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href="#Fundamental_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Fundamental mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fundamental_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lattice_displacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lattice_displacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Lattice displacement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lattice_displacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ionization_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ionization_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Ionization effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ionization_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resultant_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resultant_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Resultant effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resultant_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Total_ionizing_dose_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Total_ionizing_dose_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Total ionizing dose effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Total_ionizing_dose_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transient_dose_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transient_dose_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Transient dose effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transient_dose_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systems-generated_EMP_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systems-generated_EMP_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Systems-generated EMP effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systems-generated_EMP_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_damage:_SEE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_damage:_SEE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Digital damage: SEE</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_damage:_SEE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single-event_transient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-event_transient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Single-event transient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-event_transient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Single-event_upset" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-event_upset"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Single-event upset</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-event_upset-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Single-event_latchup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-event_latchup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Single-event latchup</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-event_latchup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Single-event_snapback" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-event_snapback"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Single-event snapback</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-event_snapback-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Single-event_induced_burnout" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-event_induced_burnout"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.5</span> <span>Single-event induced burnout</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-event_induced_burnout-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Single-event_gate_rupture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-event_gate_rupture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.6</span> <span>Single-event gate rupture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-event_gate_rupture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SEE_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SEE_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>SEE testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SEE_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation-hardening_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation-hardening_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Radiation-hardening techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Radiation-hardening_techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Radiation-hardening techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Radiation-hardening_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Physical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shielding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shielding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Shielding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shielding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Logical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_and_space_industry_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_and_space_industry_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military and space industry applications</span> </div> </a> <ul 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</a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_rad-hard_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_rad-hard_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Examples of rad-hard computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_rad-hard_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books_and_Reports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_and_Reports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Books and Reports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_and_Reports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Processes and techniques used for making electronic devices resistant to ionizing radiation</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Hard_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard radiation">hard radiation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radiation_embrittlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation embrittlement">radiation embrittlement</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For hardening of materials caused by radiation, see <a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">radiation damage</a>.</div> <p><b>Radiation hardening</b> is the process of making <a href="/wiki/Electronic_components" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic components">electronic components</a> and circuits resistant to damage or malfunction caused by high levels of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">particle radiation</a> and high-energy <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially for environments in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a> (especially beyond <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>), around <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerators" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle accelerators">particle accelerators</a>, or during <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accident">nuclear accidents</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear warfare</a>. </p><p>Most <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">semiconductor electronic components</a> are susceptible to radiation damage, and <b>radiation-hardened</b> (<b>rad-hard</b>) components are based on their non-hardened equivalents, with some design and manufacturing variations that reduce the susceptibility to radiation damage. Due to the low demand and the extensive development and testing required to produce a radiation-tolerant design of a <a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">microelectronic</a> chip, the technology of radiation-hardened chips tends to lag behind the most recent developments.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also typically cost more than their commercial counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radiation-hardened products are typically tested to one or more resultant-effects tests, including total ionizing dose (TID), enhanced low dose rate effects (ELDRS), neutron and proton displacement damage, and single event effects (SEEs). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Problems_caused_by_radiation">Problems caused by radiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Problems caused by radiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></div> <p>Environments with high levels of ionizing radiation create special design challenges. A single <a href="/wiki/Charged_particle" title="Charged particle">charged particle</a> can knock thousands of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> loose, causing <a href="/wiki/Electronic_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic noise">electronic noise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Signal_spike" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal spike">signal spikes</a>. