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href="#List_of_nuclear_plant_accidents_and_incidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 List of nuclear plant accidents and incidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_nuclear_plant_accidents_and_incidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_reactor_attacks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_reactor_attacks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Nuclear reactor attacks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_reactor_attacks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_and_other_accidents_and_incidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_and_other_accidents_and_incidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Radiation and other accidents and incidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_and_other_accidents_and_incidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worldwide_nuclear_weapons_testing_summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide_nuclear_weapons_testing_summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Worldwide nuclear weapons testing summary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worldwide_nuclear_weapons_testing_summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trafficking_and_thefts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trafficking_and_thefts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Trafficking and thefts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trafficking_and_thefts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accident_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accident_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Accident categories </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Accident_categories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Accident categories subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Accident_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_meltdown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_meltdown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Nuclear meltdown </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_meltdown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticality_accidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticality_accidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Criticality accidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticality_accidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decay_heat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decay_heat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Decay heat </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decay_heat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Transport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equipment_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Equipment failure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equipment_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_error" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_error"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Human error </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_error-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lost_source" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lost_source"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Lost source </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lost_source-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparisons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparisons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Comparisons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparisons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Nuclear safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Ecological impacts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecological_impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ecological impacts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ecological_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_on_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Impact on land </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Impact on water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fukushima_Daiichi_accident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fukushima_Daiichi_accident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Fukushima Daiichi accident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fukushima_Daiichi_accident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chernobyl_accident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chernobyl_accident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 Chernobyl accident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chernobyl_accident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Impact on people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_acute_radiation_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_acute_radiation_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Effects of acute radiation exposure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_acute_radiation_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AB_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حوادث نووية وإشعاعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حوادث نووية وإشعاعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_q%C9%99zalar%C4%B1" title="Nüvə qəzaları – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə qəzaları" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Радыяцыйная аварыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Радыяцыйная аварыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_nesre%C4%87a" title="Nuklearna nesreća – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nuklearna nesreća" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_nuclear" title="Accident nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Accident nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_hav%C3%A1rie" title="Jaderná havárie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná havárie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernekraftulykke" title="Kernekraftulykke – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kernekraftulykke" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidente_nuclear" title="Accidente nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Accidente nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istripu_nuklear" title="Istripu nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Istripu nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Accident nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Accident nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EB%A0%A5_%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%A0" title="원자력 사고 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자력 사고" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%81" title="नाभिकीय एवं विकिरण दुर्घटनाएँ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाभिकीय एवं विकिरण दुर्घटनाएँ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_nesre%C4%87a" title="Nuklearna nesreća – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearna nesreća" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecelakaan_dan_insiden_nuklir" title="Kecelakaan dan insiden nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kecelakaan dan insiden nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidente_nucleare" title="Incidente nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Incidente nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%94_h%C9%94z%C9%A9%C5%8B_k%C9%9Bgb%C9%9Bd%C9%9Bsa%C9%A3_(accident_nucl%C3%A9aire)" title="Hɔ hɔzɩŋ kɛgbɛdɛsaɣ (accident nucléaire) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Hɔ hɔzɩŋ kɛgbɛdɛsaɣ (accident nucléaire)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukle%C3%A1ris_baleset" title="Nukleáris baleset – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nukleáris baleset" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernongeval" title="Kernongeval – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernongeval" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E4%BA%8B%E6%95%85" title="原子力事故 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子力事故" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernekraftulykke" title="Kjernekraftulykke – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjernekraftulykke" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_va_radiatsiyaviy_avariyalar_va_hodisalar" title="Yadro va radiatsiyaviy avariyalar va hodisalar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yadro va radiatsiyaviy avariyalar va hodisalar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wypadek_j%C4%85drowy" title="Wypadek jądrowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wypadek jądrowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidente_nuclear" title="Acidente nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Acidente nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_nuclear" title="Accident nuclear – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Accident nuclear" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Радиационная авария – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Радиационная авария" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_accident" title="Nuclear accident – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear accident" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Severe disruptive events involving fissile or fusile materials</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/300px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/450px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/600px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>Following the 2011 Japanese <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a>, authorities shut down the nation's 54 nuclear power plants. The Fukushima site remains <a href="/wiki/Radiation_effects_from_Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation effects from Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">radioactive</a>, with some 30,000 evacuees still living in temporary housing, although nobody has died or is expected to die from radiation effects.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_accident_cleanup" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima accident cleanup">difficult cleanup job</a> will take 40 or more years, and cost tens of billions of dollars.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atmospheric_radiation_to_human-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Atmospheric_radiation_to_human-en.svg/300px-Atmospheric_radiation_to_human-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Atmospheric_radiation_to_human-en.svg/450px-Atmospheric_radiation_to_human-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Atmospheric_radiation_to_human-en.svg/600px-Atmospheric_radiation_to_human-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="391" /></a><figcaption>Pathways from airborne <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> to human</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kashiwazaki_Kariwa-April_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Kashiwazaki_Kariwa-April_2011.jpg/330px-Kashiwazaki_Kariwa-April_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Kashiwazaki_Kariwa-April_2011.jpg/495px-Kashiwazaki_Kariwa-April_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Kashiwazaki_Kariwa-April_2011.jpg/660px-Kashiwazaki_Kariwa-April_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kashiwazaki-Kariwa_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant">Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant</a>, a Japanese nuclear plant with seven units, the largest single nuclear power station in the world, was completely shut down for 21 months following <a href="/wiki/2007_Ch%C5%ABetsu_offshore_earthquake" title="2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake">an earthquake in 2007</a>. Safety-critical systems were found to be undamaged by the earthquake.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA) as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility." Examples include <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">lethal effects to individuals</a>, large <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">radioactivity</a> release to the environment, or a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">reactor core melt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-INES-DefinitionOfAccident-6">[6]</a> The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_core" title="Nuclear reactor core">reactor core</a> is damaged and significant amounts of <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radioactive isotopes</a> are released, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in 1986 and <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a> in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate since the first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> were constructed in 1954 and has been a key factor in <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">public concern about nuclear facilities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mvr-8">[8]</a> Technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted; however, <a href="/wiki/Human_error" title="Human error">human error</a> remains, and "there have been many accidents with varying impacts as well near misses and incidents".<a href="#cite_note-mvr-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> As of 2014, there have been more than 100 serious nuclear accidents and incidents from the use of nuclear power. Fifty-seven accidents or severe incidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and about 60% of all nuclear-related accidents/severe incidents have occurred in the USA.<a href="#cite_note-critev-10">[10]</a> Serious <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plant</a> accidents include the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a> (2011), the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> (1986), the <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> (1979), and the <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a> accident (1961).<a href="#cite_note-timenuke-11">[11]</a> Nuclear power accidents can involve loss of life and large monetary costs for remediation work.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarine" title="Nuclear submarine">Nuclear submarine</a> accidents include the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19</a> (1961), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-11" title="Soviet submarine K-11">K-11</a> (1965), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-27" title="Soviet submarine K-27">K-27</a> (1968), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-140" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet submarine K-140">K-140</a> (1968), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-429" title="Soviet submarine K-429">K-429</a> (1970), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-222" title="Soviet submarine K-222">K-222</a> (1980), and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">K-431</a> (1985)<a href="#cite_note-timenuke-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-epe2011-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-14">[14]</a> accidents. Serious radiation incidents/accidents include the <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy_accident_in_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica">radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gusev-15">[15]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy_accident_in_Zaragoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza">radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza</a>,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-16">[16]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_accident_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation accident in Morocco">radiation accident in Morocco</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lost_Iridium-192_Source-17">[17]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Goiania_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Goiania accident">Goiania accident</a>,<a href="#cite_note-www-pub.iaea.org-18">[18]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_accident_in_Mexico_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation accident in Mexico City">radiation accident in Mexico City</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Samut_Prakan_radiation_accident" title="Samut Prakan radiation accident">Samut Prakan radiation accident</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mayapuri_radiological_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayapuri radiological accident">Mayapuri radiological accident</a> in India.<a href="#cite_note-pall-19">[19]</a> The IAEA maintains a website reporting recent nuclear accidents.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In 2020, the WHO stated that "Lessons learned from past radiological and nuclear accidents have demonstrated that the mental health and psychosocial consequences can outweigh the direct physical health impacts of radiation exposure."<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>" <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_plant_accidents">Nuclear plant accidents</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nuclear plant accidents">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG/220px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG/330px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG/440px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2240" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption>The abandoned city of <a href="/wiki/Pripyat,_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pripyat, Ukraine">Pripyat, Ukraine</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant is in the background.</figcaption></figure> The world's first nuclear reactor meltdown was the <a href="/wiki/NRX" title="NRX">NRX</a> reactor at <a href="/wiki/Chalk_River_Laboratories" title="Chalk River Laboratories">Chalk River Laboratories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, Canada in 1952.