+Battle_of_Issus+Battle_of_Leuctra+Battle_of_Pydna+Battle_of_the_Granicus+Battle_of_Zama+The_Art_of_War+war+warfare" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <span class="outline_button pdf_button" onclick="pdfButtonClicked();">PDF</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } function pdfButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ahe_dialogue('/template/files/print-to-pdf-dialogue.php?v='+AHE.lastDeploy,400,null,'PDF') }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/12950/medieval-army-approaching-a-city-under-siege/" title="Medieval Army Approaching a City Under Siege"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12950.png.webp?v=1726740064 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/12950.png.webp?v=1726740064 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12950.png?v=1726740064 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/12950.png?v=1726740064 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12950.png?v=1726740064" width="300" height="150" alt="Medieval Army Approaching a City Under Siege (by Mohawk Games, Copyright)" title="Medieval Army Approaching a City Under Siege (by Mohawk Games, Copyright)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Medieval Army Approaching a City Under Siege</div><div class="figauthor">Mohawk Games (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12950/medieval-army-approaching-a-city-under-siege/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12950/medieval-army-approaching-a-city-under-siege/","caption":"Artist's depiction of a Medieval army approaching a city under siege. From the game Old World.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12950.png","copyrightNotice":"Mohawk Games - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Mohawk Games"},"creditText":"Mohawk Games / Mohawk Games","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:14:02+0000","datePublished":"2020-10-18T05:14:34+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Medieval Army Approaching a City Under Siege","height":1024,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://www.mohawkgames.com/oldworld/"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12950/medieval-army-approaching-a-city-under-siege/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12950/medieval-army-approaching-a-city-under-siege/","width":2048} </script> <p>Warfare is generally understood to be the controlled and systematic waging of armed conflict between sovereign nations or states, using military might and strategy, until one opponent is defeated on the field or sues for peace in the face of inevitable destruction and greater loss of human life. The first recorded <a href="/war/">war</a> in history is that between <a href="/sumer/">Sumer</a> and <a href="/elam/">Elam</a> in <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a> in 2700 BCE in which Sumer was victorious, and the first peace treaty ever signed ending hostilities between nations was between <a href="/Ramesses_II/">Ramesses II</a> (the Great) of the <a href="/empire/">Empire</a> of <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> and Hattusili III of the <a href="/hittite/">Hittite</a> Empire in 1258 BCE.</p> <p>In both of these cases, war was waged, and a treaty was signed to resolve political and cultural conflicts. Warfare has been a part of the human condition throughout recorded history and invariably results from the tribe mentality inherent in human communities and their fear or mistrust of another, different, 'tribe' as manifested in the people of another region, <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a>, or <a href="/religion/">religion</a>.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <h3>Warfare & the Unification of <a href="/china/">China</a></h3> <p>One example of the tribe mentality resulting in warfare can be seen in China during the <a href="/Warring_States_Period/">Warring States Period</a> (476-221 BCE) where seven tribal states fought for supreme control of the land. The <a href="/Zhou_Dynasty/">Zhou Dynasty</a> (1046-226 BCE) which had served as the seat of political authority in China (though not of a unified China) was in decline, and each of the independent states recognized the opportunity to gain supremacy.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <p>As every state employed the same tactics and observed the same policies of war, none could gain a significant advantage over the others. The Chinese historian <a href="/Sima_Qian/">Sima Qian</a> wrote that the people of China during this period knew no other life than that of warfare generation after generation.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <div class="big_quote">The Chinese historian Sima Qian wrote that the people of China during this period knew no other life than that of warfare generation after generation.</div> <p>The first military conflicts in China are recorded with the rise of the <a href="/Xia_Dynasty/">Xia Dynasty</a> (c. 2070-1600 BCE) but, once political contentions were settled, peace prevailed. During the Warring States Period, however, the country was in constant turmoil. This situation was resolved by the King of Qin, Ying Zheng, who implemented the concept of total war in his campaigns so effectively that, between 230 and 221 BCE, he conquered the other states completely.</p> <p>Ying Zheng unified China under the <a href="/Qin_Dynasty/">Qin Dynasty</a> and claimed for himself the title of First Emperor or, Qin <a href="/Shi_Huangdi/">Shi Huangti</a>, the title by which he is best known. His use of warfare to resolve long-standing political disputes serves as a paradigm for the use of war generally, whether on a larger or a smaller scale.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <h3>The Victors & the Vanquished</h3> <p>Warfare in ancient times was conducted differently than what would be considered acceptable by today's standards; the vanquished could be certain that slavery or summary execution awaited them. When <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a> took the Phoenician <a href="/city/">city</a> of <a href="/Tyre/">Tyre</a> in July of 332 BCE, he had most of the population killed and sold the rest into slavery. In September of 52 BCE, when <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a> defeated <a href="/vercingetorix/">Vercingetorix</a> and his Gallic tribes at the <a href="/article/1734/battle-of-alesia/">Battle of Alesia</a>, the garrison was sold into slavery and each <a href="/Roman_Legionary/">Roman legionary</a> in <a href="/disambiguation/caesar/">Caesar</a>'s legions received, as a gift, one <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a> as a personal slave. Over 40,000 Gauls were taken as slaves by the legionaries alone, not counting those others sold to tribes who made peace with Caesar and formed alliances after Alesia.