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Digital_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital circuit">digital circuits</a>, this can cause results which are inaccurate or unintelligible. This is a particularly serious problem in the design of <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>, future <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computer">quantum computers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Military_aircraft" title="Military aircraft">military aircraft</a>, nuclear power stations, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. In order to ensure the proper operation of such systems, manufacturers of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a> intended for the <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aerospace" title="Aerospace">aerospace</a> markets employ various methods of radiation hardening. The resulting systems are said to be <b>rad(iation)-hardened</b>, <b>rad-hard</b>, or (within context) <b>hardened</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_radiation_damage_sources">Major radiation damage sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Major radiation damage sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typical sources of exposure of electronics to ionizing radiation are the <a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belts</a> for satellites, nuclear reactors in power plants for sensors and control circuits, particle accelerators for control electronics (particularly <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">particle detector</a> devices), residual radiation from <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Soft_error#Alpha_particles_from_package_decay" title="Soft error">chip packaging materials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic radiation">cosmic radiation</a> for spacecraft and high-altitude aircraft, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosions</a> for potentially all military and civilian electronics. </p><p>Secondary particles result from interaction of other kinds of radiation with structures around the electronic devices. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belts" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Allen radiation belts">Van Allen radiation belts</a> contain electrons (up to about 10 MeV) and protons (up to 100s MeV) trapped in the <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetic_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetic field">geomagnetic field</a>. The particle flux in the regions farther from the Earth can vary wildly depending on the actual conditions of the Sun and the <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a>. Due to their position they pose a concern for satellites.</li> <li>Nuclear reactors produce <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron radiation</a> which can affect sensor and control circuits in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a> produce high energy protons and electrons, and the secondary particles produced by their interactions produce significant radiation damage on sensitive control and particle detector components, of the order of magnitude of 10 MRad[Si]/year for systems such as the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_packaging" title="Integrated circuit packaging">Chip packaging materials</a> were an insidious source of radiation that was found to be causing <a href="/wiki/Soft_error#Alpha_particles_from_package_decay" title="Soft error">soft errors</a> in new <a href="/wiki/DRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="DRAM">DRAM</a> chips in the 1970s. Traces of <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioactive elements</a> in the packaging of the chips were producing alpha particles, which were then occasionally discharging some of the capacitors used to store the DRAM data bits. These effects have been reduced today by using purer packaging materials, and employing <a href="/wiki/Error-correcting_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Error-correcting code">error-correcting codes</a> to detect and often correct DRAM errors.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic rays</a> come from all directions and consist of approximately 85% <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a>, 14% <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, and 1% <a href="/wiki/HZE_ions" class="mw-redirect" title="HZE ions">heavy ions</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> and gamma-ray radiation. Most effects are caused by particles with energies between 0.1 and 20 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">GeV</a>. The atmosphere filters most of these, so they are primarily a concern for spacecraft and high-altitude aircraft, but can also affect ordinary computers on the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Solar particle events</a> come from the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a> and consist of a large flux of high-energy (several GeV) protons and heavy ions, again accompanied by X-ray radiation.</li> <li>Nuclear explosions produce a short and extremely intense surge through a wide spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, an <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electromagnetic_pulse" title="Nuclear electromagnetic pulse">electromagnetic pulse</a> (EMP), neutron radiation, and a flux of both primary and secondary charged particles. In case of a nuclear war they pose a potential concern for all civilian and military electronics.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiation_effects_on_electronics">Radiation effects on electronics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Radiation effects on electronics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Radiation_hardening" title="Special:EditPage/Radiation hardening">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fundamental_mechanisms">Fundamental mechanisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fundamental mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two fundamental damage mechanisms take place: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lattice_displacement">Lattice displacement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lattice displacement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lattice displacement is caused by <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>, protons, alpha particles, heavy ions, and very high energy <a href="/wiki/Gamma_photon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma photon">gamma photons</a>. They change the arrangement of the atoms in the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal lattice">crystal lattice</a>, creating lasting damage, and increasing the number of <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">recombination centers</a>, depleting the <a href="/wiki/Minority_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Minority carrier">minority carriers</a> and worsening the analog properties of the affected semiconductor <a href="/wiki/P-n_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="P-n junction">junctions</a>. Counterintuitively, higher doses over a short time cause partial <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealing</a> ("healing") of the damaged lattice, leading to a lower degree of damage than with the same doses delivered in low intensity over a long time (LDR or Low Dose Rate). This type of problem is particularly significant in <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar transistor">bipolar transistors</a>, which are dependent on minority carriers in their base regions; increased losses caused by <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recombination (physics)">recombination</a> cause loss of the transistor <a href="/wiki/Gain_(electronics)#Electronics" title="Gain (electronics)">gain</a> (see <i><a href="#Resultant_effects">neutron effects</a></i>). Components certified as ELDRS (Enhanced Low Dose Rate Sensitive)-free do not show damage with fluxes below 0.01 rad(Si)/s = 36 rad(Si)/h. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ionization_effects">Ionization effects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ionization effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ionization effects are caused by charged particles, including ones with energy too low to cause lattice effects. The ionization effects are usually transient, creating <a href="/wiki/Glitch" title="Glitch">glitches</a> and soft errors, but can lead to destruction of the device if they trigger other damage mechanisms (e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Latchup" class="mw-redirect" title="Latchup">latchup</a>). <a href="/wiki/Photocurrent" title="Photocurrent">Photocurrent</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> and X-ray radiation may belong to this category as well. Gradual accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a> in the oxide layer in <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> transistors leads to worsening of their performance, up to device failure when the dose is high enough (see <i><a href="#Resultant_effects">total ionizing dose effects</a></i>). </p><p>The effects can vary wildly depending on all the parameters – type of radiation, total dose and radiation flux, combination of types of radiation, and even the kind of device load (operating frequency, operating voltage, actual state of the transistor during the instant it is struck by the particle) – which makes thorough testing difficult, time-consuming, and requiring many test samples. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resultant_effects">Resultant effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Resultant effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The "end-user" effects can be characterized in several groups: </p><p>A neutron interacting with the semiconductor lattice will displace its atoms. This leads to an increase in the count of recombination centers and <a href="/wiki/Deep-level_defect" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep-level defect">deep-level defects</a>, reducing the lifetime of minority carriers, thus affecting <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar devices</a> more than <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> ones. Bipolar devices on <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> tend to show changes in electrical parameters at levels of 10<sup>10</sup> to 10<sup>11</sup> neutrons/cm<sup>2</sup>, while CMOS devices aren't affected until 10<sup>15</sup> neutrons/cm<sup>2</sup>. The sensitivity of devices may increase together with increasing level of integration and decreasing size of individual structures. There is also a risk of induced radioactivity caused by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activation</a>, which is a major source of noise in <a href="/wiki/High-energy_astronomy" title="High-energy astronomy">high energy astrophysics</a> instruments. Induced radiation, together with residual radiation from impurities in component materials, can cause all sorts of single-event problems during the device's lifetime. <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">GaAs</a> <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LEDs</a>, common in <a href="/wiki/Optocoupler" class="mw-redirect" title="Optocoupler">optocouplers</a>, are very sensitive to neutrons. The lattice damage influences the frequency of <a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">crystal oscillators</a>. Kinetic energy effects (namely lattice displacement) of charged particles belong here too. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Total_ionizing_dose_effects">Total ionizing dose effects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Total ionizing dose effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Total ionizing dose effects represent the cumulative damage of the semiconductor lattice (<i>lattice displacement</i> damage) caused by exposure to ionizing radiation over time. It is measured in <a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rads</a> and causes slow gradual degradation of the device's performance. A total dose greater than 5000 rads delivered to silicon-based devices in seconds to minutes will cause long-term degradation. In CMOS devices, the radiation creates <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93hole_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron–hole pair">electron–hole pairs</a> in the gate insulation layers, which cause photocurrents during their recombination, and the holes trapped in the lattice defects in the insulator create a persistent gate <a href="/wiki/Biasing" title="Biasing">biasing</a> and influence the transistors' <a href="/wiki/Threshold_voltage" title="Threshold voltage">threshold voltage</a>, making the N-type MOSFET transistors easier and the P-type ones more difficult to switch on. The accumulated charge can be high enough to keep the transistors permanently open (or closed), leading to device failure. Some self-healing takes place over time, but this effect is not too significant. This effect is the same as <a href="/wiki/Hot_carrier_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot carrier degradation">hot carrier degradation</a> in high-integration high-speed electronics. Crystal oscillators are somewhat sensitive to radiation doses, which alter their frequency. The sensitivity can be greatly reduced by using <a href="/wiki/Swept_quartz" class="mw-redirect" title="Swept quartz">swept quartz</a>. Natural <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> crystals are especially sensitive. Radiation performance curves for TID testing may be generated for all resultant effects testing procedures. These curves show performance trends throughout the TID test process and are included in the radiation test report. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transient_dose_effects">Transient dose effects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Transient dose effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Transient dose effects result from a brief high-intensity pulse of radiation, typically occurring during a nuclear explosion. The high radiation flux creates photocurrents in the entire body of the semiconductor, causing transistors to randomly open, changing logical states of <a href="/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)" title="Flip-flop (electronics)">flip-flops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory cell (computers)">memory cells</a>. Permanent damage may occur if the duration of the pulse is too long, or if the pulse causes junction damage or a latchup. Latchups are commonly caused by the X-rays and gamma radiation flash of a nuclear explosion. Crystal oscillators may stop oscillating for the duration of the flash due to prompt <a href="/wiki/Photoconductivity" title="Photoconductivity">photoconductivity</a> induced in quartz. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Systems-generated_EMP_effects">Systems-generated EMP effects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Systems-generated EMP effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>SGEMP effects are caused by the radiation flash traveling through the equipment and causing local <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric currents</a> in the material of the chips, <a href="/wiki/Circuit_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit board">circuit boards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_cable" title="Electrical cable">electrical cables</a> and cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_damage:_SEE">Digital damage: SEE</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Digital damage: SEE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Single-event effects (SEE) have been studied extensively since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a high-energy particle travels through a semiconductor, it leaves an <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionized</a> track behind. This ionization may cause a highly localized effect similar to the transient dose one - a benign glitch in output, a less benign bit flip in memory or a <a href="/wiki/Hardware_register" title="Hardware register">register</a> or, especially in <a href="/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device" title="Power semiconductor device">high-power transistors</a>, a destructive latchup and burnout. Single event effects have importance for electronics in satellites, aircraft, and other civilian and military aerospace applications. Sometimes, in circuits not involving latches, it is helpful to introduce <a href="/wiki/RC_circuit" title="RC circuit">RC</a> <a href="/wiki/Time_constant" title="Time constant">time constant</a> circuits that slow down the circuit's reaction time beyond the duration of an SEE. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-event_transient">Single-event transient</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Single-event transient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An SET happens when the charge collected from an ionization event discharges in the form of a spurious signal traveling through the circuit. This is de facto the effect of an <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">electrostatic discharge</a>. it is considered a soft error, and is reversible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-event_upset">Single-event upset</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Single-event upset"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Single-event_upset" title="Single-event upset">Single-event upsets</a> (SEU) or <b>transient radiation effects in electronics</b> are state changes of memory or register bits caused by a single ion interacting with the chip. They do not cause lasting damage to the device, but may cause lasting problems to a system which cannot recover from such an error. it is otherwise a reversible soft error. In very sensitive devices, a single ion can cause a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Multiple-bit_upset&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Multiple-bit upset (page does not exist)">multiple-bit upset</a> (MBU) in several adjacent memory cells. SEUs can become <b>single-event functional interrupts</b> (<b>SEFI</b>) when they upset control circuits, such as <a href="/wiki/State_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="State machine">state machines</a>, placing the device into an undefined state, a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Test_mode&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Test mode (page does not exist)">test mode</a>, or a halt, which would then need a <a href="/wiki/Reset_(computing)" title="Reset (computing)">reset</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Power_cycling" title="Power cycling">power cycle</a> to recover. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-event_latchup">Single-event latchup</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Single-event latchup"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An SEL can occur in any chip with a <a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">parasitic PNPN</a> structure. A heavy ion or a high-energy proton passing through one of the two inner-transistor junctions can turn on the <a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">thyristor</a>-like structure, which then stays "<a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">shorted</a>" (an effect known as <a href="/wiki/Latch-up" title="Latch-up">latch-up</a>) until the device is power-cycled. As the effect can happen between the power source and substrate, destructively high current can be involved and the part may fail. This is a hard error, and is irreversible. Bulk CMOS devices are most susceptible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-event_snapback">Single-event snapback</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Single-event snapback"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A single-event snapback is similar to an SEL but not requiring the PNPN structure, and can be induced in N-channel MOS transistors switching large currents, when an ion hits near the drain junction and causes <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_breakdown" title="Avalanche breakdown">avalanche multiplication</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Charge_carrier" title="Charge carrier">charge carriers</a>. The transistor then opens and stays opened, a hard error which is irreversible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-event_induced_burnout">Single-event induced burnout</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Single-event induced burnout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An SEB may occur in power MOSFETs when the substrate right under the source region gets forward-biased and the drain-source voltage is higher than the breakdown voltage of the parasitic structures. The resulting high current and local overheating then may destroy the device. This is a hard error, and is irreversible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Single-event_gate_rupture">Single-event gate rupture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Single-event gate rupture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>SEGR are observed in power MOSFETs when a heavy ion hits the gate region while a high voltage is applied to the gate. A local breakdown then happens in the insulating layer of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a>, causing local overheating and destruction (looking like a microscopic <a href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosion</a>) of the gate region. It can occur even in <a href="/wiki/EEPROM" title="EEPROM">EEPROM</a> cells during write or erase, when the cells are subjected to a comparatively high voltage. This is a hard error, and is irreversible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="SEE_testing">SEE testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: SEE testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While proton beams are widely used for SEE testing due to availability, at lower energies proton irradiation can often underestimate SEE susceptibility. Furthermore, proton beams expose devices to risk of total ionizing dose (TID) failure which can cloud proton testing results or result in premature device failure. White neutron beams—ostensibly the most representative SEE test method—are usually derived from solid target-based sources, resulting in flux non-uniformity and small beam areas. White neutron beams also have some measure of uncertainty in their energy spectrum, often with high thermal neutron content. </p><p>The disadvantages of both proton and spallation neutron sources can be avoided by using mono-energetic 14 MeV neutrons for SEE testing. A potential concern is that mono-energetic neutron-induced single event effects will not accurately represent the real-world effects of broad-spectrum atmospheric neutrons. However, recent studies have indicated that, to the contrary, mono-energetic neutrons—particularly 14 MeV neutrons—can be used to quite accurately understand SEE cross-sections in modern microelectronics.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiation-hardening_techniques">Radiation-hardening techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Radiation-hardening techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1886VE10-HD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1886VE10-HD.jpg/220px-1886VE10-HD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1886VE10-HD.jpg/330px-1886VE10-HD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/1886VE10-HD.jpg/440px-1886VE10-HD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6296" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption>Radiation hardened <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">die</a> of the 1886VE10 <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a> prior to <a href="/wiki/Metallizing" title="Metallizing">metalization</a> <a href="/wiki/Etching_(microfabrication)" title="Etching (microfabrication)">etching</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1886VE10-Si-HD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/1886VE10-Si-HD.jpg/220px-1886VE10-Si-HD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/1886VE10-Si-HD.jpg/330px-1886VE10-Si-HD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/1886VE10-Si-HD.jpg/440px-1886VE10-Si-HD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6280" data-file-height="4728" /></a><figcaption>Radiation hardened <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">die</a> of the 1886VE10 <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a> after a <a href="/wiki/Metallizing" title="Metallizing">metalization</a> <a href="/wiki/Etching_(microfabrication)" title="Etching (microfabrication)">etching</a> process has been used</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical">Physical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Physical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hardened chips are often manufactured on <a href="/wiki/Electrical_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulation">insulating</a> <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">substrates</a> instead of the usual <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> wafers. Silicon on insulator (<a href="/wiki/Silicon_on_insulator" title="Silicon on insulator">SOI</a>) and silicon on <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Silicon_on_sapphire" title="Silicon on sapphire">SOS</a>) are commonly used. While normal commercial-grade chips can withstand between 50 and 100 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (5 and 10 k<a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a>), space-grade SOI and SOS chips can survive doses between 1000 and 3000 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a> (100 and 300 k<a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">rad</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At one time many <a href="/wiki/4000_series" class="mw-redirect" title="4000 series">4000 series</a> chips were available in radiation-hardened versions (RadHard).<sup id="cite_ref-verkasalo_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-verkasalo-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While SOI eliminates latchup events, TID and SEE hardness are not guaranteed to be improved.<sup id="cite_ref-amartology_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amartology-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Choosing a substrate with wide <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a> gives it higher tolerance to deep-level defects; e.g. <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">gallium nitride</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Use of a special <a href="/wiki/Process_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Process node">process node</a> provides increased radiation resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the high development costs of new radiation hardened processes, the smallest "true" rad-hard (RHBP, Rad-Hard By Process) process is 150 nm as of 2016, however, rad-hard 65 nm FPGAs were available that used some of the techniques used in "true" rad-hard processes (RHBD, Rad-Hard By Design).