<a href="#cite_note-:0-22">[22]</a> The worst nuclear accident to date is the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> which occurred in 1986 in the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>, now Ukraine. The accident killed approximately 30 people directly<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> and damaged approximately $7 billion of property.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A study published in 2005 by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> estimates that there may eventually be up to 4,000 additional cancer deaths related to the accident among those exposed to significant radiation levels.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Radioactive fallout from the accident was concentrated in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Other studies have estimated as many as over a million eventual cancer deaths from Chernobyl.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Estimates of eventual deaths from cancer are highly contested. Industry, UN and DOE agencies claim low numbers of legally provable cancer deaths will be traceable to the disaster. The UN, DOE and industry agencies all use the limits of the epidemiological resolvable deaths as the cutoff below which they cannot be legally proven to come from the disaster. Independent studies statistically calculate fatal cancers from dose and population, even though the number of additional cancers will be below the epidemiological threshold of measurement of around 1%. These are two very different concepts and lead to the huge variations in estimates. Both are reasonable projections with different meanings. Approximately 350,000 people were forcibly resettled away from these areas soon after the accident. 6,000 people were involved in cleaning Chernobyl and 10,800 square miles (28,000 km2) were contaminated.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-bksenpol-28">[28]</a> Social scientist and energy policy expert, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_K._Sovacool" title="Benjamin K. Sovacool">Benjamin K. Sovacool</a> has reported that worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear power plants from 1952 to 2009 (defined as incidents that either resulted in the loss of human life or more than US$50,000 of property damage, the amount the US federal government uses to define major energy accidents that must be reported), totaling US$20.5 billion in property damages.<a href="#cite_note-critev-10">[10]</a> There have been comparatively few fatalities associated with nuclear power plant accidents.<a href="#cite_note-critev-10">[10]</a> An academic review of many reactor accident and the phenomena of these events was published by Mark Foreman.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_nuclear_plant_accidents_and_incidents">List of nuclear plant accidents and incidents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: List of nuclear plant accidents and incidents">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_accidents_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear reactor accidents in the United States">Nuclear reactor accidents in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_accidents_by_country" title="List of nuclear power accidents by country">List of nuclear power accidents by country</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_fatalities_by_country" title="List of nuclear and radiation fatalities by country">List of nuclear and radiation fatalities by country</a></div> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 90%;"> <caption>Nuclear plant accidents and incidents with multiple fatalities and/or more than US$100 million in property damage, 1952–2011<a href="#cite_note-critev-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-bksenpol-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-bksaccident-31">[31]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Date </th> <th scope="col" class="unsortable">Location of accident </th> <th scope="col" class="unsortable">Description of accident or incident </th> <th>Numbers of deaths </th> <th data-sort-type="number">Cost ($US millions 2006) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">INES level</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc2006-32">[32]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>September 29, 1957</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym" title="Kyshtym">Kyshtym</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a> was a radiation contamination accident (after a chemical explosion that occurred within a storage tank) at Mayak, a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.</td> <td>Estimated 200 possible cancer fatalities<a href="#cite_note-www.history.com-33">[33]</a></td> <td></td> <td style="background-color: red; color:white;">6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>October 10, 1957</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sellafield" title="Sellafield">Sellafield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumberland" title="Cumberland">Cumberland</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a> at the British atomic bomb project (in a plutonium-production reactor) damaged the core and released an estimated 740 terabecquerels of iodine-131 into the environment. A rudimentary smoke filter constructed over the main outlet chimney successfully prevented a far worse radiation leak.</td> <td>0 direct, estimated up to 240 possible cancer victims<a href="#cite_note-www.history.com-33">[33]</a></td> <td></td> <td style="background-color: orange;">5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>January 3, 1961</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Falls" class="mw-redirect" title="Idaho Falls">Idaho Falls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Explosion at U.S. Army <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a> prototype at the <a href="/wiki/National_Reactor_Testing_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="National Reactor Testing Station">National Reactor Testing Station</a>. All 3 operators were killed when a control rod was manually lifted too high. The reactor went from complete shutdown to 20 GW in a few milliseconds. It also jumped over 9 feet (2.7 m) in the air.</td> <td>3</td> <td>22</td> <td style="background-color: #ffc552;">4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>October 5, 1966</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Frenchtown_Charter_Township" class="mw-redirect" title="Frenchtown Charter Township">Frenchtown Charter Township</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Meltdown of some fuel elements in the Fermi 1 Reactor at the <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station">Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station</a>. Little radiation leakage into the environment.</td> <td>0</td> <td>132<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></td> <td style="background-color: #ffc552;">4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>January 21, 1969</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens reactor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaud" title="Vaud">Vaud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td>On January 21, 1969, it suffered a loss-of-coolant accident, leading to meltdown of one fuel element and radioactive contamination of the cavern, which was then sealed.</td> <td>0</td> <td></td> <td style="background-color: #ffc552;">4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 7, 1975</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Greifswald" title="Greifswald">Greifswald</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></td> <td>Electrical error in <a href="/wiki/Greifswald_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant">Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant</a> caused a fire in the main trough that destroyed control lines and five main coolant pumps</td> <td>0</td> <td>443</td> <td style="background-color: yellow;">3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>January 5, 1976</td> <td><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">Jaslovské Bohunice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a></td> <td>Malfunction during fuel replacement. Fuel rod ejected from reactor into the reactor hall by coolant (CO2).<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></td> <td>2</td> <td>1,700</td> <td style="background-color: #ffc552;">4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 28, 1979</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Loss of coolant and partial core meltdown due to operator errors and technical flaws. There was a small release of radioactive gases. See also <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident_health_effects" title="Three Mile Island accident health effects">Three Mile Island accident health effects</a>.</td> <td>0</td> <td>2,400</td> <td style="background-color: orange;">5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>September 15, 1984</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Athens,_Alabama" title="Athens, Alabama">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Safety violations, operator error and design problems forced a six-year outage at <a href="/wiki/Browns_Ferry_Nuclear_Power_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant">Browns Ferry</a> Unit 2.</td> <td>0</td> <td>110</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 9, 1985</td> <td>Athens, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Instrumentation systems malfunction during startup, which led to suspension of operations at all three Browns Ferry Units</td> <td>0</td> <td>1,830</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>April 11, 1986</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Plymouth,_Massachusetts" title="Plymouth, Massachusetts">Plymouth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Recurring equipment problems forced emergency shutdown of Boston Edison's <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_Nuclear_Power_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim Nuclear Power Plant">Pilgrim Nuclear Power Plant</a></td> <td>0</td> <td>1,001</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>April 26, 1986</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chornobyl_Raion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chornobyl Raion">Chernobyl Raion</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Vyshhorod_Raion" title="Vyshhorod Raion">Vyshhorod Raion</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kiev_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev Oblast">Kiev Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></td> <td>A flawed reactor design and inadequate safety procedures led to a power surge that damaged the fuel rods of reactor no. 4 of the Chernobyl power plant. This caused an explosion and meltdown, necessitating the evacuation of 300,000 people and dispersing radioactive material across Europe (see <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects of the Chernobyl disaster</a>). Around 5% (5200 PBq) of the core was released into the atmosphere and downwind. </td> <td>28 direct, 19 not entirely related and 15 children due to thyroid cancer, as of 2008.<a href="#cite_note-UNSCEAR-11-80076-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Estimated up to 4,000 possible cancer deaths.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></td> <td>6,700</td> <td style="background-color: #ff00ff; color:white;">7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>May 4, 1986</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hamm,_North_Rhine-Westphalia" title="Hamm, North Rhine-Westphalia">Hamm</a>-Uentrop, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></td> <td>Experimental <a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a> reactor released small amounts of fission products (0.1 GBq Co-60, Cs-137, Pa-233) to surrounding area</td> <td>0</td> <td>267</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 9, 1986</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Surry,_Virginia" title="Surry, Virginia">Surry, Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Feedwater pipe break at <a href="/wiki/Surry_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Surry Nuclear Power Plant">Surry Nuclear Power Plant</a> killed 4 workers</td> <td>4</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 31, 1987</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Delta,_Pennsylvania" title="Delta, Pennsylvania">Delta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Peach_Bottom_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station">Peach Bottom units 2 and 3</a> shutdown due to cooling malfunctions and unexplained equipment problems</td> <td>0</td> <td>400</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 19, 1987</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lycoming,_New_York" title="Lycoming, New York">Lycoming</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Malfunctions forced Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation to shut down <a href="/wiki/Nine_Mile_Point_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Nine Mile Point Nuclear Generating Station">Nine Mile Point Unit 1</a></td> <td>0</td> <td>150</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 17, 1989</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lusby,_Maryland" title="Lusby, Maryland">Lusby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Inspections at <a href="/wiki/Calvert_Cliffs_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant">Calvert Cliff Units 1 and 2</a> revealed cracks at pressurized heater sleeves, forcing extended shutdowns</td> <td>0</td> <td>120</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>October 19, 1989</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vandell%C3%B2s_i_l%27Hospitalet_de_l%27Infant" title="Vandellòs i l'Hospitalet de l'Infant">Vandellòs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></td> <td>A fire damaged the cooling system in unit 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Vandell%C3%B2s_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Vandellòs Nuclear Power Plant">Vandellòs Nuclear Power Plant</a>, getting the core close to meltdown. The cooling system was restored before the meltdown but the unit had to be shut down due to the elevated cost of the repair.</td> <td>0</td> <td>220<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></td> <td style="background-color: yellow;">3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 1992</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sosnovy_Bor,_Leningrad_Oblast" title="Sosnovy Bor, Leningrad Oblast">Sosnovy Bor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leningrad_Oblast" title="Leningrad Oblast">Leningrad Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></td> <td>An accident at the Sosnovy Bor nuclear plant leaked radioactive iodine into the air through a ruptured fuel channel.</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>February 20, 1996</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Waterford,_Connecticut" title="Waterford, Connecticut">Waterford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Leaking valve forced shutdown of <a href="/wiki/Millstone_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Millstone Nuclear Power Plant">Millstone Nuclear Power Plant</a> Units 1 and 2, multiple equipment failures found</td> <td>0</td> <td>254</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>September 2, 1996</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Crystal_River,_Florida" title="Crystal River, Florida">Crystal River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Balance-of-plant equipment malfunction forced shutdown and extensive repairs at <a href="/wiki/Crystal_River_3_Nuclear_Power_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystal River 3 Nuclear Power Plant">Crystal River Unit 3</a></td> <td>0</td> <td>384</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>September 30, 1999</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ibaraki_Prefecture" title="Ibaraki Prefecture">Ibaraki Prefecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tokaimura_nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokaimura nuclear accident">Tokaimura nuclear accident</a> killed two workers, and exposed one more to radiation levels above permissible limits.</td> <td>2</td> <td>54</td> <td style="background-color: #ffc552;">4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>February 16, 2002</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oak_Harbor,_Ohio" title="Oak Harbor, Ohio">Oak Harbor, Ohio</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>Severe corrosion of reactor vessel head forced 24-month outage of <a href="/wiki/Davis-Besse_Nuclear_Power_Plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Plant">Davis-Besse reactor</a></td> <td>0</td> <td>143</td> <td style="background-color: yellow;">3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>April 10, 2003 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paks" title="Paks">Paks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> </td> <td>Collapse of fuel rods at <a href="/wiki/Paks_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Paks Nuclear Power Plant">Paks Nuclear Power Plant</a> unit 2 during its corrosion cleaning led to leakage of radioactive gases. It remained inactive for 18 months.</td> <td>0</td> <td></td> <td style="background-color: yellow;">3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>August 9, 2004</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fukui_Prefecture" title="Fukui Prefecture">Fukui Prefecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></td> <td>Steam explosion at <a href="/wiki/Mihama_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Mihama Nuclear Power Plant">Mihama Nuclear Power Plant</a> killed 4 workers and injured 7 more</td> <td>4</td> <td>9</td> <td style="background-color:green; color:white;">1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>July 25, 2006</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Forsmark" title="Forsmark">Forsmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td> <td>An electrical fault at <a href="/wiki/Forsmark_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant">Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant</a> caused multiple failures in safety systems critical for reactor cooling</td> <td>0</td> <td>100</td> <td style="background-color: #808000; color:white;">2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 11, 2011</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Prefecture" title="Fukushima Prefecture">Fukushima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></td> <td>The <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a> was triggered by a tsunami that flooded and damaged the 3 active reactors at the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant</a>, drowning two workers. Loss of backup electrical power led to overheating, meltdowns, and evacuations.