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="2237"> <a href="/image/2237/siege-of-alesia/" title="Siege of Alesia" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2237.png.webp?v=1726491666 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2237.png.webp?v=1726491666 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2237.png.webp?v=1726491666 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/2237.png.webp?v=1726491666 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2237.png?v=1726491666 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2237.png?v=1726491666 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2237.png?v=1726491666 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/2237.png?v=1726491666 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2237.png?v=1726491666" alt="Siege of Alesia" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Siege of Alesia</div><div class="figauthor">The Creative Assembly (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2237/siege-of-alesia/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2237/siege-of-alesia/","caption":"This is an artistic 3D model of how the Battle of Alesia may have looked. \r\n\r\nIn this decisive Roman victory (September 52 BCE), Julius Caesar defeated the Arverni leader Vercingetorix, completing the Roman conquest of Gaul.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2237.png","copyrightNotice":"The Creative Assembly - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"The Creative Assembly"},"creditText":"The Creative Assembly / Creative Assembly","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:14:02+0000","datePublished":"2014-01-21T09:18:19+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Siege of Alesia","height":1080,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2237/siege-of-alesia/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2237/siege-of-alesia/","width":1920} </script> </p> <p>When <a href="/augustus/">Octavian</a> defeated <a href="/Mark_Antony/">Mark Antony</a> and <a href="/disambiguation/cleopatra/">Cleopatra</a> at the <a href="/Battle_of_Actium/">Battle of Actium</a> in 31 BCE, a similar fate awaited the conquered who were not fortunate enough to die in <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a>. This same model of warfare obtains as far back as <a href="/Sargon_of_Akkad/">Sargon of Akkad</a> (2334-2279 BCE) who united Mesopotamia under the <a href="/akkad/">Akkadian Empire</a> and was perfected by the Assyrian Empire during the <a href="/disambiguation/Iron_Age/">Iron Age</a> (1000-500 BCE). The Assyrians were the first political force to employ large-scale deportations of the conquered populace to other regions and resettlement of the region by their own people. The citizens of the defeated city or state were either sold into slavery or forced to relocate to an area or region dictated by their conquerors.</p> <h3>Tactics & Formations</h3> <p>The armies who waged war on the field were initially made up of infantry units, who engaged an enemy force and closed with them using spears, shields, and some form of body armor and helmet. In time, armies developed to include shock troops (infantry who engaged the opposing lines in tight formation) and peltasts (infantry in looser formations who fired long-range missiles at the enemy and were more mobile). The formation known as the phalanx was the standard in virtually every army from its origin in Sumer in 3000 BCE through the time of the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. The phalanx was modified many times through initiatives by men such as <a href="/Philip_II_of_Macedon/">Philip II of Macedon</a> or his son <a href="/disambiguation/Alexander/">Alexander</a> the Great, but the basic formation, and its effectiveness, remained constant.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>With the introduction of the horse to combat, cavalry units arose and the war <a href="/chariot/">chariot</a> was frequently employed in battle. As armies grew in size, and as history established the precedent of empires, more and more resources were brought to bear in battle including the use of animals such as camels (which <a href="/Cyrus_the_Great/">Cyrus the Great</a> employed brilliantly at the <a href="/Battle_of_Thymbra/">Battle of Thymbra</a> in 546 BCE), or elephants (famously used by <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> in the <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a> 218-201 BCE), or even cats, which were used by <a href="/Cambyses_II/">Cambyses II</a> of <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a> to defeat Egypt at the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BCE.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="13914"> <a href="/image/13914/the-battle-of-pelusium/" title="The Battle of Pelusium" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/13914.jpg.webp?v=1743311405 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/13914.jpg.webp?v=1743311405 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/13914.jpg.webp?v=1743311405 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/13914.jpg.webp?v=1743311405 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/13914.jpg?v=1743311405 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/13914.jpg?v=1743311405 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/13914.jpg?v=1743311405 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/13914.jpg?v=1743311405 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/13914.jpg?v=1743311405" alt="The Battle of Pelusium" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Battle of Pelusium</div><div class="figauthor">Simon Seitz (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13914/the-battle-of-pelusium/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13914/the-battle-of-pelusium/","caption":"Artist's impression of the Battle of Pelusium (525 BCE), showing the Persian army led by Cambyses II (525-522 BCE) on the left, and the Egyptian army led by Psametik III (526-525 BCE) on the right.\r\n\r\nThe battle was a decisive Persian victory brought about by the Persian's clever use of cats: As cats were sacred to the Egyptians, the Persian army herded cats (and other animals) in front of their battle line, and painted cats onto their shields. The Egyptians, afraid to hurt sacred cats and incurring the wrath of Bastet, were shaken and decisively defeated. Following the battle, Persia annexed Egypt.\r\n\r\nOriginal illustration by Simon Seitz for World History Encyclopedia.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/13914.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Simon Seitz - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/staublicht/#person","name":"Simon Seitz","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/staublicht/"},"creditText":"Simon Seitz / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:14:02+0000","datePublished":"2021-04-28T05:05:41+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Battle of Pelusium","height":1972,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13914/the-battle-of-pelusium/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13914/the-battle-of-pelusium/","width":3508} </script> </p> <p>The Persian king was aware of the veneration of cats in <a href="/Egyptian_Culture/">Egyptian culture</a>, and so had his army paint the image of the cat on their shields and, further, drove cats and other animals sacred to the Egyptians before the front lines. The Egyptians, unwilling to risk the wrath of their gods should they injure any of the animals, surrendered to the Persian army.