<sup id="cite_ref-avnet_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avnet-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2019 110 nm rad-hard processes are available.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bipolar integrated circuits generally have higher radiation tolerance than CMOS circuits. The low-power Schottky (LS) <a href="/wiki/5400_series" class="mw-redirect" title="5400 series">5400 series</a> can withstand 1000 krad, and many <a href="/wiki/Emitter-coupled_logic" title="Emitter-coupled logic">ECL devices</a> can withstand 10 000 krad.<sup id="cite_ref-verkasalo_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-verkasalo-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edgeless_CMOS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edgeless CMOS (page does not exist)">edgeless CMOS</a> transistors, which have an unconventional physical construction, together with an unconventional physical layout, can also be effective.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Magnetoresistive <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Magnetoresistive_RAM" title="Magnetoresistive RAM">MRAM</a>, is considered a likely candidate to provide radiation hardened, rewritable, non-volatile conductor memory. Physical principles and early tests suggest that MRAM is not susceptible to ionization-induced data loss.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random_access_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic random access memory">DRAM</a> is often replaced by more rugged (but larger, and more expensive) <a href="/wiki/Static_Random_Access_Memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Static Random Access Memory">SRAM</a>. SRAM cells have more transistors per cell than usual (which is 4T or 6T), which makes the cells more tolerant to SEUs at the cost of higher power consumption and size.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-avnet_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avnet-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shielding">Shielding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Shielding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Radiation_shield" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation shield">Shielding</a> the package against <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> is straightforward to reduce exposure of the bare device.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To protect against neutron radiation and the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activation</a> of materials, it is possible to shield the chips themselves by use of <a href="/wiki/Boron#Depleted_boron_(boron-11)" title="Boron">depleted boron</a> (consisting only of isotope boron-11) in the <a href="/wiki/Borophosphosilicate_glass" title="Borophosphosilicate glass">borophosphosilicate glass</a> <a href="/wiki/Passivation_(chemistry)" title="Passivation (chemistry)">passivation layer</a> protecting the chips, as naturally prevalent boron-10 readily <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">captures neutrons</a> and undergoes <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Soft_error#Cosmic_rays_creating_energetic_neutrons_and_protons" title="Soft error">soft error</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logical">Logical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Logical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/ECC_memory" title="ECC memory">Error correcting code memory</a> (ECC memory) uses redundant bits to check for and possibly correct corrupted data. Since radiation's effects damage the memory content even when the system is not accessing the RAM, a "<a href="/wiki/Memory_scrubbing" title="Memory scrubbing">scrubber</a>" circuit must continuously sweep the RAM; reading out the data, checking the redundant bits for data errors, then writing back any corrections to the RAM. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundant</a> elements can be used at the system level. Three separate <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> boards may independently compute an answer to a calculation and compare their answers. Any system that produces a minority result will recalculate. Logic may be added such that if repeated errors occur from the same system, that board is shut down. </p><p>Redundant elements may be used at the circuit level.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A single bit may be replaced with three bits and separate "<a href="/wiki/Voting_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting logic">voting logic</a>" for each bit to continuously determine its result (<a href="/wiki/Triple_modular_redundancy" title="Triple modular redundancy">triple modular redundancy</a>). This increases area of a chip design by a factor of 5, so must be reserved for smaller designs. But it has the secondary advantage of also being "fail-safe" in real time. In the event of a single-bit failure (which may be unrelated to radiation), the voting logic will continue to produce the correct result without resorting to a <a href="/wiki/Watchdog_timer" title="Watchdog timer">watchdog timer</a>. System level voting between three separate processor systems will generally need to use some circuit-level voting logic to perform the votes between the three processor systems. </p><p>Hardened latches may be used.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A watchdog timer will perform a hard reset of a system unless some sequence is performed that generally indicates the system is alive, such as a write operation from an onboard processor. During normal operation, software schedules a write to the watchdog timer at regular intervals to prevent the timer from running out. If radiation causes the processor to operate incorrectly, it is unlikely the software will work correctly enough to clear the watchdog timer. The watchdog eventually times out and forces a hard reset to the system. This is considered a last resort to other methods of radiation hardening. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_and_space_industry_applications">Military and space industry applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Military and space industry applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radiation-hardened and radiation tolerant components are often used in military and aerospace applications, including point-of-load (POL) applications, satellite system power supplies, step down <a href="/wiki/Switching_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching regulator">switching regulators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>, <a href="/wiki/FPGA" class="mw-redirect" title="FPGA">FPGAs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/FPGA" class="mw-redirect" title="FPGA">FPGA</a> power sources, and high efficiency, low voltage subsystem power supplies. </p><p>However, not all military-grade components are radiation hardened. For example, the US <a href="/wiki/MIL-STD-883" title="MIL-STD-883">MIL-STD-883</a> features many radiation-related tests, but has no specification for single event latchup frequency. The <a href="/wiki/Fobos-Grunt" title="Fobos-Grunt">Fobos-Grunt</a> space probe may have failed due to a similar assumption.<sup id="cite_ref-amartology_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amartology-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The market size for radiation hardened electronics used in space applications was estimated to be $2.35 billion in 2021. A new study has estimated that this will reach approximately $4.76 billion by the year 2032.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_hardness_for_telecommunication">Nuclear hardness for telecommunication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Nuclear hardness for telecommunication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a>, the term <i>nuclear hardness</i> has the following meanings: 1) an expression of the extent to which the performance of a <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a>, facility, or device is expected to degrade in a given nuclear environment, 2) the physical attributes of a system or <a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">electronic component</a> that will allow survival in an environment that includes <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear radiation">nuclear radiation</a> and electromagnetic pulses (EMP). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>Nuclear hardness may be expressed in terms of either <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_compatibility#Introduction" title="Electromagnetic compatibility">susceptibility</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability (computing)">vulnerability</a>.</li> <li>The extent of expected performance <a href="/wiki/Degradation_(telecommunications)" title="Degradation (telecommunications)">degradation</a> (<i>e.g.,</i> outage time, <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> lost, and equipment damage) must be defined or specified. The environment (<i>e.g.,</i> radiation levels, overpressure, peak velocities, energy absorbed, and electrical stress) must be defined or specified.