<a href="#cite_note-CBS_News-40">[40]</a> One man died suddenly while carrying equipment during the clean-up.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The plant's reactors Nos. 4, 5 and 6 were inactive at the time.</td> <td>1<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> and 3+ labour accidents; plus a broader number of primarily ill or elderly people from evacuation stress</td> <td>1,255–2,078 (2018 <abbr title="estimated">est.</abbr>)<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></td> <td style="background-color: #ff00ff; color:white;">7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>September 12, 2011</td> <td>Marcoule, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td>One person was killed and four injured, one seriously, in a blast at the <a href="/wiki/Marcoule_Nuclear_Site" title="Marcoule Nuclear Site">Marcoule Nuclear Site</a>. The explosion took place in a furnace used to melt metallic waste.</td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_reactor_attacks">Nuclear reactor attacks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nuclear reactor attacks">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Nuclear terrorism</a></div> The vulnerability of nuclear plants to deliberate attack is of concern in the area of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">nuclear safety and security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plants</a>, civilian research reactors, certain naval fuel facilities, <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a> plants, fuel fabrication plants, and potentially even uranium mines are vulnerable to attacks which could lead to widespread <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>. The attack threat is of several general types: commando-like ground-based attacks on equipment which if disabled could lead to a reactor <a href="/wiki/Core_meltdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Core meltdown">core meltdown</a> or widespread dispersal of radioactivity, external attacks such as an aircraft crash into a reactor complex, or cyber attacks.<a href="#cite_note-fas12-45">[45]</a> The United States 9/11 Commission found that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered as part of the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>. If terrorist groups could sufficiently damage safety systems to cause a <a href="/wiki/Core_meltdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Core meltdown">core meltdown</a> at a nuclear power plant, or sufficiently damage <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spent fuel">spent fuel</a> pools, such an attack could lead to widespread radioactive contamination. The <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a> have said that if nuclear power use is to expand significantly, nuclear facilities will have to be made extremely safe from attacks that could release radioactivity into the environment. New reactor designs have features of <a href="/wiki/Passive_nuclear_safety" title="Passive nuclear safety">passive nuclear safety</a>, which may help. In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">NRC</a> carries out "Force on Force" (FOF) exercises at all Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) sites at least once every three years.<a href="#cite_note-fas12-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a> become preferred targets during <a href="/wiki/Military_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Military conflict">military conflict</a> and have been repeatedly attacked during military air strikes, occupations, invasions and campaigns over the period 1980–2007.<a href="#cite_note-benj-46">[46]</a> Various acts of <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a> since 1980 by the peace group <a href="/wiki/Plowshares" class="mw-redirect" title="Plowshares">Plowshares</a> have shown how nuclear weapons facilities can be penetrated, and the group's actions represent extraordinary breaches of security at <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> plants in the United States. The <a href="/wiki/National_Nuclear_Security_Administration" title="National Nuclear Security Administration">National Nuclear Security Administration</a> has acknowledged the seriousness of the 2012 Plowshares action. <a href="/wiki/Non-proliferation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-proliferation">Non-proliferation</a> policy experts have questioned "the use of private contractors to provide security at facilities that manufacture and store the government's most dangerous military material".<a href="#cite_note-bas12-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a> materials on the <a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a> are a global concern,<a href="#cite_note-wash-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-A_Nuclear_9/11-49">[49]</a> and there is concern about the possible detonation of a small, crude nuclear weapon or <a href="/wiki/Dirty_bomb" title="Dirty bomb">dirty bomb</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Terrorist_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist group">militant group</a> in a major city, causing significant loss of life and property.<a href="#cite_note-kittrie-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-nyt-51">[51]</a> The number and sophistication of cyber attacks is on the rise. <a href="/wiki/Stuxnet" title="Stuxnet">Stuxnet</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Computer_worm" title="Computer worm">computer worm</a> discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> to attack Iran's nuclear facilities. It switched off safety devices, causing centrifuges to spin out of control.<a href="#cite_note-Wired-52">[52]</a> The computers of <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>'s nuclear plant operator (<a href="/wiki/KHNP" class="mw-redirect" title="KHNP">KHNP</a>) were hacked in December 2014. The cyber attacks involved thousands of <a href="/wiki/Phishing" title="Phishing">phishing</a> emails containing malicious codes, and information was stolen.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In March 2022, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Enerhodar" title="Battle of Enerhodar">Battle of Enerhodar</a> caused damage to the <a href="/wiki/Zaporizhzhia_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant">Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant</a> and a fire at its training complex as Russian forces took control, heightening concerns of nuclear contamination.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> On September 6, 2022, <a href="/wiki/IAEA" class="mw-redirect" title="IAEA">IAEA</a> Director General <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Grossi" title="Rafael Grossi">Rafael Grossi</a> addressed the UN Security Council, calling for a nuclear safety and security protection zone around the plant and reiterating his findings that "the Seven Pillars [for nuclear safety and security] have all been compromised at the site."<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiation_and_other_accidents_and_incidents">Radiation and other accidents and incidents</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Radiation and other accidents and incidents">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg/170px-Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg/255px-Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg/340px-Joseph_Hamilton_with_radio_sodium_experiment_97401413.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2998" data-file-height="3999" /></a><figcaption>Dr. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_G._Hamilton" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph G. Hamilton">Joseph G. Hamilton</a> was the primary researcher for the human plutonium experiments done at U.C. San Francisco from 1944 to 1947.<a href="#cite_note-HPE-56">[56]</a> Hamilton wrote a memo in 1950 discouraging further human experiments because the AEC would be left open "to considerable criticism" since the experiments as proposed had "a little of the <a href="/wiki/Buchenwald" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchenwald">Buchenwald</a> touch."<a href="#cite_note-Sea-57">[57]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plutonium_plume_from_the_1957_fire_at_Rocky_Flats,_per_Colorado_state_dept_of_public_health.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/53/Plutonium_plume_from_the_1957_fire_at_Rocky_Flats%2C_per_Colorado_state_dept_of_public_health.gif/220px-Plutonium_plume_from_the_1957_fire_at_Rocky_Flats%2C_per_Colorado_state_dept_of_public_health.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/53/Plutonium_plume_from_the_1957_fire_at_Rocky_Flats%2C_per_Colorado_state_dept_of_public_health.gif/330px-Plutonium_plume_from_the_1957_fire_at_Rocky_Flats%2C_per_Colorado_state_dept_of_public_health.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/53/Plutonium_plume_from_the_1957_fire_at_Rocky_Flats%2C_per_Colorado_state_dept_of_public_health.gif/440px-Plutonium_plume_from_the_1957_fire_at_Rocky_Flats%2C_per_Colorado_state_dept_of_public_health.gif 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>One of four example estimates of the plutonium (Pu-239) plume from the 1957 fire at the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant</a> near Denver, Colorado. Public protests and a combined <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> raid in 1989 stopped production at the plant.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaking_drum_from_pad_903.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Leaking_drum_from_pad_903.JPG/220px-Leaking_drum_from_pad_903.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Leaking_drum_from_pad_903.JPG/330px-Leaking_drum_from_pad_903.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Leaking_drum_from_pad_903.JPG/440px-Leaking_drum_from_pad_903.JPG 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption>Corroded and leaking 55-gallon drum, for storing radioactive waste at the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a>, tipped on its side so the bottom is showing.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/220px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/330px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/440px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2812" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hanford_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford site">Hanford site</a> represents two-thirds of USA's high-level radioactive waste by volume. Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> in January 1960.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WIPP_DoE_2014-05-15_5_15_Image_lrg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/WIPP_DoE_2014-05-15_5_15_Image_lrg.jpg/220px-WIPP_DoE_2014-05-15_5_15_Image_lrg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/WIPP_DoE_2014-05-15_5_15_Image_lrg.jpg/330px-WIPP_DoE_2014-05-15_5_15_Image_lrg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/WIPP_DoE_2014-05-15_5_15_Image_lrg.jpg/440px-WIPP_DoE_2014-05-15_5_15_Image_lrg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>On Feb. 14, 2014, at the WIPP, radioactive materials leaked from a damaged storage drum (see photo). Analysis of several accidents, by DOE, have shown lack of a "safety culture" at the facility.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wfm_sts_overview.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Wfm_sts_overview.png/220px-Wfm_sts_overview.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Wfm_sts_overview.png/330px-Wfm_sts_overview.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Wfm_sts_overview.png/440px-Wfm_sts_overview.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>The 18,000 km2 expanse of the <a href="/wiki/Semipalatinsk_Test_Site" title="Semipalatinsk Test Site">Semipalatinsk Test Site</a> (indicated in red), which covers an area <a href="/wiki/The_size_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="The size of Wales">the size of Wales</a>. The Soviet Union conducted 456 nuclear tests at Semipalatinsk from 1949 until 1989 with little regard for their effect on the local people or environment. The full impact of radiation exposure was hidden for many years by Soviet authorities and has only come to light since the test site closed in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo_iso_radiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Logo_iso_radiation.svg/220px-Logo_iso_radiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Logo_iso_radiation.svg/330px-Logo_iso_radiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Logo_iso_radiation.svg/440px-Logo_iso_radiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>2007 ISO <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> danger symbol. The red background is intended to convey urgent danger, and the sign is intended to be used in places or on equipment where exceptionally intense radiation fields could be encountered or created through misuse or tampering. The intention is that a normal user will never see such a sign, however after partly dismantling the equipment the sign will be exposed warning that the person should stop work and leave the scene</figcaption></figure> Serious radiation and other accidents and incidents include: <dl><dt>1940s</dt></dl> <ul><li>May 1945: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Stevens" title="Albert Stevens">Albert Stevens</a> was one of several subjects of a <a href="/wiki/Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">human radiation experiment</a>, and was injected with <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> without his knowledge or informed consent. Although Stevens was the person who received the highest dose of radiation during the plutonium experiments, he was neither the first nor the last subject to be studied. Eighteen people aged 4 to 69 were injected with plutonium. Subjects who were chosen for the experiment had been diagnosed with a terminal disease. They lived from 6 days up to 44 years past the time of their injection.<a href="#cite_note-HPE-56">[56]</a> Eight of the 18 died within two years of the injection.<a href="#cite_note-HPE-56">[56]</a> Although one cause of death was unknown, a report by William Moss and Roger Eckhardt concluded that there was "no evidence that any of the patients died for reasons that could be attributed to the plutonium injections.<a href="#cite_note-HPE-56">[56]</a> Patients from Rochester, Chicago, and Oak Ridge were also injected with plutonium in the Manhattan Project human experiments.<a href="#cite_note-HPE-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-pfiles-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-ACHRE-61">[61]</a></li> <li>6–9 August 1945: On the orders of President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, a uranium-<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons design">gun design</a> bomb, <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a>, was used against the city of Hiroshima, Japan. <a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>, a plutonium implosion-design bomb was used against the city of Nagasaki. The two weapons killed approximately 120,000 to 140,000 <a href="/wiki/Civilians" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilians">civilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">military personnel</a> instantly and thousands more have died over the years from <a href="/wiki/Radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation sickness">radiation sickness</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancers</a>.</li> <li>August 1945: Criticality accident at US <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a> dies.<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a></li> <li>May 1946: Criticality accident at Los Alamos National Laboratory. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a> dies.<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>1950s</dt></dl> <ul><li>13 February 1950: a <a href="/wiki/1950_British_Columbia_B-36_crash" title="1950 British Columbia B-36 crash">Convair B-36B crashed</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> after jettisoning a <a href="/wiki/Mark_4_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 4 nuclear bomb">Mark IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>. This was the first such <a href="/wiki/United_States_military_nuclear_incident_terminology" title="United States military nuclear incident terminology">nuclear weapon loss</a> in history.</li> <li>12 December 1952: <a href="/wiki/NRX" title="NRX">NRX</a> AECL Chalk River Laboratories, Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. Partial meltdown, about 10,000 Curies released.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Approximately 1202 people were involved in the two-year cleanup.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Future president <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> was one of the many people that helped clean up the accident.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></li> <li>15 March 1953: <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a>, former Soviet Union. <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">Criticality accident</a>. Contamination of plant personnel occurred.<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a></li> <li>1 March 1954: The 15 Mt <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> shot of 1954 which spread considerable <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">nuclear fallout</a> on many Pacific islands, including several which were inhabited, and some that had not been evacuated.<a href="#cite_note-GREEN-66">[66]</a> <ul><li>1 March 1954: <a href="/wiki/Daigo_Fukury%C5%AB_Maru" title="Daigo Fukuryū Maru">Daigo Fukuryū Maru</a>, Japanese fishing vessel contaminated by fallout from Castle Bravo, 1 fatality.