</p> <p>The first naval battle in recorded history was fought between the ships of the Hittite King <a href="/Suppiluliuma_I/">Suppiluliuma</a> II and an invading fleet from the island of <a href="/cyprus/">Cyprus</a> c. 1210 BCE. Ships were no doubt used in battle before this date, however, and records indicate that <a href="/disambiguation/sargon/">Sargon</a> of <a href="/akkad/">Akkad</a> made use of boats in warfare which could be dismantled and carried over land.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>The <a href="/Peltast/">peltast</a> units with their ability to inflict severe damage on an enemy long-range eventually inspired the artillery unit, who used large weapons for the same purpose. Examples of <a href="/article/649/roman-artillery/">Roman artillery</a> are the scorpio (a large crossbow), the ballista (similar to a catapult), the onager (a small ballista), and the catapult. By the time the <a href="/Roman_Army/">Roman army</a> was conquering the world, all tactics and every resource available in the service of warfare were made use of by the legions.</p> <h3>Ancient Armies & Weaponry</h3> <p>Battle strategies and methods of warfare differed by country, by ruler, and by era. In ancient <a href="/Egyptian_Warfare/">Egyptian warfare</a>, the army was equipped with a simple spear and a leather shield, but, by c. 1570 BCE, when the Egyptians defeated the foreign <a href="/Hyksos/">Hyksos</a> who had taken Lower Egypt, they artfully employed the horse and chariot, body armor, and the composite bow as well as the <a href="/disambiguation/bronze/">bronze</a> khepesh sword.</p> <p>Ironically, it was the Hyksos themselves who had given the Egyptians the technology (especially the composite bow, the tin bronze sword, and chariot) to defeat them. Prior to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt, the army was largely equipped with the same kinds of weapons they had used in the <a href="/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt/">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a> (c. 2613-2181 BCE). Advances in weaponry, due at first to the Hyksos and then to the <a href="/hittite/">Hittites</a>, led to the development of the professional fighting force of the <a href="/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt/">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> (c. 1570-1069 BCE), which created and maintained the <a href="/Egyptian_Empire/">Egyptian Empire</a>.</p><div class="intext_6 ahe-ad book_rec_banner"></div> <p>Ancient <a href="/Persian_Warfare/">Persian warfare</a> favored armored cavalry, heavy infantry (of whom the elite were known as the 10,000 <a href="/disambiguation/immortals/">Immortals</a>), and archers who would rain down arrows on an opposing force to create 'awe and wonder' in the ranks. Ancient <a href="/Greek_Warfare/">Greek warfare</a> relied on armored infantry (the hoplites) and the phalanx formation, a dense grouping of soldiers with long spears and interlocking shields. In <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>, the infantry did most of the fighting, no matter what city-states were involved, the notable exception being the naval <a href="/Battle_of_Salamis/">battle of Salamis</a> in 480 BCE.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="2965"> <a href="/image/2965/the-alexander-mosaic/" title="The Alexander Mosaic" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2965.jpg.webp?v=1733622911 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2965.jpg.webp?v=1733622911 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2965.jpg?v=1733622911 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2965.jpg?v=1733622911 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2965.jpg?v=1733622911" alt="The Alexander Mosaic" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="332" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Alexander Mosaic</div><div class="figauthor">Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2965/the-alexander-mosaic/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2965/the-alexander-mosaic/","caption":"The Alexander Mosaic, dating from circa 100 BCE, depicts the Battle of Issus (333 BCE) between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. The mosaic adorned one of the exedras on the north side of the peristyle of the House of the Faun in Pompeii. The original is preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2965.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Carole Raddato - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Carole Raddato"},"creditText":"Carole Raddato / Flickr","dateModified":"2025-04-09T11:14:02+0000","datePublished":"2014-08-28T09:31:34+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Alexander Mosaic","height":1356,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/carolemage/15045954695/in/set-72157646478580569/"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2965/the-alexander-mosaic/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2965/the-alexander-mosaic/","width":2048} </script> </p> <p><a href="/disambiguation/Philip_II/">Philip II</a> of <a href="/macedon/">Macedon</a> introduced the sarissa (a long spear) to the phalanx, which greatly enhanced the formation's effectiveness on the field, and the <a href="/article/676/the-army-of-alexander-the-great/">army of Alexander the Great</a> made use of the sarissa infantry phalanxes but also employed light and heavy cavalry and chariots to effect. The three-line legion of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> Empire, equipped with body armor, spear, shield and short sword replaced the phalanx formation and, supported by <a href="/Roman_Cavalry/">Roman cavalry</a>, proved itself the greatest fighting force in antiquity after Alexander the Great.</p> <p>Every ancient culture, more or less, followed the same basic pattern of developing rudimentary weapons (usually based on tools they had used in hunting) which then were improved upon as members of different tribes came in contact – and conflict – with each other. As tribes became cultures and civilizations with differing interests, conflict became more common and weaponry, and warfare, more sophisticated in an effort to achieve greater results with less effort. No matter the culture or the time period, governments have routinely shown more interest, and exerted more effort, in warfare than in almost any other aspect of a nation's life.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div></p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Battle_of_Actium+Battle_of_Gaixia+Battle_of_Gaugamela+Battle_of_Ipsus+Battle_of_Issus+Battle_of_Leuctra+Battle_of_Pydna+Battle_of_the_Granicus+Battle_of_Zama+The_Art_of_War+war+warfare" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This human-authored article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__ab53ffabfa1172e447e8232610e32196"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1909160466/" rel="sponsored">Anglim, S. <i>FIGHTING TECHNIQUES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 3000 BCE-500CE.