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<span>Production</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Production subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cleaning,_texturing_and_etching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cleaning,_texturing_and_etching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cleaning, texturing and etching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cleaning,_texturing_and_etching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wafer_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wafer_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Wafer properties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wafer_properties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Wafer properties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Wafer_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Standard_wafer_sizes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_wafer_sizes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Standard wafer sizes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_wafer_sizes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Silicon_substrate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicon_substrate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Silicon substrate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicon_substrate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallium_Nitride_substrate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallium_Nitride_substrate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Gallium Nitride substrate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallium_Nitride_substrate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SiC_substrate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SiC_substrate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>SiC substrate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SiC_substrate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silicon_on_sapphire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicon_on_sapphire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Silicon on sapphire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicon_on_sapphire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallium_Arsenide_substrate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallium_Arsenide_substrate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Gallium Arsenide substrate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallium_Arsenide_substrate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aluminum_Nitride_substrate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aluminum_Nitride_substrate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.6</span> <span>Aluminum Nitride substrate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aluminum_Nitride_substrate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_increases_of_wafer_size" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_increases_of_wafer_size"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.7</span> <span>Historical increases of wafer size</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_increases_of_wafer_size-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photovoltaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photovoltaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.8</span> <span>Photovoltaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photovoltaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystalline_orientation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystalline_orientation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Crystalline orientation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystalline_orientation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystallographic_orientation_notches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystallographic_orientation_notches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Crystallographic orientation notches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystallographic_orientation_notches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impurity_doping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impurity_doping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Impurity doping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impurity_doping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-450_mm_wafers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#450_mm_wafers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>450 mm wafers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-450_mm_wafers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 450 mm wafers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-450_mm_wafers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Challenges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytical_die_count_estimation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytical_die_count_estimation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Analytical die count estimation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytical_die_count_estimation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compound_semiconductors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound_semiconductors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Compound semiconductors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound_semiconductors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Wafer (electronics)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9" title="رقاقة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رقاقة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheng-%C3%AE%E2%81%BF" title="Cheng-îⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Cheng-îⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Подложка (електроника) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Подложка (електроника)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblia_(electr%C3%B2nica)" title="Oblia (electrònica) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Oblia (electrònica)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Wafer" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wafer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pooljuhtplaat" title="Pooljuhtplaat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pooljuhtplaat" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblea_(electr%C3%B3nica)" title="Oblea (electrónica) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Oblea (electrónica)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olata_elektroniko" title="Olata elektroniko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Olata elektroniko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1_(%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9)" title="ویفر (الکترونیک) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویفر (الکترونیک)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Wafer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%A8%EC%9D%B4%ED%8D%BC" title="웨이퍼 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="웨이퍼" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(elektronik)" title="Wafer (elektronik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Wafer (elektronik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(elettronica)" title="Wafer (elettronica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Wafer (elettronica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9F" title="פרוסת סיליקון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרוסת סיליקון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wafer" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(elektronik)" title="Wafer (elektronik) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Wafer (elektronik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wafer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%83%8F%E3%83%BC" title="ウェハー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウェハー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Wafer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafel_krzemowy" title="Wafel krzemowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wafel krzemowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(eletr%C3%B4nica)" title="Wafer (eletrônica) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Wafer (eletrônica)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C4%83cu%C8%9B%C4%83_semiconductoare" title="Plăcuță semiconductoare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Plăcuță semiconductoare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Полупроводниковая пластина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полупроводниковая пластина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%A1tok_(polovodi%C4%8D)" title="Plátok (polovodič) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Plátok (polovodič)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piikiekko" title="Piikiekko – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Piikiekko" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiselplatta" title="Kiselplatta – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kiselplatta" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer" title="Wafer – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Wafer" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Напівпровідникова пластина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Напівпровідникова пластина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1_(%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%B3)" title="ویفر 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Thin slice of semiconductor used for the fabrication of integrated circuits</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:97px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Siliziumwafer.