</li> <li>2 March 1954: <a href="/wiki/US_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Navy">US Navy</a> tanker <a href="/wiki/USS_Patapsco_(AOG-1)" title="USS Patapsco (AOG-1)">USS Patapsco</a> contaminated by fallout from Castle Bravo while sailing from <a href="/wiki/Enewetak_Atoll" title="Enewetak Atoll">Enewetak Atoll</a> to <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>September 1957: a <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> fire occurred at the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a>, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">contamination</a> of Building 71 and the release of plutonium into the atmosphere, causing US$818,600 in damage.</li> <li>21 May 1957: <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a>, former Soviet Union. Criticality accident in the factory number 20 in the collection oxalate decantate after filtering sediment oxalate enriched uranium. Six people received doses of 300 to 1,000 rem (four women and two men), one woman died.<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a></li> <li>29 September 1957: <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a>: Nuclear waste storage tank explosion at the same <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a> plant, Russia. No immediate fatalities, though up to 200+ additional cancer deaths might have ensued from the radioactive contamination of the surrounding area; 270,000 people were exposed to dangerous <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radiation</a> levels. Over thirty small communities were removed from Soviet maps between 1958 and 1991.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> (INES level 6)<a href="#cite_note-bbc2006-32">[32]</a></li> <li>October 1957: <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a>, UK. Fire ignites a "plutonium pile" (an air cooled, graphite moderated, uranium fuelled reactor that was used for plutonium and isotope production) and contaminates surrounding dairy farms.<a href="#cite_note-critev-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-ti-68">[68]</a> An estimated 33 cancer deaths.<a href="#cite_note-critev-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-ti-68">[68]</a></li> <li>1957-1964: <a href="/wiki/Rocketdyne" title="Rocketdyne">Rocketdyne</a> located at the Santa Susanna Field Lab, 30 miles north of Los Angeles, California operated ten experimental nuclear reactors. Numerous accidents occurred including a core meltdown. Experimental reactors of that era were not required to have the same type of containment structures that shield modern nuclear reactors. During the Cold War time in which the accidents that occurred at Rocketdyne, these events were not publicly reported by the Department of Energy.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Chalk_River_Laboratories#1958_NRU_incident" title="Chalk River Laboratories">Fuel rupture and fire at the National Research Universal reactor (NRU)</a>, Chalk River, Canada.</li> <li>10 February 1958: <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a>, former Soviet Union. Criticality accident in SCR plant. Conducted experiments to determine the critical mass of enriched uranium in a cylindrical container with different concentrations of uranium in solution. Staff broke the rules and instructions for working with YADM (nuclear fissile material). When SCR personnel received doses from 7,600 to 13,000 rem. Three people died, one man got radiation sickness and went blind.<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a></li> <li>15 October 1958: Vinča, Yugoslavia. There was a criticality incident in a newly installed reactor. Six young researchers received high doses of radiation, and were subsequently treated at "Kiri" institute in Paris where one of them died.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>30 December 1958: <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Kelley_criticality_accident" title="Cecil Kelley criticality accident">Cecil Kelley criticality accident</a> at Los Alamos National Laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li> <li>March 1959: <a href="/wiki/Santa_Susana_Field_Laboratory" title="Santa Susana Field Laboratory">Santa Susana Field Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. Fire in a fuel processing facility.</li> <li>July 1959: <a href="/wiki/Santa_Susana_Field_Laboratory" title="Santa Susana Field Laboratory">Santa Susana Field Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. Partial <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">meltdown</a>.</li> <li>October 15, 1959, a <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress" title="Boeing B-52 Stratofortress">B-52</a> carrying two <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> collided in midair with a KC-135 tanker near <a href="/wiki/Hardinsburg,_Kentucky" title="Hardinsburg, Kentucky">Hardinsburg, Kentucky</a>. One of the nuclear bombs was damaged by fire but both weapons were recovered.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>1960's</dt></dl> <ul><li>7 June 1960: the <a href="/wiki/1960_Fort_Dix_IM-99_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident">1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident</a> destroyed a <a href="/wiki/CIM-10_Bomarc" title="CIM-10 Bomarc">CIM-10 Bomarc</a> nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the <a href="/wiki/BOMARC_Missile_Accident_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="BOMARC Missile Accident Site">BOMARC Missile Accident Site</a> in New Jersey.</li> <li>24 January 1961: the <a href="/wiki/1961_Goldsboro_B-52_crash" title="1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash">1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash</a> occurred near <a href="/wiki/Goldsboro,_North_Carolina" title="Goldsboro, North Carolina">Goldsboro, North Carolina</a>. A <a href="/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-52 Stratofortress">B-52 Stratofortress</a> carrying two <a href="/wiki/Mark_39_nuclear_bomb" title="Mark 39 nuclear bomb">Mark 39 nuclear bombs</a> broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.<a href="#cite_note-BOAS-72">[72]</a></li> <li>July 1961: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19" title="Soviet submarine K-19">soviet submarine K-19</a> accident. Eight fatalities and more than 30 people were over-exposed to radiation.<a href="#cite_note-rad-73">[73]</a></li> <li>July 6, 1962 <a href="/wiki/Sedan_(nuclear_test)" title="Sedan (nuclear test)">Sedan nuclear test</a> accidentally released 33 PBq of radioactive iodine-131 and other radioactive material.</li> <li>21 March–August 1962: <a href="/wiki/Radiation_accident_in_Mexico_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation accident in Mexico City">radiation accident in Mexico City</a>, four fatalities.</li> <li>23 July 1964: <a href="/wiki/Wood_River_Junction,_Rhode_Island#Criticality_accident" title="Wood River Junction, Rhode Island">Wood River Junction criticality accident</a>. Resulted in 1 fatality</li> <li>1964, 1969: <a href="/wiki/Santa_Susana_Field_Laboratory" title="Santa Susana Field Laboratory">Santa Susana Field Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>. Partial <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">meltdowns</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Philippine_Sea_A-4_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash">1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Douglas_A-4_Skyhawk" title="Douglas A-4 Skyhawk">Skyhawk</a> attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea.<a href="#cite_note-CruiseReport-74">[74]</a> The pilot, the aircraft, and the <a href="/wiki/B43_nuclear_bomb" title="B43 nuclear bomb">B43 nuclear bomb</a> were never recovered.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> It was not until the 1980s that <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">the Pentagon</a> revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></li> <li>October 1965: <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">US CIA</a>-led expedition abandons a nuclear-powered telemetry relay listening device on <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Devi#CIA_mission" title="Nanda Devi">Nanda Devi</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li> <li>17 January 1966: the <a href="/wiki/1966_Palomares_B-52_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1966 Palomares B-52 crash">1966 Palomares B-52 crash</a> occurred when a <a href="/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-52 Stratofortress">B-52G bomber</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">USAF</a> collided with a <a href="/wiki/KC-135_Stratotanker" class="mw-redirect" title="KC-135 Stratotanker">KC-135 tanker</a> during <a href="/wiki/Aerial_refueling" title="Aerial refueling">mid-air refuelling</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the seven crew members aboard.<a href="#cite_note-hayes-78">[78]</a> Of the four <a href="/wiki/B28_nuclear_bomb" title="B28 nuclear bomb">Mk28</a> type <a href="/wiki/Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller–Ulam design">hydrogen bombs</a> the B-52G carried,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> three were found on land near <a href="/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa" title="Almería">Almería</a>, Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a 2-square-kilometer (490-acre) (0.78 square mile) area by <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The fourth, which fell into the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, was recovered intact after a 2<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄2-month-long search.<a href="#cite_note-long-81">[81]</a></li> <li>21 January 1968: the <a href="/wiki/1968_Thule_Air_Base_B-52_crash" title="1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash">1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash</a> involved a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> (USAF) <a href="/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-52 Stratofortress">B-52 bomber</a>. The aircraft was carrying four <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bombs</a> when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have an <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seat</a> was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, causing the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in widespread <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a>.</li> <li>May 1968: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-27" title="Soviet submarine K-27">Soviet submarine K-27</a> reactor near meltdown. 9 people died, 83 people were injured.<a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-14">[14]</a></li> <li>In August 1968: Soviet nuclear ballistic missile submarine development program Project 667A. Nuclear-powered <a href="/wiki/Yankee_class_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Yankee class submarine">Yankee class submarine</a> K-140 was in the naval yard at Severodvinsk for repairs. On August 27, an uncontrolled increase of the reactor's power occurred following work to upgrade the vessel. One of the reactors started up automatically when the control rods were raised to a higher position. Power increased to 18 times its normal amount, while pressure and temperature levels in the reactor increased to four times the normal amount. The automatic start-up of the reactor was caused by the incorrect installation of the control rod electrical cables and by operator error. Radiation levels aboard the vessel deteriorated.</li> <li>10 December 1968: <a href="/wiki/Mayak" title="Mayak">Mayak</a>, former Soviet Union. Criticality accident. Plutonium solution was poured into a cylindrical container with dangerous geometry. One person died, another took a high dose of radiation and radiation sickness, after which he had two legs and his right arm amputated.<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a></li> <li>January 1969: <a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens reactor</a> in Switzerland undergoes partial core meltdown leading to massive radioactive contamination of a cavern.</li></ul> <dl><dt>1970s</dt></dl> <ul><li>1974–1976: <a href="/wiki/Columbus_radiotherapy_accident" title="Columbus radiotherapy accident">Columbus radiotherapy accident</a>, 10 fatalities, 88 injuries from cobalt-60 source.<a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-ricks2000-82">[82]</a></li> <li>July 1978: <a href="/wiki/Anatoli_Bugorski" title="Anatoli Bugorski">Anatoli Bugorski</a> was working on <a href="/wiki/U-70_(synchrotron)" title="U-70 (synchrotron)">U-70</a>, the largest <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a>, when he accidentally exposed his head directly to the <a href="/wiki/Proton_beam" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton beam">proton beam</a>. He survived, despite suffering some long-term damage.</li> <li>July 1979: <a href="/wiki/Church_Rock_Uranium_Mill_Spill" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Rock Uranium Mill Spill">Church Rock Uranium Mill Spill</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, USA, when United Nuclear Corporation's uranium mill tailings disposal pond breached its dam. Over 1,000 tons of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive mill waste</a> and millions of gallons of mine effluent flowed into the <a href="/wiki/Puerco_River" title="Puerco River">Puerco River</a>, and contaminants traveled downstream.<a href="#cite_note-epa2-83">[83]</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>1980s</dt></dl> <ul><li>1980 to 1989: The <a href="/wiki/Kramatorsk_radiological_accident" title="Kramatorsk radiological accident">Kramatorsk radiological accident</a> happened in Kramatorsk, Ukrainian SSR. In 1989, a small capsule containing highly radioactive caesium-137 was found inside the concrete wall of an apartment building. 6 residents of the building died from <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a> and 18 more received varying radiation doses. The accident was detected only after the residents called in a health physicist.</li> <li>1980: Houston radiotherapy accident, 7 fatalities.<a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-ricks2000-82">[82]</a></li> <li>5 October 1982: Lost radiation source, Baku, Azerbaijan, USSR. 5 fatalities, 13 injuries.<a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-14">[14]</a></li> <li>March 1984: <a href="/wiki/Radiation_accident_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation accident in Morocco">Radiation accident in Morocco</a>, eight fatalities from overexposure to radiation from a lost <a href="/wiki/Iridium-192" title="Iridium-192">iridium-192</a> source.<a href="#cite_note-Lost_Iridium-192_Source-17">[17]</a></li> <li>1984: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernald_Feed_Materials_Production_Center" title="Fernald Feed Materials Production Center">Fernald Feed Materials Production Center</a> gained notoriety when it was learned that the plant was releasing millions of pounds of uranium dust into the atmosphere, causing major radioactive contamination of the surrounding areas. That same year, employee Dave Bocks, a 39-year-old pipefitter, disappeared during the facility's graveyard shift and was later reported missing. Eventually, his remains were discovered inside a uranium processing furnace located in Plant 6.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ciudad_Ju%C3%A1rez_cobalt-60_contamination_incident" title="Ciudad Juárez cobalt-60 contamination incident">Ciudad Juárez cobalt-60 contamination incident</a> happened after a private medical company that had illegally purchased a radiation therapy unit sold it to a junkyard to be later smelted to produce <a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">rebar</a>. These were distributed and used in multiple cities across Mexico and the United States and exposed an estimated four thousand people to radiation.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li></ul></li> <li>1985 to 1987: The <a href="/wiki/Therac-25" title="Therac-25">Therac-25</a> accidents. A radiation therapy machine was involved in six accidents, in which patients were exposed to massive overdoses of radiation. 4 fatalities, 2 injuries.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li> <li>August 1985: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">Soviet submarine K-431</a> accident. Ten fatalities and 49 other people suffered radiation injuries.<a href="#cite_note-timenuke-11">[11]</a></li> <li>4 January 1986: an overloaded tank at <a href="/wiki/Sequoyah_Fuels_Corporation" title="Sequoyah Fuels Corporation">Sequoyah Fuels Corporation</a> ruptured and released 14.5 tons of uranium hexafluoride gas (UF6), causing the death of a worker, the hospitalization of 37 other workers, and approximately 100 downwinders.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></li> <li>26 April 1986: <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>: Two killed by debris and 28 killed by <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute radiation sickness">acute radiation sickness</a> after human error caused the meltdown of a reactor.</li> <li>October 1986: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-219" title="Soviet submarine K-219">Soviet submarine K-219</a> reactor almost had a meltdown. <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Preminin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergei Preminin">Sergei Preminin</a> died after he manually lowered the control rods, and stopped the explosion. The submarine sank three days later.</li> <li>September 1987: <a href="/wiki/Goiania_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Goiania accident">Goiania accident</a>. Four fatalities, and following radiological screening of more than 100,000 people, it was ascertained that 249 people received serious radiation contamination from exposure to <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a>.<a href="#cite_note-www-pub.iaea.org-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost1-90">[90]</a> In the cleanup operation, <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> had to be removed from several sites, and several houses were demolished. All the objects from within those houses were removed and examined. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine has identified the accident as one of the world's "worst nuclear disasters" and the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> called it "one of the world's worst radiological incidents".<a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost1-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></li> <li>1989: San Salvador, El Salvador; one fatality due to violation of safety rules at <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> irradiation facility.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>1990s</dt></dl> <ul><li>1990: Soreq, Israel; one fatality due to violation of safety rules at <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> irradiation facility.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li> <li>December 16, 1990: <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy_accident_in_Zaragoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza">radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza</a>. Eleven fatalities and 27 other patients were injured.<a href="#cite_note-rad-73">[73]</a></li> <li>1991: Neswizh, Belarus; one fatality due to violation of safety rules at <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> irradiation facility.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li> <li>1992: Jilin, China; three fatalities at <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> irradiation facility.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li> <li>1992: USA; one fatality.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li> <li>April 1993: accident at the <a href="/wiki/Tomsk-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomsk-7">Tomsk-7</a> Reprocessing Complex, when a tank exploded while being cleaned with <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>. The explosion released a cloud of radioactive gas. (INES level 4).<a href="#cite_note-bbc2006-32">[32]</a></li> <li>1994: Tammiku, Estonia; one fatality from disposed <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> source.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li> <li>August — December 1996: <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy_accident_in_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica">Radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica</a>. Thirteen fatalities and 114 other patients received an overdose of radiation.<a href="#cite_note-Gusev-15">[15]</a></li> <li>1996: an accident at <a href="/wiki/Pelindaba" title="Pelindaba">Pelindaba</a> research facility in South Africa results in the exposure of workers to radiation. Harold Daniels and several others die from cancers and radiation burns related to the exposure.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></li> <li>June 1997: Sarov, Russia; one fatality due to violation of safety rules.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li> <li>May 1998: The <a href="/wiki/Acerinox_accident" title="Acerinox accident">Acerinox accident</a> was an incident of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> in Southern Spain. A <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> source managed to pass through the monitoring equipment in an <a href="/wiki/Acerinox" title="Acerinox">Acerinox</a> <a href="/wiki/Scrap_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Scrap metal">scrap metal</a> reprocessing plant. When melted, the caesium-137 caused the release of a radioactive cloud.</li> <li>September 1999: two fatalities at criticality accident at <a href="/wiki/Tokaimura_nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokaimura nuclear accident">Tokaimura nuclear accident</a> (Japan)</li></ul> <dl><dt>2000s</dt></dl> <ul><li>January–February 2000: <a href="/wiki/Samut_Prakan_radiation_accident" title="Samut Prakan radiation accident">Samut Prakan radiation accident</a>: three deaths and ten injuries resulted in <a href="/wiki/Samut_Prakan" class="mw-redirect" title="Samut Prakan">Samut Prakan</a> when a <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> radiation-therapy unit was dismantled.<a href="#cite_note-pall-19">[19]</a></li> <li>May 2000: Meet Halfa, Egypt; two fatalities due to radiography accident.<a href="#cite_note-istvan-92">[92]</a></li> <li>August 2000 – March 2001: <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Oncologico_Nacional" class="mw-redirect" title="Instituto Oncologico Nacional">Instituto Oncologico Nacional</a> of Panama, 17 fatalities. Patients receiving treatment for prostate cancer and cancer of the cervix receive lethal doses of radiation.<a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></li> <li>9 August 2004: <a href="/wiki/Mihama_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Mihama Nuclear Power Plant">Mihama Nuclear Power Plant</a> accident, 4 fatalities. Hot water and steam leaked from a broken pipe (not actually a radiation accident).<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></li> <li>9 May 2005: it was announced that the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_Oxide_Reprocessing_Plant" title="Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant">Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sellafield" title="Sellafield">Sellafield</a> in the UK suffered a leak of a highly radioactive solution, into secondary containment.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>2010s</dt></dl> <ul><li>April 2010: <a href="/wiki/Mayapuri_radiological_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayapuri radiological accident">Mayapuri radiological accident</a>, India, one fatality after a <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> research irradiator was sold to a scrap metal dealer and dismantled.<a href="#cite_note-pall-19">[19]</a></li> <li>March 2011: <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima I nuclear accidents">Fukushima I nuclear accidents</a>, Japan and the radioactive discharge at the Fukushima Daiichi Power Station.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li> <li>17 January 2014: At the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6ssing_Uranium_Mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Rössing Uranium Mine">Rössing Uranium Mine</a>, Namibia, a catastrophic structural failure of a leach tank resulted in a major spill.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The France-based laboratory, <a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Independent_Research_and_Information_on_Radioactivity" title="Commission for Independent Research and Information on Radioactivity">CRIIRAD</a>, reported elevated levels of radioactive materials in the area surrounding the mine.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Workers were not informed of the dangers of working with radioactive materials and the health effects thereof.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li> <li>1 February 2014: Designed to last ten thousand years, the <a href="/wiki/Waste_Isolation_Pilot_Plant" title="Waste Isolation Pilot Plant">Waste Isolation Pilot Plant</a> (WIPP) site approximately 26 miles (42 km) east of Carlsbad, New Mexico, United States, had its first leak of airborne radioactive materials.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> 140 employees working underground at the time were sheltered indoors. Thirteen of these tested positive for internal radioactive contamination increasing their risk for future cancers or health issues. A second leak at the plant occurred shortly after the first, releasing plutonium and other radiotoxins causing concern to nearby communities. The source of the drum rupture has been traced to the use of organic kitty litter at the WCRRF packaging facility at Los Alamos National Laboratory, where the drum was packaged and prepared for shipment.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li>8 August 2019: <a href="/wiki/Nyonoksa_radiation_accident" title="Nyonoksa radiation accident">Nyonoksa radiation accident</a> at the <a href="/wiki/State_Central_Navy_Testing_Range" title="State Central Navy Testing Range">State Central Navy Testing Range</a> at <a href="/wiki/Nyonoksa" title="Nyonoksa">Nyonoksa</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Severodvinsk" title="Severodvinsk">Severodvinsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worldwide_nuclear_weapons_testing_summary">Worldwide nuclear weapons testing summary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Worldwide nuclear weapons testing summary">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png/600px-Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png/900px-Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png/1200px-Rael_Nuclear_use_locations_world_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Over 2,000 nuclear tests have been conducted, in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, black Israel, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green Australia (territories exposed to nuclear bombs)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Able_crossroads.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The airburst nuclear explosion of July 1, 1946. Photo taken from a tower on Bikini Island, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) away." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Able_crossroads.jpg/220px-Able_crossroads.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Able_crossroads.jpg/330px-Able_crossroads.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Able_crossroads.jpg/440px-Able_crossroads.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2398" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a> Test Able, a 23-kiloton air-deployed nuclear weapon detonated on July 1, 1946.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Emery_-_Baneberry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Operation_Emery_-_Baneberry.jpg/170px-Operation_Emery_-_Baneberry.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Operation_Emery_-_Baneberry.jpg/255px-Operation_Emery_-_Baneberry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Operation_Emery_-_Baneberry.jpg/340px-Operation_Emery_-_Baneberry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1188" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption>Radioactive materials were accidentally released from the 1970 <a href="/wiki/Baneberry_Nuclear_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Baneberry Nuclear Test">Baneberry Nuclear Test</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a>.</figcaption></figure> Between 16 July 1945 and 23 September 1992, the United States maintained a program of vigorous <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a>, with the exception of a moratorium between November 1958 and September 1961. By official count, a total of 1,054 nuclear tests and two nuclear attacks were conducted, with over 100 of them taking place at sites in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, over 900 of them at the <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a>, and ten on miscellaneous sites in the United States (<a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>).<a href="#cite_note-NWA-107">[107]</a> Until November 1962, the vast majority of the U.S. tests were atmospheric (that is, above-ground); after the acceptance of the Partial Test Ban Treaty all testing was regulated underground, in order to prevent the dispersion of nuclear fallout. The U.S. program of atmospheric nuclear testing exposed a number of the population to the hazards of fallout. Estimating exact numbers, and the exact consequences, of people exposed has been medically very difficult, with the exception of the high exposures of Marshall Islanders and Japanese fishers in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a> incident in 1954. A number of groups of U.S. citizens — especially farmers and inhabitants of cities downwind of the Nevada Test Site and U.S. military workers at various tests — have sued for compensation and recognition of their exposure, many successfully. The passage of the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 allowed for a systematic filing of compensation claims in relation to testing as well as those employed at nuclear weapons facilities. As of June 2009 over $1.4 billion total has been given in compensation, with over $660 million going to "<a href="/wiki/Downwinders" title="Downwinders">downwinders</a>".<a href="#cite_note-usdoj-108">[108]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg/220px-Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg/330px-Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Atomic_test_seen_from_Las_Vegas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="284" /></a><figcaption>This view of downtown <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas" title="Las Vegas">Las Vegas</a> shows a <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a> in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s. From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the nearby <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NTS_-_Warning_handbill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/NTS_-_Warning_handbill.jpg/170px-NTS_-_Warning_handbill.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/NTS_-_Warning_handbill.jpg/255px-NTS_-_Warning_handbill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/NTS_-_Warning_handbill.jpg/340px-NTS_-_Warning_handbill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>This handbill was distributed 16 days before the first nuclear device was detonated at the Nevada Test Site.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trafficking_and_thefts">Trafficking and thefts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Trafficking and thefts">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951">For intentional or attempted theft of radioactive material, see <a href="/wiki/Crimes_involving_radioactive_substances#Intentional_theft_or_attempted_theft_of_radioactive_material" title="Crimes involving radioactive substances">Crimes involving radioactive substances § Intentional theft or attempted theft of radioactive material</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack</a></div> The International Atomic Energy Agency says there is "a persistent problem with the illicit trafficking in nuclear and other radioactive materials, thefts, losses and other unauthorized activities".<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-109">[109]</a> The IAEA Illicit Nuclear Trafficking Database notes 1,266 incidents reported by 99 countries over the last 12 years, including 18 incidents involving HEU or plutonium trafficking:<a href="#cite_note-iaea-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-washingtonpost1-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bunn_Secure-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-ITDB-1-112">[112]</a> <ul><li>Security specialist Shaun Gregory argued in an article that terrorists have attacked Pakistani nuclear facilities three times in the recent past; twice in 2007 and once in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-Telegraph_2009-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></li> <li>In November 2007, burglars with unknown intentions infiltrated the <a href="/wiki/Pelindaba" title="Pelindaba">Pelindaba</a> nuclear research facility near Pretoria, South Africa. The burglars escaped without acquiring any of the uranium held at the facility.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></li> <li>In February 2006, <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Khinsagov" title="Oleg Khinsagov">Oleg Khinsagov</a> of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> was arrested in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, along with three Georgian accomplices, with 79.5 grams of 89 percent enriched HEU.<a href="#cite_note-harvard2010-117">[117]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Litvinenko_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Litvinenko poisoning">Alexander Litvinenko poisoning</a> in November 2006 with radioactive polonium "represents an ominous landmark: the beginning of an era of nuclear terrorism," according to Andrew J. Patterson.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accident_categories">Accident categories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Accident categories">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nuclear meltdown">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Design-basis_event" title="Design-basis event">Design-basis event</a></div> A nuclear meltdown is a severe <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> accident that results in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_core" title="Nuclear reactor core">reactor core</a> damage from overheating. It has been defined as the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor, and refers to the core's either complete or partial collapse.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> A core melt accident occurs when the heat generated by a nuclear reactor exceeds the heat removed by the cooling systems to the point where at least one nuclear fuel element exceeds its <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>. This differs from a <a href="/wiki/Fuel_element_failure" title="Fuel element failure">fuel element failure</a>, which is not caused by high temperatures. A meltdown may be caused by a <a href="/wiki/Loss-of-coolant_accident" title="Loss-of-coolant accident">loss of coolant</a>, loss of coolant pressure, or low coolant flow rate or be the result of a <a href="/wiki/Criticality_excursion" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticality excursion">criticality excursion</a> in which the reactor is operated at a power level that exceeds its design limits. Alternately, an external fire may endanger the core, leading to a meltdown. Large-scale nuclear meltdowns at civilian nuclear power plants include:<a href="#cite_note-epe2011-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, United States, in 1979.</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> at <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant</a>, Ukraine, USSR, in 1986.</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster</a> following the <a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">earthquake and tsunami</a> in Japan, March 2011.