</i> Amber Books, 2013.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__7af2d4c47ac5edc16ad787a684768692"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0517203804/" rel="sponsored">Bunson, M. <i>Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt.</i> Gramercy, 1999.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__ca545859dacb67d2f69ae422e144a8c8"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0195143663/" rel="sponsored">Davis, P.K. <i>100 Decisive Battles.</i> Oxford University Press, USA, 2001.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__60611fa923a81b49d1c01557d9757713"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B00005WJGO/" rel="sponsored">Durant, W. <i>Our Oriental Heritage.</i> Simon & Schuster, 1954.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__443c6c908bf11db7ad93497bee188941"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www.ancient.eu.com/article/43/" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="The Battle of Pelusium: A Victory Decided by Cats">The Battle of Pelusium: A Victory Decided by Cats</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 15 May 2020.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__fe9869a32c62110d1ca64219a6f604cf"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/antony.html" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="The Internet Classics Archive | Antony by Plutarch">The Internet Classics Archive | Antony by Plutarch</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 1 Dec 2016.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__ee56e7fe159a13ae16dbe2c07cc724d6"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/140580162X/" rel="sponsored">Worthington, I. <i>Alexander the Great.</i> Longman, 2004.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); 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href="/Battle_of_Gaixia/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11669" data-score="933675" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9887.png.webp?v=1713321604 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/9887.png.webp?v=1713321604 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9887.png?v=1713321604 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/9887.png?v=1713321604 720w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9887.png?v=1713321604" width="360" height="202" alt="Battle of Gaixia" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Battle of Gaixia</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Battle of Gaixia (202 BCE, also known as Kai-Hsia) was the... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Battle_of_Pydna/" class="content_item ci_related_item 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data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12055.png.webp?v=1628364601 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/12055.png.webp?v=1628364601 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12055.png?v=1628364601 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/12055.png?v=1628364601 720w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12055.png?v=1628364601" width="360" height="202" alt="Battle of the Granicus" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Battle of the Granicus</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Battle of the Granicus in May 334 BCE was Alexander the Great's... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Battle_of_Issus/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-527" data-score="700434" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source 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J. (2009, September 02). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/" class="no_external">Warfare</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/" class="no_external">Warfare</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified September 02, 2009. https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/" class="no_external">Warfare</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 02 Sep 2009. Web. 09 Apr 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 02 September 2009. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=warfare&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_63" title=""> <div class="date">2400 BCE</div> First use of <a href="/war/">war</a> chariots in <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_368" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2240 BCE</div> <a href="/Naram-Sin/">Naram-Sin</a> of <a href="/akkad/">Akkad</a> campaigns against the Amorites in northern <a href="/syria/">Syria</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2536" title=""> <div class="date">2200 BCE - 1500 BCE</div> The <a href="/Minoan_Civilization/">Minoan Civilization</a> flourishes on <a href="/crete/">Crete</a>, <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>. King Minos establishes the first navy in the region. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_68" title=""> <div class="date">2193 BCE</div> <a href="/Gutians/">Gutian</a> invasion destroys <a href="/akkad/">Akkadian empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_336" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1750 BCE</div> <a href="/elam/">Elam</a> conquers <a href="/ur/">Ur</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_370" title=""> <div class="date">1595 BCE</div> <a href="/hittite/">Hittites</a> under Mursilli I sack <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a>, ending <a href="/amorite/">Amorite</a> rule. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_391" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1458 BCE</div> <a href="/Kadesh/">Kadesh</a> and Megiddo lead a Canaanite alliance against the <a href="/disambiguation/Egyptian/">Egyptian</a> invasion by <a href="/Thutmose_III/">Thutmose III</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_599" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1457 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Megiddo: <a href="/Thutmose_III/">Thutmose III</a> of <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> defeats a coalition of <a href="/canaan/">Canaan</a>, <a href="/Kadesh/">Kadesh</a>, <a href="/Mitanni/">Mitanni</a>, and Megiddo led by Durusha, king of Kadesh. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2642" title=""> <div class="date">1307 BCE - 1275 BCE</div> Reign of Assyrian King <a href="/Adad_Nirari_I/">Adad Nirari I</a>, <a href="/Mitanni/">Mitanni</a> becomes vassal state. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1918" title=""> <div class="date">1258 BCE</div> The Treaty of <a href="/Kadesh/">Kadesh</a> between Egyptians and <a href="/hittite/">Hittites</a>. The world's first peace treaty. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_382" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1250 BCE</div> <a href="/Trojan_War/">Trojan War</a>, according to <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_462" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1200 BCE</div> <a href="/Sea_Peoples/">Sea Peoples</a> invade the <a href="/levant/">Levant</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_390" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1187 BCE</div> <a href="/Kadesh/">Kadesh</a> is destroyed by the <a href="/Sea_Peoples/">Sea Peoples</a> and subsequently vanishes from history. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_478" title=""> <div class="date">1178 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/ramesses/">Ramesses</a> III defends <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> from the <a href="/Sea_Peoples/">Sea Peoples</a> on the shores at <a href="/Xois/">Xois</a>, defeating them completely. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_463" title=""> <div class="date">1115 BCE - 1076 BCE</div> Reign of <a href="/Tiglath_Pileser_I/">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> of <a href="/assyria/">Assyria</a> who conquers <a href="/phoenicia/">Phoenicia</a> and revitalizes the <a href="/empire/">empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_142" title=""> <div class="date">722 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Israel/">Israel</a> is conquered by <a href="/assyria/">Assyria</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1703" title=""> <div class="date">c. 700 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Iron_Age/">Iron Age</a> begins in <a href="/disambiguation/Scotland/">Scotland</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1112" title=""> <div class="date">671 BCE</div> Second <a href="/disambiguation/Egyptian/">Egyptian</a> Campaign, Assyrian army successfully captures <a href="/Memphis_(Ancient_Egypt)/">Memphis</a> and conquers <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_157" title=""> <div class="date">671 BCE</div> <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> is conquered by <a href="/assyria/">Assyria</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_496" title=""> <div class="date">667 BCE - 665 BCE</div> <a href="/Ashurbanipal/">Ashurbanipal</a> wages <a href="/war/">war</a> in <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> to put down rebellions. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_158" title=""> <div class="date">653 BCE</div> <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> expels Assyrians. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2018" title=""> <div class="date">c. 650 BCE - c. 350 BCE</div> Hoplites are the major protagonists in <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> land <a href="/warfare/">warfare</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_497" title=""> <div class="date">648 BCE</div> <a href="/war/">War</a> between <a href="/assyria/">Assyria</a> and the Elamites. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_356" title=""> <div class="date">586 BCE - 572 BCE</div> <a href="/Nebuchadnezzar_II/">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> of <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a> besieges <a href="/Tyre/">Tyre</a>, unsuccessfully. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1984" title=""> <div class="date">28 May 585 BCE</div> A <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> between <a href="/disambiguation/media/">Media</a> and <a href="/lydia/">Lydia</a> broke off immediately as a result of a total eclipse of the sun and the two armies made peace. The eclipse was successfully predicted by <a href="/Thales_of_Miletus/">Thales of Miletus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_169" title=""> <div class="date">580 BCE - 376 BCE</div> <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> and <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> fight for dominance in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1985" title=""> <div class="date">535 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Alalia. Carthaginian navy, in alliance with <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscans</a>, defeated <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> ships off the island of Corsica. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_705" title=""> <div class="date">525 BCE</div> <a href="/Cambyses_II/">Cambyses II</a> of <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a> takes the <a href="/city/">city</a> of Pelusium, conquers <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_174" title=""> <div class="date">525 BCE - 404 BCE</div> <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a> conquers <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1905" title=""> <div class="date">512 BCE - 506 BCE</div> The Wu Chu wars in <a href="/china/">China</a> between the States of Wu and Chu. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1904" title=""> <div class="date">506 BCE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Boju at which the Wu forces under <a href="/Sun-Tzu/">Sun-Tzu</a> defeated the Chu. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_185" title=""> <div class="date">498 BCE - 493 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> defeats the Latins. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_187" title=""> <div class="date">11 Sep 490 BCE</div> A combined force of <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> hoplites defeat the Persians at <a href="/marathon/">Marathon</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_188" title=""> <div class="date">485 BCE</div> <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a> is destroyed by <a href="/Xerxes_I/">Xerxes</a>, King of <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1906" title=""> <div class="date">c. 481 BCE - 221 BCE</div> The <a href="/Warring_States_Period/">Warring States Period</a> in <a href="/china/">China</a>, suggested time-period for composition of <a href="/The_Art_of_War/">The Art of War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2197" title=""> <div class="date">Aug 480 BCE</div> The indecisive <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Artemision between the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> and Persian fleets of <a href="/Xerxes_I/">Xerxes I</a>. The Greeks withdraw to <a href="/disambiguation/Salamis/">Salamis</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_189" title=""> <div class="date">Aug 480 BCE</div> <a href="/thermopylae/">Battle of Thermopylae</a>. 300 Spartans under King <a href="/disambiguation/Leonidas/">Leonidas</a> and other <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> allies hold back the Persians led by <a href="/Xerxes_I/">Xerxes I</a> for three days but are defeated. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1337" title=""> <div class="date">Sep 480 BCE</div> <a href="/Battle_of_Salamis/">Battle of Salamis</a> where the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> naval fleet led by <a href="/Themistocles/">Themistocles</a> defeats the invading armada of <a href="/Xerxes_I/">Xerxes I</a> of <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2019" title=""> <div class="date">479 BCE</div> <a href="/Xerxes_I/">Xerxes</a>' Persian forces are defeated by <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> forces at <a href="/Plataea/">Plataea</a> effectively ending <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a>'s imperial ambitions in <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_609" title=""> <div class="date">c. 475 BCE</div> <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> defeat the <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscans</a> at the Ticino River. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_196" title=""> <div class="date">460 BCE - 445 BCE</div> First <a href="/Peloponnesian_War/">Peloponnesian War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_712" title=""> <div class="date">448 BCE</div> <a href="/pericles/">Pericles</a> leads the Athenian forces in the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of <a href="/delphi/">Delphi</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1355" title=""> <div class="date">431 BCE - 404 BCE</div> The 2nd <a href="/Peloponnesian_War/">Peloponnesian War</a> between <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> and <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> (the <a href="/Delian_League/">Delian League</a> and the <a href="/Peloponnesian_League/">Peloponnesian League</a>) which involved all of <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_201" title=""> <div class="date">c. 430 BCE - 415 BCE</div> The <i>Histories</i> of <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a> is published. The work is divided into nine chapters, each dedicated to one of the <a href="/muse/">Muses</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1491" title=""> <div class="date">425 BCE</div> <a href="/Pylos/">Pylos</a> campaign, under Cleon and <a href="/Demosthenes/">Demosthenes</a>' command <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> defeats <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> at Pylos. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2013" title=""> <div class="date">413 BCE</div> The Athenian expedition in <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> ends in disastrous defeat and the Athenian generals <a href="/Nicias/">Nicias</a> and <a href="/Demosthenes/">Demosthenes</a> are executed. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2014" title=""> <div class="date">410 BCE</div> <a href="/Alcibiades/">Alcibiades</a> leads the Athenian fleet to victory over <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> at Cyzicus. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2016" title=""> <div class="date">c. 407 BCE</div> The Athenian fleet is defeated by <a href="/Lysander/">Lysander</a> of <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> at Notium. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1364" title=""> <div class="date">404 BCE</div> End of the <a href="/Peloponnesian_War/">Peloponnesian war</a>, <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> defeated By <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> at Aigospotamoi, Rule of <a href="/The_Thirty_Tyrants/">the Thirty Tyrants</a> in Athens. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_610" title=""> <div class="date">396 BCE</div> <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> defeat an <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscan</a> army at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> of Melpum. Afterwards the Celts heavily settle all over the Po Valley. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_206" title=""> <div class="date">396 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> expansion begins with the capture of <a href="/Veii/">Veii</a> from the <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscans</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_207" title=""> <div class="date">395 BCE - 386 BCE</div> The Corinthian Wars between <a href="/sparta/">Sparta</a> and an alliance of <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>, <a href="/corinth/">Corinth</a>, <a href="/argos/">Argos</a>, Boeotia and <a href="/disambiguation/Thebes/">Thebes</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_208" title=""> <div class="date">c. 390 BCE</div> "Gallic Catastrophe:" <a href="/brennus/">Brennus</a> of the Senones defeats the Romans at Allia, and subsequently sacks <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_217" title=""> <div class="date">343 BCE - 341 BCE</div> First Samnite <a href="/war/">War</a> (<a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> vs. Samnites). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_718" title=""> <div class="date">342 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Philip_II/">Philip II</a> leads a military expedition against the <a href="/Scythians/">Scythians</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_575" title=""> <div class="date">338 BCE</div> The first <a href="/Battle_of_Chaeronea/">battle of Chaeronea</a>. <a href="/Philip_II_of_Macedon/">Philip II of Macedon</a> defeats the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> alliance directed against him, led by <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> and <a href="/disambiguation/Thebes/">Thebes</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1882" title=""> <div class="date">334 BCE - 323 BCE</div> Period of the conquests of <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_222" title=""> <div class="date">5 Nov 333 BCE</div> <a href="/Battle_of_Issus/">Battle of Issus</a>. <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a> is victorious against <a href="/disambiguation/darius/">Darius</a> III of <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_473" title=""> <div class="date">May 330 BCE</div> <a href="/persepolis/">Persepolis</a> is burned and looted by <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_229" title=""> <div class="date">326 BCE - 304 BCE</div> Second Samnite <a href="/war/">War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1920" title=""> <div class="date">323 BCE</div> <a href="/article/2366/death-of-alexander-the-great/">Death of Alexander the Great</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_236" title=""> <div class="date">300 BCE</div> Sarmatians <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> the <a href="/Scythians/">Scythians</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_237" title=""> <div class="date">298 BCE - 290 BCE</div> Third Samnite <a href="/war/">War</a>. Victory for <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>, peace with the <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscans</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_665" title=""> <div class="date">297 BCE</div> <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> and Samnites join forces and defeat the Romans at Camertium. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_608" title=""> <div class="date">c. 295 BCE</div> In a <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> lasting all day, Romans narrowly defeat a force of <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> and Samnites at Sentinum. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_238" title=""> <div class="date">285 BCE - 282 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> defeats the <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> in <a href="/italy/">Italy</a>. Rome's dominance in central Italy is secured. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_612" title=""> <div class="date">284 BCE</div> Gauls of the Insubres and Boii tribes defeat the Romans at <a href="/arretium/">Arretium</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_605" title=""> <div class="date">283 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> decisively defeats the Senones at Picenum. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_239" title=""> <div class="date">280 BCE - 272 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/war/">war</a> against <a href="/tarentum/">Tarentum</a>. <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> conquers Tarentum. Rome's dominance in lower <a href="/italy/">Italy</a> is secured. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_244" title=""> <div class="date">264 BCE - 241 BCE</div> <a href="/First_Punic_War/">First Punic War</a>. <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> cedes <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a> to <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1487" title=""> <div class="date">c. 250 BCE - c. 200 CE</div> Originally a Celtiberian weapon, the <a href="/Gladius_Hispaniensis/">Gladius Hispaniensis</a> was commonly used by <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> soldiers for more than four centuries. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_246" title=""> <div class="date">229 BCE - 228 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> fights Illyrian pirates. Queen Teuta pays tribute to Rome. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_247" title=""> <div class="date">222 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> conquers Cisalpine <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a> (modern-day Provence, France). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3541" title=""> <div class="date">c. 220 BCE</div> <a href="/Gortyn/">Gortyn</a> allies with <a href="/knossos/">Knossos</a> to defeat Lyttos on <a href="/crete/">Crete</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_250" title=""> <div class="date">Aug 216 BCE</div> <a href="/hannibal/">Hannibal</a> wins the <a href="/Battle_of_Cannae/">battle of Cannae</a>, the worst defeat in <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> history. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_252" title=""> <div class="date">214 BCE - 205 BCE</div> First Macedonian <a href="/war/">War</a>: <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> defeats Philip V of <a href="/macedon/">Macedon</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1751" title=""> <div class="date">206 BCE</div> Chinese Qin <a href="/empire/">empire</a> collapses following the <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a> of emperor <a href="/Shi_Huangdi/">Shi Huangti</a>. Civil <a href="/war/">War</a> begins. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_254" title=""> <div class="date">204 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/">Scipio Africanus</a> sails to North <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a> in the <a href="/Second_Punic_War/">Second Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1852" title=""> <div class="date">202 BCE</div> The <a href="/Battle_of_Gaixia/">Battle of Gaixia</a> in which the <a href="/Han_Dynasty/">Han</a> forces defeat the Chu. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_320" title=""> <div class="date">c. 200 BCE</div> Beginning of the Greco-Bactrian conquests in <a href="/india/">India</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_259" title=""> <div class="date">200 BCE - 196 BCE</div> Second Macedonian <a href="/war/">War</a>: <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> victory. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_629" title=""> <div class="date">193 BCE</div> The Boii are defeated by the Romans, suffering, according to <a href="/livy/">Livy</a>, 14,000 dead. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_570" title=""> <div class="date">190 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Magnesia ad Sipylum, disastrous defeat for <a href="/disambiguation/antiochos/">Antiochos</a> III against Romans. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_263" title=""> <div class="date">172 BCE - 168 BCE</div> Third Macedonian <a href="/war/">War</a>: <a href="/Perseus/">Perseus</a> of <a href="/macedon/">Macedon</a> challenges <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> and is defeated. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2541" title=""> <div class="date">168 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> defeats <a href="/macedon/">Macedon</a> at <a href="/Battle_of_Pydna/">Battle of Pydna</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_257" title=""> <div class="date">149 BCE - 146 BCE</div> <a href="/Third_Punic_War/">Third Punic War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_460" title=""> <div class="date">146 BCE</div> End of the <a href="/Third_Punic_War/">Third Punic War</a>. <a href="/carthage/">Carthage</a> is destroyed and its lands become the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> province <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_268" title=""> <div class="date">133 BCE</div> <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> captures Numantia. End of Iberian resistance. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_267" title=""> <div class="date">129 BCE</div> Parthians <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a>. The <a href="/Silk_Road/">Silk Road</a> to <a href="/china/">China</a> is now controlled by the Parthians. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_646" title=""> <div class="date">113 BCE</div> Romans defeated at Noreia by the <a href="/Cimbri/">Cimbri</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_273" title=""> <div class="date">88 BCE - 63 BCE</div> Mithridates of Pontus fights three wars to free <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> from <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_274" title=""> <div class="date">86 BCE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> general <a href="/sulla/">Sulla</a> sacks <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> and the port of <a href="/Piraeus/">Piraeus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_291" title=""> <div class="date">63 BCE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> general <a href="/pompey/">Pompey</a> defeats the <a href="/Seleucid_Empire/">Seleucid</a> Antiochus XIII and incorporates <a href="/syria/">Syria</a> as a province of the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_643" title=""> <div class="date">58 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/caesar/">Caesar</a> attacks the Helvetii while on migration and defeats them. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_293" title=""> <div class="date">58 BCE - 51 BCE</div> <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a>'s <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_641" title=""> <div class="date">57 BCE</div> A <a href="/Roman_Army/">Roman army</a> under <a href="/disambiguation/caesar/">Caesar</a> narrowly defeats an army of Nervii, Atrebates, and Viromandui. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_644" title=""> <div class="date">56 BCE</div> The navies of <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> and the Veneti Gauls clash resulting in a <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> victory. This is the first recorded naval <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a> in the Atlantic Ocean. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1826" title=""> <div class="date">55 BCE - 54 BCE</div> <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a>'s expeditions in <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_639" title=""> <div class="date">52 BCE</div> <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a> is defeated at Gergovia by <a href="/vercingetorix/">Vercingetorix</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_640" title=""> <div class="date">52 BCE</div> After becoming trapped and besieged at Alesia, <a href="/vercingetorix/">Vercingetorix</a> surrenders to <a href="/disambiguation/caesar/">Caesar</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_394" title=""> <div class="date">27 BCE - 19 BCE</div> Cantabrian Wars: <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of the Iberian Penninsula. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_399" title=""> <div class="date">9 CE</div> The Rhine River is established as the boundary between the Latin and German speaking worlds, following the defeat of the <a href="/Roman_Army/">Roman army</a>, under the command of Varus, at the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of the Teutoburg Forest. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_401" title=""> <div class="date">43 CE</div> <a href="/claudius/">Claudius</a> commences the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_279" title=""> <div class="date">43 CE - 47 CE</div> Romans <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> South <a href="/britain/">Britain</a> and claim the territory as part of <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1828" title=""> <div class="date">60 CE - 61 CE</div> <a href="/Boudicca/">Boudicca</a>'s Revolt in <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_283" title=""> <div class="date">75 CE - 77 CE</div> Romans defeat the last of the Northern tribes; <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> of <a href="/britain/">Britain</a> complete. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1651" title=""> <div class="date">83 CE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Mons Graupius in which Agricola defeats Calgacus of the <a href="/picts/">Picts</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_406" title=""> <div class="date">101 CE - 106 CE</div> <a href="/trajan/">Trajan</a> conquers <a href="/dacia/">Dacia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_412" title=""> <div class="date">167 CE - 180 CE</div> Marcomannic Wars. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_413" title=""> <div class="date">192 CE</div> Emperor <a href="/commodus/">Commodus</a> is murdered, civil <a href="/war/">war</a> ensues (until 197 CE). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_565" title=""> <div class="date">195 CE</div> First Parthian <a href="/war/">war</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_564" title=""> <div class="date">197 CE - 198 CE</div> Second Parthian <a href="/war/">war</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_428" title=""> <div class="date">367 CE</div> <a href="/picts/">Picts</a>, Scots, <a href="/Saxons/">Saxons</a>, and <a href="/Franks/">Franks</a> attack the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_947" title=""> <div class="date">408 CE</div> <a href="/Alaric/">Alaric</a> I the <a href="/visigoth/">Visigoth</a> besieges <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. As ransom, Rome pays 5,000 pounds of <a href="/gold/">gold</a>, 30,000 pounds of <a href="/Silver/">silver</a>, 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of <a href="/Pepper/">pepper</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_441" title=""> <div class="date">455 CE</div> <a href="/Vandals/">Vandals</a> sack <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_444" title=""> <div class="date">486 CE</div> <a href="/Clovis_I/">Clovis I</a> of the <a href="/Franks/">Franks</a> defeats the Romans in <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a>. Founding of the Frankish kingdom. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_445" title=""> <div class="date">488 CE - 493 CE</div> <a href="/Theodoric_the_Great/">Theodoric the Great</a> of the <a href="/ostrogoth/">Ostrogoths</a> conquers <a href="/italy/">Italy</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_447" title=""> <div class="date">507 CE</div> Clovis defeats the <a href="/visigoth/">Visigoths</a> and drives them into the Iberian peninsula. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_448" title=""> <div class="date">534 CE</div> Justinian of the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Byzantine Empire</a> conquers the <a href="/Vandals/">Vandal</a> kingdom in <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_449" title=""> <div class="date">536 CE - 562 CE</div> The <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Byzantine Empire</a> conquers <a href="/italy/">Italy</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_450" title=""> <div class="date">554 CE</div> <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Byzantine Empire</a> conquers southern <a href="/disambiguation/iberia/">Iberia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_453" title=""> <div class="date">607 CE - 627 CE</div> East <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> defeats <a href="/Sasanian_Empire/">Sasanian</a> <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1946" title=""> <div class="date">646 CE</div> The Arab Muslims <a href="/warfare/">conquer</a> <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> under Caliph <a href="/Umar/">Umar</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1822" title=""> <div class="date">712 CE</div> Muslim general Muhammed bin Quasim conquers northern <a href="/india/">India</a>. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership" class="no_membership_only"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1744189012" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. 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