</li> <li>The physical attributes of a system or component that will allow a defined degree of <a href="/wiki/Survivability" title="Survivability">survivability</a> in a given environment created by a nuclear weapon.</li> <li>Nuclear hardness is determined for specified or actual quantified environmental conditions and physical parameters, such as peak radiation levels, overpressure, velocities, energy absorbed, and electrical stress. It is achieved through <a href="/wiki/Design_specification" title="Design specification">design specifications</a> and it is verified by test and analysis techniques.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_rad-hard_computers">Examples of rad-hard computers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Examples of rad-hard computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/System/4_Pi" class="mw-redirect" title="System/4 Pi">System/4 Pi</a>, made by <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> and used on board the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a> (<a href="/wiki/AP-101" class="mw-redirect" title="AP-101">AP-101</a> variant), is based on the <a href="/wiki/System/360" class="mw-redirect" title="System/360">System/360</a> architecture.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/RCA_1802" title="RCA 1802">RCA1802</a> <a href="/wiki/8-bit" class="mw-redirect" title="8-bit">8-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a>, introduced in 1976, was the first serially-produced radiation-hardened microprocessor.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIC_microcontrollers#PKK_Milandr" title="PIC microcontrollers">PIC 1886VE</a>, Russian 50 MHz microcontroller designed by Milandr and manufactured by Sitronics-Mikron on 180 nm bulk-silicon technology.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000_series" title="Motorola 68000 series">m68k</a> based: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Freescale_ColdFire" class="mw-redirect" title="Freescale ColdFire">Coldfire</a> M5208 used by General Dynamics is a low power (1.5 W) radiation hardened alternative.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MIL-STD-1750A" title="MIL-STD-1750A">MIL-STD-1750A</a> based: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/RH1750" class="mw-redirect" title="RH1750">RH1750</a> manufactured by <a href="/wiki/GEC-Plessey" class="mw-redirect" title="GEC-Plessey">GEC-Plessey</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>The Proton 100k SBC by Space Micro Inc., introduced in 2003, uses an updated voting scheme called TTMR which mitigates <a href="/wiki/Single-event_upset" title="Single-event upset">single event upset</a> (SEU) in a single processor. The processor is Equator BSP-15.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Proton200k" title="Proton200k">Proton200k</a> SBC by Space Micro Inc, introduced in 2004, mitigates SEU with its patented <a href="/wiki/Time_triple_modular_redundancy" title="Time triple modular redundancy">time triple modular redundancy</a> (TTMR) technology, and single event function interrupts (SEFI) with H-Core technology. The processor is the high speed <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments_TMS320#C6000_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas Instruments TMS320">320C6Xx series</a> <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">digital signal processor</a>. The Proton200k operates at 4000 MIPS while mitigating SEU.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a> based: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/RH32" class="mw-redirect" title="RH32">RH32</a> is produced by <a href="/wiki/Honeywell" title="Honeywell">Honeywell</a> Aerospace.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Mongoose-V" title="Mongoose-V">Mongoose-V</a> used by NASA is a 32-bit microprocessor for spacecraft onboard computer applications (i. e. <a href="/wiki/New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a>).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/KOMDIV-32" title="KOMDIV-32">KOMDIV-32</a> is a 32-bit microprocessor, compatible with <a href="/wiki/R3000" title="R3000">MIPS R3000</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Research_Institute_of_System_Development" title="Scientific Research Institute of System Development">NIISI</a>, manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute" title="Kurchatov Institute">Kurchatov Institute</a>, Russia.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a> / <a href="/wiki/IBM_POWER_architecture" title="IBM POWER architecture">POWER</a> based: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/RAD6000" class="mw-redirect" title="RAD6000">RAD6000</a> <a href="/wiki/Single-board_computer" title="Single-board computer">single-board computer</a> (SBC), produced by <a href="/wiki/BAE_Systems" title="BAE Systems">BAE Systems</a>, includes a rad-hard <a href="/wiki/POWER1" title="POWER1">POWER1</a> CPU.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/RHPPC" title="RHPPC">RHPPC</a> is produced by Honeywell Aerospace. Based on hardened <a href="/wiki/PowerPC_600#PowerPC_603e_and_603ev" title="PowerPC 600">PowerPC 603e</a>.</li> <li>The SP0 and SP0-S are produced by Aitech Defense Systems is a 3U cPCI SBC which utilizes the SOI <a href="/wiki/PowerQUICC#PowerQUICC_III" title="PowerQUICC">PowerQUICC-III MPC8548E</a>, <a href="/wiki/PowerPC_e500" title="PowerPC e500">PowerPC e500</a> based, capable of processing speeds ranging from 833 MHz to 1.18 GHz.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/RAD750" title="RAD750">RAD750</a> SBC, also produced by BAE Systems, and based on the <a href="/wiki/PowerPC_G3" class="mw-redirect" title="PowerPC G3">PowerPC 750</a> processor, is the successor to the RAD6000.</li> <li>The SCS750 built by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Technologies" title="Maxwell Technologies">Maxwell Technologies</a>, which votes three <a href="/wiki/PowerPC_750" class="mw-redirect" title="PowerPC 750">PowerPC 750</a> cores against each other to mitigate radiation effects. Seven of those are used by the <a href="/wiki/Gaia_(spacecraft)" title="Gaia (spacecraft)">Gaia spacecraft</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Boeing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeing Company">Boeing Company</a>, through its Satellite Development Center, produces a radiation hardened space computer variant based on the PowerPC 750.</li> <li>The BRE440 by <a href="/wiki/Moog_Inc." title="Moog Inc.">Moog Inc</a>. IBM <a href="/wiki/PowerPC_400#PowerPC_440" title="PowerPC 400">PPC440</a> core based <a href="/wiki/System-on-a-chip" class="mw-redirect" title="System-on-a-chip">system-on-a-chip</a>, 266 <a href="/wiki/Instructions_per_second" title="Instructions per second">MIPS</a>, PCI, 2x Ethernet, 2x UARTS, DMA controller, L1/L2 cache <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/RAD5500" title="RAD5500">RAD5500</a> processor, is the successor to the RAD750 based on the <a href="/wiki/PowerPC_e5500" title="PowerPC e5500">PowerPC e5500</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPARC" title="SPARC">SPARC</a> based: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/ERC32" title="ERC32">ERC32</a> and <a href="/wiki/LEON" title="LEON">LEON</a> 2, 3, 4 and 5 are radiation hardened processors designed by Gaisler Research and the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a>. They are described in synthesizable VHDL available under the <a href="/wiki/GNU_Lesser_General_Public_License" title="GNU Lesser General Public License">GNU Lesser General Public License</a> and <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License</a> respectively.</li> <li>The Gen 6 <a href="/wiki/Single-board_computer" title="Single-board computer">single-board computer</a> (SBC), produced by Cobham Semiconductor Solutions (formerly <a href="/wiki/Aeroflex" title="Aeroflex">Aeroflex</a> Microelectronics Solutions), enabled for the <a href="/wiki/LEON" title="LEON">LEON</a> microprocessor.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM architecture">ARM</a> based: <ul><li>The Vorago VA10820, a 32-bit ARMv6-M <a href="/wiki/Cortex-M0" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortex-M0">Cortex-M0</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> are developing HPSC, a Cortex-A53 based processor for future spacecraft use <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a> DAHLIA, a Cortex-R52 based processor<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RISC-V" title="RISC-V">RISC-V</a> based: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobham_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobham plc">Cobham Gaisler</a> NOEL-V 64-bit.