</li></ul> Other core meltdowns have occurred at:<a href="#cite_note-unsc-62">[62]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NRX" title="NRX">NRX</a> (military), <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, Canada, in 1952</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BORAX-I" class="mw-redirect" title="BORAX-I">BORAX-I</a> (experimental), Idaho, United States, in 1954</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EBR-I" class="mw-redirect" title="EBR-I">EBR-I</a>, Idaho, United States, in 1955</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windscale" class="mw-redirect" title="Windscale">Windscale</a> (military), <a href="/wiki/Sellafield" title="Sellafield">Sellafield</a>, England, in 1957 (see <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_Reactor_Experiment" title="Sodium Reactor Experiment">Sodium Reactor Experiment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santa_Susana_Field_Laboratory" title="Santa Susana Field Laboratory">Santa Susana Field Laboratory</a> (civilian), California, United States, in 1959</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermi_1" title="Fermi 1">Fermi 1</a> (civilian), <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, United States, in 1966</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapelcross_nuclear_power_station" title="Chapelcross nuclear power station">Chapelcross nuclear power station</a> (civilian), <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, in 1967</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens reactor</a>, Switzerland, in 1969.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Laurent_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant">Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant</a> (civilian), France, in 1969</li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">A1 plant</a>, (civilian) at <a href="/wiki/Jaslovsk%C3%A9_Bohunice" title="Jaslovské Bohunice">Jaslovské Bohunice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, in 1977</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Laurent_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant">Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant</a> (civilian), France, in 1980</li> <li>Several <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear submarines">nuclear submarines</a> have had nuclear core melts: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19</a> (1961), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-11" title="Soviet submarine K-11">K-11</a>(1965), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-27" title="Soviet submarine K-27">K-27</a> (1968), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-140" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet submarine K-140">K-140</a> (1968), <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-222" title="Soviet submarine K-222">K-222</a> (1980), and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">K-431</a> (1985).<a href="#cite_note-epe2011-13">[13]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticality_accidents">Criticality accidents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Criticality accidents">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">criticality accident</a> (also sometimes referred to as an "excursion" or "power excursion") occurs when a nuclear chain reaction is accidentally allowed to occur in <a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">fissile material</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl accident">Chernobyl accident</a> is not universally regarded an example of a criticality accident, because it occurred in an operating reactor at a power plant. The reactor was supposed to be in a controlled critical state, but control of the chain reaction was lost. The accident destroyed the reactor and left a large geographic area uninhabitable. In a smaller scale accident at <a href="/wiki/Sarov" title="Sarov">Sarov</a> a technician working with <a href="/wiki/Highly_enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Highly enriched uranium">highly enriched uranium</a> was irradiated while preparing an experiment involving a sphere of fissile material. The Sarov accident is interesting because the system remained critical for many days before it could be stopped, though safely located in a shielded experimental hall.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> This is an example of a limited scope accident where only a few people can be harmed, while no release of radioactivity into the environment occurred. A criticality accident with limited off site release of both radiation (<a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">neutron</a>) and a very small release of radioactivity occurred at <a href="/wiki/Tokaimura" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokaimura">Tokaimura</a> in 1999 during the production of enriched uranium fuel.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Two workers died, a third was permanently injured, and 350 citizens were exposed to radiation. In 2016, a criticality accident was reported at the Afrikantov OKBM Critical Test Facility in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decay_heat">Decay heat</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Decay heat">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">Decay heat</a> accidents are where the heat generated by radioactive decay causes harm. In a large nuclear reactor, a <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_coolant" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of coolant">loss of coolant</a> accident can damage the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_core" title="Nuclear reactor core">core</a>: for example, at <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station">Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station</a> a recent shutdown (<a href="/wiki/SCRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="SCRAM">SCRAMed</a>) <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a> reactor was left for a length of time without cooling water. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> was damaged, and the core partially melted. The removal of the decay heat is a significant reactor safety concern, especially shortly after shutdown. Failure to remove decay heat may cause the reactor core temperature to rise to dangerous levels and has caused nuclear accidents. The heat removal is usually achieved through several redundant and diverse systems, and the heat is often dissipated to an 'ultimate heat sink' which has a large capacity and requires no active power, though this method is typically used after decay heat has reduced to a very small value. The main cause of the release of radioactivity in the Three Mile Island accident was a <a href="/wiki/Pilot-operated_relief_valve" title="Pilot-operated relief valve">pilot-operated relief valve</a> on the primary loop which stuck in the open position. This caused the overflow tank into which it drained to rupture and release large amounts of radioactive cooling water into the <a href="/wiki/Containment_building" title="Containment building">containment building</a>. For the most part, nuclear facilities receive their power from offsite electrical systems. They also have a grid of emergency backup generators to provide power in the event of an outage. An event that could prevent both offsite power, as well as emergency power is known as a "station blackout".<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In 2011, an <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> caused a loss of electric power at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan (via severing the connection to the external grid and destroying the backup diesel generators). The decay heat could not be removed, and the reactor cores of units 1, 2 and 3 overheated, the nuclear fuel melted, and the containments were breached. Radioactive materials were released from the plant to the atmosphere and to the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Transport">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1966_Palomares_B-52_crash_-_recovered_H-bomb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1966_Palomares_B-52_crash_-_recovered_H-bomb.jpg/220px-1966_Palomares_B-52_crash_-_recovered_H-bomb.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1966_Palomares_B-52_crash_-_recovered_H-bomb.jpg/330px-1966_Palomares_B-52_crash_-_recovered_H-bomb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/1966_Palomares_B-52_crash_-_recovered_H-bomb.jpg/440px-1966_Palomares_B-52_crash_-_recovered_H-bomb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="374" /></a><figcaption>The recovered <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear bomb">thermonuclear bomb</a> was displayed by U.S. Navy officials on the fantail of the submarine rescue ship U.S.S. Petrel after it was located in the sea off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> at a depth of 762 meters and recovered in April 1966</figcaption></figure> Transport accidents can cause a release of radioactivity resulting in contamination or shielding to be damaged resulting in direct irradiation. In <a href="/wiki/Cochabamba" title="Cochabamba">Cochabamba</a> a defective <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a> set was transported in a passenger bus as cargo. The gamma source was outside the shielding, and it irradiated some bus passengers. In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, it was revealed in a court case that in March 2002 a <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a> source was transported from <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sellafield" title="Sellafield">Sellafield</a> with defective shielding. The shielding had a gap on the underside. It is thought that no human has been seriously harmed by the escaping radiation.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> On 17 January 1966, a fatal collision occurred between a B-52G and a KC-135 Stratotanker over <a href="/wiki/Palomares,_Almer%C3%ADa" title="Palomares, Almería">Palomares</a>, Spain (see <a href="/wiki/1966_Palomares_B-52_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="1966 Palomares B-52 crash">1966 Palomares B-52 crash</a>).<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The accident was designated a "<a href="/wiki/Broken_Arrow_(nuclear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken Arrow (nuclear)">Broken Arrow</a>", meaning an accident involving a nuclear weapon that does not present a risk of war.<a href="#cite_note-spiegel-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equipment_failure">Equipment failure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Equipment failure">edit</a>]</div> Equipment failure is one possible type of accident. In <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a>, Poland, in 2001 the electronics associated with a particle accelerator used for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> suffered a malfunction.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> This then led to the overexposure of at least one patient. While the initial failure was the simple failure of a semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>, it set in motion a series of events which led to a radiation injury. A related cause of accidents is failure of control <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>, as in the cases involving the <a href="/wiki/Therac-25" title="Therac-25">Therac-25</a> medical radiotherapy equipment: the elimination of a hardware safety <a href="/wiki/Interlock" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlock">interlock</a> in a new design model exposed a previously undetected bug in the control software, which could have led to patients receiving massive overdoses under a specific set of conditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_error">Human error</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Human error">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slotin_criticality_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Slotin_criticality_drawing.jpg/220px-Slotin_criticality_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Slotin_criticality_drawing.jpg/330px-Slotin_criticality_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Slotin_criticality_drawing.jpg/440px-Slotin_criticality_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>A sketch used by doctors to determine the amount of radiation to which each person had been exposed during the <a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Slotin excursion</a></figcaption></figure> Some major nuclear accidents were attributable in part to operator or <a href="/wiki/Human_error" title="Human error">human error</a>. At Chernobyl, operators deviated from test procedure and allowed certain reactor parameters to exceed design limits. At TMI-2, operators permitted thousands of gallons of water to escape from the reactor plant before observing that the coolant pumps were behaving abnormally. The coolant pumps were thus turned off to protect the pumps, which in turn led to the destruction of the reactor itself as cooling was completely lost within the core. A detailed investigation into SL-1 determined that one operator (perhaps inadvertently) manually pulled the 84-pound (38 kg) central control rod out about 26 inches rather than the maintenance procedure's intention of about 4 inches.<a href="#cite_note-Tucker-130">[130]</a> An assessment conducted by the Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique (CEA) in France concluded that no amount of technical innovation can eliminate the risk of human-induced errors associated with the operation of nuclear power plants. Two types of mistakes were deemed most serious: errors committed during field operations, such as maintenance and testing, that can cause an accident; and human errors made during small accidents that cascade to complete failure.<a href="#cite_note-critev-10">[10]</a> In 1946 Canadian <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> physicist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a> performed a risky experiment known as <a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin#Criticality_accident" title="Louis Slotin">"tickling the dragon's tail"</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> which involved two hemispheres of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">neutron-reflective</a> <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> being brought together around a <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonium core">plutonium core</a> to bring it to criticality. Against operating procedures, the hemispheres were separated only by a screwdriver. The screwdriver slipped and set off a chain reaction <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">criticality accident</a> filling the room with harmful radiation and a flash of blue light (caused by excited, ionized air particles returning to their unexcited states). Slotin reflexively separated the hemispheres in reaction to the heat flash and blue light, preventing further irradiation of several co-workers present in the room. However, Slotin absorbed a lethal dose of the radiation and died nine days later. The infamous plutonium mass used in the experiment was referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">demon core</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lost_source">Lost source</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Lost source">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_orphan_source_incidents" title="List of orphan source incidents">List of orphan source incidents</a></div> Lost source accidents,<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Orphan_source" title="Orphan source">orphan sources</a>, are incidents in which a radioactive source is lost, stolen or abandoned. The source then might cause harm to humans. The best known example of this type of event is the 1987 <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a> in Brazil, when a radiotherapy source was forgotten and abandoned in a hospital, to be later stolen and opened by scavengers. A similar case occurred in 2000 in <a href="/wiki/Samut_Prakan_radiation_accident" title="Samut Prakan radiation accident">Samut Prakan, Thailand</a> when the radiation source of an expired teletherapy unit was sold unregistered, and stored in an unguarded car park from which it was stolen.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Other cases occurred at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanango&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanango (page does not exist)">Yanango</a>, Peru where a <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a> source was lost, and <a href="/wiki/Gilan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilan">Gilan</a>, Iran where a radiography source harmed a <a href="/wiki/Welder" title="Welder">welder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> has provided guides for <a href="/wiki/Scrap_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Scrap metal">scrap metal</a> collectors on what a sealed source might look like.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> The scrap metal industry is the one where lost sources are most likely to be found.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Experts believe that up to 50 nuclear weapons were lost during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-spiegel-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparisons">Comparisons</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Comparisons">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypothetical_number_of_deaths_from_energy_production,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Hypothetical_number_of_deaths_from_energy_production%2C_OWID.svg/300px-Hypothetical_number_of_deaths_from_energy_production%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Hypothetical_number_of_deaths_from_energy_production%2C_OWID.svg/450px-Hypothetical_number_of_deaths_from_energy_production%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Hypothetical_number_of_deaths_from_energy_production%2C_OWID.svg/600px-Hypothetical_number_of_deaths_from_energy_production%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Hypothetical number of global deaths which would have resulted from energy production if the world's energy production was met through a single source, in 2014.</figcaption></figure> Comparing the historical safety record of civilian nuclear energy with other forms of electrical generation, Ball, Roberts, and Simpson, the <a href="/wiki/IAEA" class="mw-redirect" title="IAEA">IAEA</a>, and the Paul Scherrer Institute found in separate studies that during the period from 1970 to 1992, there were just 39 on-the-job deaths of nuclear power plant workers worldwide, while during the same time period, there were 6,400 on-the-job deaths of <a href="/wiki/Coal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal power plant">coal power plant</a> workers, 1,200 on-the-job deaths of <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas#Power_generation" title="Natural gas">natural gas power plant</a> workers and members of the general public caused by <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas#Power_generation" title="Natural gas">natural gas power plants</a>, and 4,000 deaths of members of the general public caused by <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric power">hydroelectric power plants</a><a href="#cite_note-Comparative_DeathRates-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] with failure of <a href="/wiki/Banqiao_Dam" title="Banqiao Dam">Banqiao Dam</a> in 1975 resulting in 170,000-230,000 fatalities alone.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> As other common sources of energy, <a href="/wiki/Coal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal power plant">coal power plants</a> are estimated to kill 24,000 Americans per year due to lung disease<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> as well as causing 40,000 heart attacks per year in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, the average coal power plant emits 100 times more radiation per year than a comparatively sized nuclear power plant in the form of <a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">toxic coal waste</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In terms of <a href="/wiki/Energy_accidents" title="Energy accidents">energy accidents</a>, hydroelectric plants were responsible for the most fatalities, but <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> plant accidents rank first in terms of their economic cost, accounting for 41 percent of all property damage. Oil and hydroelectric follow at around 25 percent each, followed by natural gas at 9 percent and coal at 2 percent.<a href="#cite_note-bksenpol-28">[28]</a> Excluding <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shimantan_Dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimantan Dam">Shimantan Dam</a>, the three other most expensive accidents involved the <a href="/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill" title="Exxon Valdez oil spill">Exxon Valdez oil spill</a> (Alaska), the <a href="/wiki/Prestige_oil_spill" title="Prestige oil spill">Prestige oil spill</a> (Spain), and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island nuclear accident</a> (Pennsylvania).<a href="#cite_note-bksenpol-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_safety">Nuclear safety</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nuclear safety">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear safety">Nuclear safety</a></div> Nuclear safety covers the actions taken to prevent nuclear and radiation accidents or to limit their consequences and damage to the environment. This covers <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> as well as all other nuclear facilities, the transportation of nuclear materials, and the use and storage of nuclear materials for medical, power, industry, and military uses. The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly.<a href="#cite_note-globen-145">[145]</a> Mistakes do occur and the designers of reactors at <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Fukushima_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Fukushima nuclear accidents">Fukushima</a> in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-DIAZMAURIN2011-147">[147]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/UBS" title="UBS">UBS</a> AG, the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_I_nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima I nuclear accidents">Fukushima I nuclear accidents</a> have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable.<a href="#cite_note-globen-145">[145]</a> In his book <a href="/wiki/Normal_Accidents" title="Normal Accidents">Normal Accidents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Perrow" title="Charles Perrow">Charles Perrow</a> says that unexpected failures are built into society's complex and tightly coupled nuclear reactor systems. Nuclear power plants cannot be operated without some major accidents. Such accidents are unavoidable and cannot be designed around.<a href="#cite_note-rev-149">[149]</a> An interdisciplinary team from MIT have estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> There have been five serious accidents (<a href="/wiki/Core_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Core damage">core damage</a>) in the world since 1970 (one at <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island</a> in 1979; one at <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl</a> in 1986; and three at <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima-Daiichi</a> in 2011), corresponding to the beginning of the operation of <a href="/wiki/Generation_II_reactor" title="Generation II reactor">generation II reactors</a>. This leads to on average one serious accident happening every eight years worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-DIAZMAURIN2011-147">[147]</a> When nuclear reactors begin to age, they require more exhaustive monitoring and preventive maintenance and tests to operate safely and prevent accidents. However, these measures can be costly, and some reactor owners have not followed these recommendations. Most of the existing nuclear infrastructure in use is old due to these reasons.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> To combat accidents associated with aging nuclear power plants, it may be advantageous to build new nuclear power reactors and retire the old nuclear plants. In the United States alone, more than 50 start-up companies are working to create innovative designs for nuclear power plants<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> while ensuring the plants are more affordable and cost-effective. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_impacts">Ecological impacts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ecological impacts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_land">Impact on land</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Impact on land">edit</a>]</div> Isotopes released during a meltdown or related event are typically dispersed into the atmosphere and then settle on the surface through natural occurrences and deposition. Isotopes settling on the top soil layer can remain there for many years, due to their slow decay (long half-life). The long-term detrimental effects on agriculture, farming, and livestock, can potentially affect human health and safety long after the actual event. After the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011, surrounding agricultural areas were contaminated with more than 100,000 MBq km−2 in cesium concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> As a result, eastern Fukushima food production was severely limited. Due to Japan's topography and the local weather patterns, cesium deposits as well as other isotopes reside in top layer of soils all over eastern and northeastern Japan. Luckily, mountain ranges have shielded western Japan. The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 exposed to radiation about 125,000 mi2 (320,000 km2) of land across Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The amount of focused radiation caused severe damage to plant reproduction: most plants could not reproduce for at least three years. Many of these occurrences on land can be a result of the distribution of radioactive isotopes through water systems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_water">Impact on water</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Impact on water">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fukushima_Daiichi_accident">Fukushima Daiichi accident</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Fukushima Daiichi accident">edit</a>]</div> In 2013, contaminated groundwater was found in between some of the affected turbine buildings in the Fukushima Daiichi facility, including locations at bordering seaports on the Pacific Ocean. In both locations, the facility typically releases clean water to feed into further groundwater systems. The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), the entity that manages and operates the facility, further investigated the contamination in areas that would be deemed safe to conduct operations. They found that a significant amount of the contamination originated from underground cable trenches that connected to circulation pumps within the facility. Both the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and TEPCO confirmed that this contamination was a result of the 2011 earthquake.<a href="#cite_note-:0nr-156">[156]</a> Due to damage like this, the Fukushima plant released nuclear material into the Pacific Ocean and has continued to do so. After 5 years of leaking, the contaminates reached all corners of the Pacific Ocean, from North America and Australia to Patagonia.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Along the same coastline, <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) found trace amounts of Fukushima contaminates 100 miles (150 km) off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Eureka,_California" title="Eureka, California">Eureka, California</a> in November 2014.<a href="#cite_note-:0nr-156">[156]</a> Despite the relatively dramatic increases in radiation, the contamination levels still satisfy the World Health Organization's (WHO's) standard for clean drinking water.<a href="#cite_note-:0nr-156">[156]</a> In 2019, the Japanese government announced that it was considering the possibility of dumping contaminated water from the Fukushima reactor into the Pacific Ocean. Japanese Environmental Minister Yoshiaki Harada reported that TEPCO had collected over a million tons of contaminated water, and by 2022 they would be out of space to safely store the radioactive water.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Multiple private agencies as well as various North American governments monitor the spread of radiation throughout the Pacific to track the potential hazards it can introduce to food systems, groundwater supplies, and ecosystems. In 2014, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a report stating that radionuclides, traced from the Fukushima facility, were present in the United States food supply, but not to levels deemed to be a threat to public health – as well as any food and agricultural products imported from Japanese sources.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> It is commonly believed that, with the rate of the current radionuclide leakage, the dispersal into the water would prove beneficial, as most of the isotopes would be diluted by the water as well as become less radioactive over time, due to radioactive decay. Cesium (Cs-137) is the primary isotope released from the Fukushima Daiichi facility.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Cs-137 has a long half-life, meaning it could potentially have long-term harmful effects, but as of now, its levels from 200 km outside of Fukushima show close to pre-accident levels, with little spread to North American coasts.<a href="#cite_note-:0nr-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chernobyl_accident">Chernobyl accident</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Chernobyl accident">edit</a>]</div> Evidence can be seen from the 1986 Chernobyl event. Due to the violent nature of the accident there, a sizable portion of the resulting radioactive contamination of the atmosphere consisted of particles that were dispersed during the explosion. Many of these contaminates settled in groundwater systems in immediate surrounding areas, but also in Russia and Belarus. The ecological effects of the resulting radiation in groundwater can be seen in various aspects in the area affected by the sequence of environmental consequences. <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radionuclides</a> carried by groundwater systems have resulted in the uptake of radioactive material in plants and then up the food chains into animals, and eventually humans. One of the most important mechanisms of exposure to radiation was through agriculture contaminated by radioactive groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-Filyushkin1996-161">[161]</a> Again, one of the greatest concerns for the population within the 30 km exclusion zone is the intake of <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">Cs-137</a> by consuming agricultural products contaminated with groundwater. Thanks to the environmental and soil conditions outside the exclusion zone, the recorded levels are below those that require remediation, based on a survey in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-Filyushkin1996-161">[161]</a> During this event, radioactive material was transported by groundwater across borders into neighboring countries. In Belarus, just north of Chernobyl, about 250,000 hectares of previously usable farmland were held[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] by state officials until deemed safe.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Off-site radiological risk may be found in the form of flooding. Many citizens in the surrounding areas have been deemed at risk of exposure to radiation due to the Chernobyl reactor's proximity to floodplains. A study was conducted in 1996 to see how far the radioactive effects were felt across eastern Europe. Lake Kojanovskoe in Russia, 250 km from the Chernobyl accident site, was found to be one of the most impacted lakes.<a href="#cite_note-:2-163">[163]</a> Fish collected from the lake were found to be 60 times more radioactive than the European Union Standard. Further investigation found that the water source feeding the lake provided drinking water for about 9 million Ukrainians, as well as providing agricultural irrigation and food for 23 million more.<a href="#cite_note-:2-163">[163]</a> The disaster has been described by lawyers, academics and journalists as an example of <a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">ecocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> A cover was constructed around the damage reactor of the Chernobyl nuclear plant. This helps in the remediation of radioactive material leaking from the site of the accident, but does little to protect the local area from radioactive isotopes that were dispersed in its soils and waterways more than 30 years ago. Partially due to the already abandoned urban areas, as well as international relations currently affecting the country, remediation efforts have minimized[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] compared to the initial clean up actions and more recent accidents such as the Fukushima incident. On-site laboratories, monitoring wells, and meteorological stations can be found in a monitoring role at key locations affected by the accident.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_people">Impact on people</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Impact on people">edit</a>]</div> In Kazakhstan, a Soviet Union nuclear testing site bore witness to the detonation of at least 450 atomic bombs. Notably, residents of Koyan showcased physical adaptation to the pervasive radiation, exhibiting resilience in their home environment, coupled with experiences of illness when outside it. Their acclimatization is discernible, evident in the mitigation of sickness upon returning to Koyan, challenging prevailing notions of victimhood associated with radioactive exposure. Despite relying on toxic food sources, the residents have adapted to their environment successfully. Koyan frequently faces the threat of fires, exemplified by a 2010 incident when Steppe grasses ignited, endangering the village. However, the government's response could benefit from more consistent measures, such as mobilizing a fire brigade comprising local villagers to the Polygon for fire extinguishing.<a href="#cite_note-staw-169">[169]</a> Stawkowski's primary assertion revolves around the concept of "slow violence," portraying the subjects as resilient human beings who, despite the inevitability of illness in many families, have managed to lead long lives. While the historical context may lead Westerners to scrutinize political and scientific research during the Soviet Union era, the residents and neighboring villages represent a lasting legacy. This situation underscores the human capacity for survival and adaptation, emphasizing the need for accountability for past actions. The secrecy enveloping the Soviet nuclear project restricted researchers' access to data on released radioisotopes, unlike their United States counterparts, who could trace them in the environment. Soviet researchers faced limitations, compelled to trace even minor changes in body composition due to their prescribed obligations.