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> has selected <a href="/wiki/Microchip_Technology" title="Microchip Technology">Microchip Technology</a> to develop a new HPSC processor, based on <a href="/wiki/SiFive" title="SiFive">SiFive</a> Intelligence X280<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_embedded_computer_systems_on_board_the_Mars_rovers" title="Comparison of embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers">Comparison of embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communications_survivability" title="Communications survivability">Communications survivability</a></li> <li>EMC-aware programming</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Space_and_Defense_Electronics" title="Institute for Space and Defense Electronics">Institute for Space and Defense Electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_University" title="Vanderbilt University">Vanderbilt University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter#Electronic_systems" title="Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MESSENGER#Spacecraft_and_subsystems" title="MESSENGER">MESSENGER Mercury probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover#Power_and_electronic_systems" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars rovers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempest_(codename)" title="Tempest (codename)">Tempest (codename)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juno_Radiation_Vault" title="Juno Radiation Vault">Juno Radiation Vault</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rugged.com/sp0-3u-compactpci-radiation-tolerant-powerpc%C2%AE-sbc">the original</a> on 2014-06-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aitech+Rugged+COTS+Solutions&rft.atitle=SP0+3U+CompactPCI+Radiation+Tolerant+PowerPC%C2%AE+SBC&rft.date=2013-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rugged.com%2Fsp0-3u-compactpci-radiation-tolerant-powerpc%25C2%25AE-sbc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.moog.com/space">Moog Inc. Website</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ams.aeroflex.com/pagesproduct/prods-hirel-sbc.cfm">"Single Board Computer (SBC) Family"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cobham_plc" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobham plc">Cobham</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190408051900/https://www.cobhamaes.com/pagesproduct/prods-hirel-sbc.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Single+Board+Computer+%28SBC%29+Family&rft.pub=Cobham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fams.aeroflex.com%2Fpagesproduct%2Fprods-hirel-sbc.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voragotech.com/products/va10820-radiation-hardened-arm%C2%AE-cortex%C2%AE-m0-mcu">"VA10820 - Radiation Hardened ARM Cortex-M0 MCU"</a>. Vorago Technologies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190214100930/https://www.voragotech.com/products/va10820-radiation-hardened-arm%C2%AE-cortex%C2%AE-m0-mcu">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-02-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=VA10820+-+Radiation+Hardened+ARM+Cortex-M0+MCU&rft.pub=Vorago+Technologies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voragotech.com%2Fproducts%2Fva10820-radiation-hardened-arm%25C2%25AE-cortex%25C2%25AE-m0-mcu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2018" class="citation report cs1">Powell, Wesley A. (2018-11-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20180007636.pdf">High-Performance Spaceflight Computing (HPSC) Project Overview</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)</i> (Report).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=High-Performance+Spaceflight+Computing+%28HPSC%29+Project+Overview&rft.date=2018-11-13&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Wesley+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Farchive%2Fnasa%2Fcasi.ntrs.nasa.gov%2F20180007636.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dahlia-h2020.eu">ESA DAHLIA</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gaisler.com/index.php/products/processors/noel-v">"NOEL-V Processor"</a>. <i>Cobham Gaisler</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cobham+Gaisler&rft.atitle=NOEL-V+Processor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gaisler.com%2Findex.php%2Fproducts%2Fprocessors%2Fnoel-v&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sifive.com/press/nasa-selects-sifive-and-makes-risc-v-the-go-to-ecosystem">"NASA Makes RISC-V the Go-to Ecosystem for Future Space Missions"</a>. <i>sifive</i>. 2022-09-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sifive&rft.atitle=NASA+Makes+RISC-V+the+Go-to+Ecosystem+for+Future+Space+Missions&rft.date=2022-09-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sifive.com%2Fpress%2Fnasa-selects-sifive-and-makes-risc-v-the-go-to-ecosystem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.microchip.com/en-us/about/media-center/blog/2022/spaceflight-computing-processor">"NASA JPL Selects Microchip for Game-Changing Spaceflight Computing Processor"</a>. <i>microchip</i>. 2022-09-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=microchip&rft.atitle=NASA+JPL+Selects+Microchip+for+Game-Changing+Spaceflight+Computing+Processor&rft.date=2022-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.microchip.com%2Fen-us%2Fabout%2Fmedia-center%2Fblog%2F2022%2Fspaceflight-computing-processor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-awards-next-generation-spaceflight-computing-processor-contract/">"NASA Awards Next-Generation Spaceflight Computing Processor Contract"</a>. <i>nasa</i>. 2022-08-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nasa&rft.atitle=NASA+Awards+Next-Generation+Spaceflight+Computing+Processor+Contract&rft.date=2022-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fnews-release%2Fnasa-awards-next-generation-spaceflight-computing-processor-contract%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Books_and_Reports">Books and Reports</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Books and Reports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalligaroGatti2018" class="citation book cs1">Calligaro, Christiano; Gatti, Umberto (2018). <i>Rad-hard Semiconductor Memories</i>. River Publishers Series in Electronic Materials and Devices. River Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8770220200" title="Special:BookSources/978-8770220200"><bdi>978-8770220200</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rad-hard+Semiconductor+Memories&rft.series=River+Publishers+Series+in+Electronic+Materials+and+Devices&rft.pub=River+Publishers&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-8770220200&rft.aulast=Calligaro&rft.aufirst=Christiano&rft.au=Gatti%2C+Umberto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes-SiedleAdams2002" class="citation book cs1">Holmes-Siedle, Andrew; Adams, Len (2002). <i>Handbook of Radiation Effects</i> (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-850733-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-850733-X"><bdi>0-19-850733-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Radiation+Effects&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-850733-X&rft.aulast=Holmes-Siedle&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Adams%2C+Len&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeón-FlorianSchönbacherTavlet1993" class="citation report cs1">León-Florian, E.; Schönbacher, H.; Tavlet, M. (1993). Data compilation of dosimetry methods and radiation sources for material testing (Report). <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN Technical Inspection and Safety Commission</a>. CERN-TIS-CFM-IR-93-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Data+compilation+of+dosimetry+methods+and+radiation+sources+for+material+testing&rft.pub=CERN+Technical+Inspection+and+Safety+Commission&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Le%C3%B3n-Florian&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Sch%C3%B6nbacher%2C+H.&rft.au=Tavlet%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaDressendorfer1989" class="citation book cs1">Ma, Tso-Ping; Dressendorfer, Paul V. (1989). <i>Ionizing Radiation Effects in MOS Devices and Circuits</i>. New York: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-84893-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-84893-X"><bdi>0-471-84893-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ionizing+Radiation+Effects+in+MOS+Devices+and+Circuits&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-471-84893-X&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Tso-Ping&rft.au=Dressendorfer%2C+Paul+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMessengerAsh1992" class="citation book cs1">Messenger, George C.; Ash, Milton S. (1992). <i>The Effects of Radiation on Electronic Systems</i> (Second ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-442-23952-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-442-23952-1"><bdi>0-442-23952-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Effects+of+Radiation+on+Electronic+Systems&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Van+Nostrand+Reinhold&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-442-23952-1&rft.aulast=Messenger&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft.au=Ash%2C+Milton+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOldham2000" class="citation book cs1">Oldham, Timothy R. (2000). <i>Ionizing Radiation Effects in MOS Oxides</i>. International Series on Advances in Solid State Electronics and Technology. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F3655">10.1142/3655</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3326-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3326-6"><bdi>978-981-02-3326-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ionizing+Radiation+Effects+in+MOS+Oxides&rft.series=International+Series+on+Advances+in+Solid+State+Electronics+and+Technology&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F3655&rft.isbn=978-981-02-3326-6&rft.aulast=Oldham&rft.aufirst=Timothy+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlatteter2006" class="citation book cs1">Platteter, Dale G. (2006). <i>Archive of Radiation Effects Short Course Notebooks (1980–2006)</i>. <a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4244-0304-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-4244-0304-9"><bdi>1-4244-0304-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archive+of+Radiation+Effects+Short+Course+Notebooks+%281980%E2%80%932006%29&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4244-0304-9&rft.aulast=Platteter&rft.aufirst=Dale+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrimpfFleetwood2004" class="citation book cs1">Schrimpf, Ronald D.; Fleetwood, Daniel M. (July 2004). <i>Radiation Effects and Soft Errors in Integrated Circuits and Electronic Devices</i>. Selected Topics in Electronics and Systems. Vol. 34. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F5607">10.1142/5607</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-238-940-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-238-940-4"><bdi>978-981-238-940-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radiation+Effects+and+Soft+Errors+in+Integrated+Circuits+and+Electronic+Devices&rft.series=Selected+Topics+in+Electronics+and+Systems&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2004-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F5607&rft.isbn=978-981-238-940-4&rft.aulast=Schrimpf&rft.aufirst=Ronald+D.&rft.au=Fleetwood%2C+Daniel+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroder1990" class="citation book cs1">Schroder, Dieter K. (1990). <i>Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization</i>. New York: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-51104-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-51104-8"><bdi>0-471-51104-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semiconductor+Material+and+Device+Characterization&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-471-51104-8&rft.aulast=Schroder&rft.aufirst=Dieter+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulmanCompton1962" class="citation book cs1">Schulman, James Herbert; Compton, Walter Dale (1962). <i>Color Centers in Solids</i>. International Series of Monographs on Solid State Physics. Vol. 2. Pergamon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Color+Centers+in+Solids&rft.series=International+Series+of+Monographs+on+Solid+State+Physics&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Schulman&rft.aufirst=James+Herbert&rft.au=Compton%2C+Walter+Dale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes-Siedlevan_Lint2000" class="citation book cs1">Holmes-Siedle, Andrew; van Lint, Victor A. J. (2000). "Radiation Effects in Electronic Materials and Devices". In Meyers, Robert A. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology</i>. Vol. 13 (Third ed.). New York: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-227423-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-227423-7"><bdi>0-12-227423-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Radiation+Effects+in+Electronic+Materials+and+Devices&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Physical+Science+and+Technology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-12-227423-7&rft.aulast=Holmes-Siedle&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=van+Lint%2C+Victor+A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_LintFlanaganLeadonNaber1980" class="citation book cs1">van Lint, Victor A. J.; Flanagan, Terry M.; Leadon, Roland Eugene; Naber, James Allen; Rogers, Vern C. (1980). <i>Mechanisms of Radiation Effects in Electronic Materials</i>. Vol. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 13073. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980STIA...8113073V">1980STIA...8113073V</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-04106-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-04106-8"><bdi>0-471-04106-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mechanisms+of+Radiation+Effects+in+Electronic+Materials&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=13073&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980STIA...8113073V&rft.isbn=0-471-04106-8&rft.aulast=van+Lint&rft.aufirst=Victor+A.+J.&rft.au=Flanagan%2C+Terry+M.&rft.au=Leadon%2C+Roland+Eugene&rft.au=Naber%2C+James+Allen&rft.au=Rogers%2C+Vern+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_D._Watkins" title="George D. Watkins">Watkins, George D.</a> (1986). "The Lattice Vacancy in Silicon". In Pantelides, Sokrates T. (ed.). <i>Deep Centers in Semiconductors: A State-of-the-Art Approach</i> (Second ed.). New York: Gordon and Breach. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-88124-109-3" title="Special:BookSources/2-88124-109-3"><bdi>2-88124-109-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lattice+Vacancy+in+Silicon&rft.btitle=Deep+Centers+in+Semiconductors%3A+A+State-of-the-Art+Approach&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Gordon+and+Breach&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=2-88124-109-3&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.aufirst=George+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatts1997" class="citation journal cs1">Watts, Stephen J. (1997). "Overview of radiation damage in silicon detectors — Models and defect engineering". <i><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Instruments_and_Methods_in_Physics_Research_Section_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A">Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A</a></i>. <b>386</b> (1): 149–155. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997NIMPA.386..149W">1997NIMPA.386..149W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-9002%2896%2901110-2">10.1016/S0168-9002(96)01110-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Instruments+and+Methods+in+Physics+Research+Section+A&rft.atitle=Overview+of+radiation+damage+in+silicon+detectors+%E2%80%94+Models+and+defect+engineering&rft.volume=386&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=149-155&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0168-9002%2896%2901110-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997NIMPA.386..149W&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZieglerBiersackLittmark1985" class="citation book cs1">Ziegler, James F.; Biersack, Jochen P.; Littmark, Uffe (1985). <i>The Stopping and Range of Ions in Solids</i>. Vol. 1. New York: Pergamon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-021603-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-021603-X"><bdi>0-08-021603-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stopping+and+Range+of+Ions+in+Solids&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-08-021603-X&rft.aulast=Ziegler&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rft.au=Biersack%2C+Jochen+P.&rft.au=Littmark%2C+Uffe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadiation+hardening" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiation_hardening&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Standard_1037C" title="Federal Standard 1037C">Federal Standard 1037C</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm">link</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110301100455/http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm">Archived</a> 2011-03-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161007222526/http://www.cotsjournalonline.com/articles/view/100088">(I)ntegrated Approach with COTS Creates Rad-Tolerant (SBC) for Space</a> – By Chad Thibodeau, Maxwell Technologies; <i>COTS Journal</i>, Dec 2003</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sandia.gov/media/rhp.htm">Sandia Labs to develop (...) radiation-hardened Pentium (...) for space and defense needs</a> – Sandia press release, 8 Dec 1998<br />(also includes a general "backgrounder" section on Sandia's manufacturing processes for radiation-hardening of microelectronics)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060630051834/http://www.ieee-uffc.org/freqcontrol/quartz/vig/vigrad.htm">Radiation effects on quartz crystals</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isde.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University Institute for Space and Defense Electronics</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive source</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiation hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" 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