<a href="#cite_note-staw-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_acute_radiation_exposure">Effects of acute radiation exposure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Effects of acute radiation exposure">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Phase </th> <th rowspan="2">Symptom </th> <th colspan="5">Whole-body <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">absorbed dose</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <th>1–2 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a> </th> <th>2–6 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a> </th> <th>6–8 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a> </th> <th>8–30 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a> </th> <th>> 30 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="10">Immediate</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">vomiting</a></td> <td>5–50%</td> <td>50–100%</td> <td>75–100%</td> <td>90–100%</td> <td>100% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">Time of onset</td> <td>2–6 h</td> <td>1–2 h</td> <td>10–60 min</td> <td>< 10 min</td> <td>Minutes </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">Duration</td> <td>< 24 h</td> <td>24–48 h</td> <td>< 48 h</td> <td>< 48 h</td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— (patients die in < 48 h) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a></td> <td>None</td> <td>None to mild (< 10%)</td> <td>Heavy (> 10%)</td> <td>Heavy (> 95%)</td> <td>Heavy (100%) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">Time of onset</td> <td>—</td> <td>3–8 h</td> <td>1–3 h</td> <td>< 1 h</td> <td>< 1 h </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">Headache</a></td> <td>Slight</td> <td>Mild to moderate (50%)</td> <td>Moderate (80%)</td> <td>Severe (80–90%)</td> <td>Severe (100%) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">Time of onset</td> <td>—</td> <td>4–24 h</td> <td>3–4 h</td> <td>1–2 h</td> <td>< 1 h </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">Fever</a></td> <td>None</td> <td>Moderate increase (10–100%)</td> <td>Moderate to severe (100%)</td> <td>Severe (100%)</td> <td>Severe (100%) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: right;">Time of onset</td> <td>—</td> <td>1–3 h</td> <td>< 1 h</td> <td>< 1 h</td> <td>< 1 h </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">CNS</a> function </td> <td>No impairment </td> <td>Cognitive impairment 6–20 h </td> <td>Cognitive impairment > 24 h </td> <td>Rapid incapacitation </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">Seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor">tremor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ataxia" title="Ataxia">ataxia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lethargy" title="Lethargy">lethargy</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Latency_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Latency period">Latent period</a></td> <td></td> <td>28–31 days</td> <td>7–28 days</td> <td>< 7 days</td> <td>None</td> <td>None </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Illness">Illness</a></td> <td> </td> <td>Mild to moderate <a href="/wiki/Leukopenia" title="Leukopenia">Leukopenia</a> <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">Fatigue</a> <a href="/wiki/Weakness" title="Weakness">Weakness</a> </td> <td>Moderate to severe <a href="/wiki/Leukopenia" title="Leukopenia">Leukopenia</a> <a href="/wiki/Purpura" title="Purpura">Purpura</a> <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">Hemorrhage</a> <a href="/wiki/Infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Infections">Infections</a> <a href="/wiki/Hair_loss" title="Hair loss">Alopecia</a> after 3 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gy</a> </td> <td>Severe <a href="/wiki/Leukopenia" title="Leukopenia">leukopenia</a> <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">High fever</a> <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a> <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">Vomiting</a> <a href="/wiki/Dizziness" title="Dizziness">Dizziness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disorientation" class="mw-redirect" title="Disorientation">disorientation</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypotension" title="Hypotension">Hypotension</a> <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte_disturbance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrolyte disturbance">Electrolyte disturbance</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a> <a href="/wiki/Vomiting" title="Vomiting">Vomiting</a> <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Severe diarrhea</a> <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">High fever</a> <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance" title="Electrolyte imbalance">Electrolyte disturbance</a> <a href="/wiki/Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">Shock</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— (patients die in < 48h) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Mortality</td> <td>Without care</td> <td>0–5%</td> <td>5–95%</td> <td>95–100%</td> <td>100%</td> <td>100% </td></tr> <tr> <td>With care</td> <td>0–5%</td> <td>5–50%</td> <td>50–100%</td> <td>99–100%</td> <td>100% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Death</td> <td>6–8 weeks</td> <td>4–6 weeks</td> <td>2–4 weeks</td> <td>2 days – 2 weeks</td> <td>1–2 days </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" align="center">Table source<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215345927">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .multicol-float{width:auto!important}}.mw-parser-output .multicol-float{clear:none;float:left}.mw-parser-output .multicol-float-clear{clear:both}</style><div class="multicol-float" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Committee_on_Radiation_Risk" title="European Committee on Radiation Risk">European Committee on Radiation Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_Soviet_nuclear_false_alarm_incident" title="1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident">1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" title="Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_whistleblowers" title="List of nuclear whistleblowers">List of nuclear whistleblowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents" title="List of military nuclear accidents">List of military nuclear accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Acute radiation syndrome</a></li></ul> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215345927"><div class="multicol-float" style=""> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genpatsu-shinsai" title="Genpatsu-shinsai">Genpatsu-shinsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Radiation poisoning (disambiguation)">Radiation poisoning (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_by_acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Category:Deaths by acute radiation syndrome">Category:Deaths by acute radiation syndrome</a></li></ul> </div><div class="multicol-float-clear" style=""></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster_in_France" title="Consequences of the Chernobyl disaster in France">Consequences of the Chernobyl disaster in France</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading 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.reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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Vengeance of peaceful atom.">Chernobyl. Vengeance of peaceful atom.</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_Fallout:_Nuclear_Protest_at_Diablo_Canyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation Fallout: Nuclear Protest at Diablo Canyon">Conservation Fallout: Nuclear Protest at Diablo Canyon</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contesting_the_Future_of_Nuclear_Power" title="Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power">Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence_of_Decision" title="Essence of Decision">Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout:_An_American_Nuclear_Tragedy" title="Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy">Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_Protection" title="Fallout Protection">Fallout Protection</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Willacy" title="Mark Willacy">Fukushima: Japan's Tsunami and the Inside Story of the Nuclear Meltdowns</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristen_Iversen" title="Kristen Iversen">Full Body Burden: Growing Up in the Nuclear Shadow of Rocky Flats</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_(book)" title="Hiroshima (book)">Hiroshima</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Wasserman#Killing_Our_Own_(1982)" title="Harvey Wasserman">Killing Our Own: The Disaster of America's Experience with Atomic Radiation</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Mortal_Hands:_A_Cautionary_History_of_the_Nuclear_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age">In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Making_a_Real_Killing:_Rocky_Flats_and_the_Nuclear_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Making a Real Killing: Rocky Flats and the Nuclear West">Making a Real Killing: Rocky Flats and the Nuclear West</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maralinga:_Australia%27s_Nuclear_Waste_Cover-up" title="Maralinga: Australia's Nuclear Waste Cover-up">Maralinga: Australia's Nuclear Waste Cover-up</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Nuclear_Futures:_The_Case_for_an_Ethical_Energy_Strategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy">Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_Accidents" title="Normal Accidents">Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_or_Not%3F" title="Nuclear or Not?">Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Politics_in_America" title="Nuclear Politics in America">Nuclear Politics in America</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Power_and_the_Environment" title="Nuclear Power and the Environment">Nuclear Power and the Environment</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Terrorism:_The_Ultimate_Preventable_Catastrophe" title="Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe">Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_War_Survival_Skills" title="Nuclear War Survival Skills">Nuclear War Survival Skills</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Weapons:_The_Road_to_Zero" title="Nuclear Weapons: The Road to Zero">Nuclear Weapons: The Road to Zero</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukespeak:_Nuclear_Language,_Visions_and_Mindset" class="mw-redirect" title="Nukespeak: Nuclear Language, Visions and Mindset">Nukespeak: Nuclear Language, Visions and Mindset</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Nuclear_Terrorism" title="On Nuclear Terrorism">On Nuclear Terrorism</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutopia" title="Plutopia">Plutopia</a> (2013)</li> <li>The Limits of Safety (1993, Princeton University Press) by Scott Sagan</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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accidents</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lutins.org/nukes.html">U.S. Nuclear Accidents (lutins.org)</a> most comprehensive online list of incidents involving U.S. nuclear facilities and vessels, 1950–present</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/">US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) website</a> with search function and electronic public reading room</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/">International Atomic Energy Agency website</a> with extensive online library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/plutopia-nuclear-families-atomic-cities-and-the-great-soviet-and-american-plutonium#">Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101007074735/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues%2FNuclear+Accidents+-+Civilian">Annotated bibliography for civilian nuclear accidents from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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aria-labelledby="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation" title="Template:Radiation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation" title="Template talk:Radiation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> (physics and health)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force" title="Acoustic radiation force">Acoustic radiation force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening">Radiation hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_poisoning" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_poisoning" title="Template:Radiation poisoning"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_poisoning" title="Template talk:Radiation poisoning"><abbr title="Discuss this 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href="/wiki/Biological_timeline_of_radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological timeline of radiation poisoning">Biological timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_burn" title="Radiation burn">Radiation burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cognitive_decline" title="Radiation-induced cognitive decline">Radiation-induced cognitive decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_lung_injury" title="Radiation-induced lung injury">Radiation-induced lung injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dose_fractionation" title="Dose fractionation">Dose fractionation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioresistance" title="Radioresistance">Radioresistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_dose_reconstruction" title="Radiation dose reconstruction">Radiation dose reconstruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_and_radioactive_disasters,_former_facilities,_tests_and_test_sites" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Template:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Template talk:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Edit this 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and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown#Nuclear_meltdown_events" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents" title="List of military nuclear accidents">Military nuclear accidents</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_by_death_toll" title="List of nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll">Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_fatalities_by_country" title="List of nuclear and radiation fatalities by country">Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Nuclear weapons tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_China" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_France" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_India" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_North_Korea" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagai-I" title="Chagai-I">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Testing_the_first_device" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom#Nuclear_tests" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_tests_in_Australia" title="Nuclear weapons tests in Australia">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_testing_in_the_United_States" title="British nuclear testing in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of United States nuclear weapons tests">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sunken_nuclear_submarines" title="List of sunken nuclear submarines">Sunken nuclear submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orphan_source_incidents" title="List of orphan source incidents">List of orphan source incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_accidents_by_country" title="List of nuclear power accidents by country">Nuclear power accidents by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual accidents and sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2019 <a href="/wiki/Nyonoksa_radiation_accident" title="Nyonoksa radiation accident">Nyonoksa radiation accident</a></li> <li>2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident" title="Fukushima nuclear accident">Fukushima nuclear accident</a></li> <li>2001 <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Oncol%C3%B3gico_Nacional#Accident" title="Instituto Oncológico Nacional">Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" title="Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1987 <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a></li> <li>1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">Related articles</a></li></ul></li> <li>1985 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">Chazhma Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1985–1987 <a href="/wiki/Therac-25" title="Therac-25">Therac-25</a> accident</li> <li>1982 <a href="/wiki/Andreev_Bay_nuclear_accident" title="Andreev Bay nuclear accident">Andreev Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1980 <a href="/wiki/Kramatorsk_radiological_accident" title="Kramatorsk radiological accident">Kramatorsk radiological accident</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident_health_effects" title="Three Mile Island accident health effects">Three Mile Island accident health effects</a></li> <li>1969 <a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens reactor</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll#National_nuclear_weapon_test_site_1958-1963#Failures" title="Johnston Atoll"> Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll</a> under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Fishbowl" title="Operation Fishbowl">Operation Fishbowl</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19#Nuclear_accident" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19 nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a> nuclear meltdown</li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob" title="Operation Plumbbob">Operation Plumbbob</a></li> <li>1954 <a href="/wiki/Totskoye_nuclear_exercise" title="Totskoye nuclear exercise">Totskoye nuclear exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination_from_the_Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a></li> <li>1945 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">Books about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of films about nuclear issues">Films about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_anti-nuclear_movement" title="History of the anti-nuclear movement">History of the anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_against_Nuclear_Tests" title="International Day against Nuclear Tests">International Day against Nuclear Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_close_calls" title="Nuclear close calls">Nuclear close calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-Free_Future_Award" title="Nuclear-Free Future Award">Nuclear-Free Future Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-free_zone" title="Nuclear-free zone">Nuclear-free zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">Peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_camp" title="Peace camp">Peace camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Sun" title="Smiling Sun">Smiling Sun</a></li></ul> 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