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="polished 12" and 6" silicon wafers"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Siliziumwafer.JPG/175px-Siliziumwafer.JPG" decoding="async" width="175" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Siliziumwafer.JPG/263px-Siliziumwafer.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Siliziumwafer.JPG/350px-Siliziumwafer.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1264" data-file-height="702" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:111px;max-width:111px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:97px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ICC_2008_Poland_Silicon_Wafer_1_edit.png" class="mw-file-description" title="VLSI microcircuits fabricated on a 12-inch wafer"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ICC_2008_Poland_Silicon_Wafer_1_edit.png/109px-ICC_2008_Poland_Silicon_Wafer_1_edit.png" decoding="async" width="109" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ICC_2008_Poland_Silicon_Wafer_1_edit.png/164px-ICC_2008_Poland_Silicon_Wafer_1_edit.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ICC_2008_Poland_Silicon_Wafer_1_edit.png/218px-ICC_2008_Poland_Silicon_Wafer_1_edit.png 2x" data-file-width="703" data-file-height="626" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:143px;max-width:143px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:95px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wafers_on_the_conveyor_(3347741252).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solar wafers on a conveyor"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wafers_on_the_conveyor_%283347741252%29.jpg/141px-Wafers_on_the_conveyor_%283347741252%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wafers_on_the_conveyor_%283347741252%29.jpg/212px-Wafers_on_the_conveyor_%283347741252%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wafers_on_the_conveyor_%283347741252%29.jpg/282px-Wafers_on_the_conveyor_%283347741252%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="692" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:95px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Solar_World_wafer_(3347743800).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Completed solar wafer"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Solar_World_wafer_%283347743800%29.jpg/143px-Solar_World_wafer_%283347743800%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Solar_World_wafer_%283347743800%29.jpg/215px-Solar_World_wafer_%283347743800%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Solar_World_wafer_%283347743800%29.jpg/286px-Solar_World_wafer_%283347743800%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="683" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><div> <ul><li>Top left: polished 12" and 6" silicon wafers. Their crystallographic orientation is marked by notches and flat cuts. Top right: <a href="/wiki/VLSI" class="mw-redirect" title="VLSI">VLSI</a> microcircuits fabricated on a 12-inch (300 mm) silicon wafer, before <a href="/wiki/Wafer_dicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wafer dicing">dicing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_packaging" title="Integrated circuit packaging">packaging</a>.</li> <li>Bottom left: A 3D rendering of solar wafers on a conveyor. Bottom right: completed solar wafers</li></ul></div></div></div></div></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, a <b>wafer</b> (also called a <b>slice</b> or <b>substrate</b>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a thin slice of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>, such as a <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">crystalline silicon</a> (c-Si, silicium), used for <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">the fabrication</a> of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> and, in <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaics</a>, to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>. </p><p>The wafer serves as the <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(materials_science)" title="Substrate (materials science)">substrate</a> for <a href="/wiki/Microelectronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectronic">microelectronic</a> devices built in and upon the wafer. It undergoes many <a href="/wiki/Microfabrication" title="Microfabrication">microfabrication</a> processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implantation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etching_(microfabrication)" title="Etching (microfabrication)">etching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_deposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Thin-film deposition">thin-film deposition</a> of various materials, and <a href="/wiki/Photolithography" title="Photolithography">photolithographic</a> patterning. Finally, the individual microcircuits are separated by <a href="/wiki/Wafer_dicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wafer dicing">wafer dicing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit_packaging" title="Integrated circuit packaging">packaged</a> as an integrated circuit. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2015</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_silicon_producers" title="List of silicon producers">List of silicon producers</a></div> <p>In the semiconductor industry, the term wafer appeared in the 1950s to describe a thin round slice of semiconductor material, typically <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> or silicon. The round shape characteristic of these wafers comes from <a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">single-crystal ingots</a> usually produced using the <a href="/wiki/Czochralski_method" title="Czochralski method">Czochralski method</a>. Silicon wafers were first introduced in the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1960, silicon wafers were being manufactured in the U.S. by companies such as <a href="/wiki/MEMC_Electronic_Materials" class="mw-redirect" title="MEMC Electronic Materials">MEMC</a>/<a href="/wiki/SunEdison" title="SunEdison">SunEdison</a>. In 1965, American engineers Eric O. Ernst, Donald J. Hurd, and Gerard Seeley, while working under <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>, filed Patent US3423629A<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the first high-capacity <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">epitaxial</a> apparatus. </p><p>Silicon wafers are made by companies such as <a href="/wiki/Sumco" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumco">Sumco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shin-Etsu_Chemical" title="Shin-Etsu Chemical">Shin-Etsu Chemical</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hemlock_Semiconductor_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemlock Semiconductor Corporation">Hemlock Semiconductor Corporation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siltronic" title="Siltronic">Siltronic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">Boule (crystal)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Czochralski_Process.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Czochralski_Process.svg/326px-Czochralski_Process.svg.png" decoding="async" width="326" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Czochralski_Process.svg/489px-Czochralski_Process.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Czochralski_Process.svg/652px-Czochralski_Process.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Czochralski_method" title="Czochralski method">Czochralski method</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Wafers are formed of highly pure,<sup id="cite_ref-Semi_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nearly defect-free single <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> material, with a purity of 99.9999999% (<a href="/wiki/Nine_(purity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nine (purity)">9N</a>) or higher.<sup id="cite_ref-Semi_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One process for forming crystalline wafers is known as the <a href="/wiki/Czochralski_method" title="Czochralski method">Czochralski method</a>, invented by Polish chemist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Czochralski" title="Jan Czochralski">Jan Czochralski</a>. In this process, a cylindrical <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingot</a> of high purity monocrystalline semiconductor, such as silicon or <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, called a <a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">boule</a>, is formed by pulling a <a href="/wiki/Seed_crystal" title="Seed crystal">seed crystal</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Melt_(manufacturing)" title="Melt (manufacturing)">melt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grover_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grover-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Donor impurity atoms, such as <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> in the case of silicon, can be added to the molten <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_semiconductor" title="Intrinsic semiconductor">intrinsic material</a> in precise amounts in order to <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">dope</a> the crystal, thus changing it into an <a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor" title="Extrinsic semiconductor">extrinsic semiconductor</a> of <a href="/wiki/N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">n-type</a> or <a href="/wiki/P-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="P-type semiconductor">p-type</a>. </p><p>The boule is then <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sliced" class="extiw" title="wikt:sliced">sliced</a> with a wafer saw (a type of <a href="/wiki/Wire_saw" title="Wire saw">wire saw</a>), machined to improve flatness, chemically etched to remove crystal damage from machining steps and finally <a href="/wiki/Polishing" title="Polishing">polished</a> to form wafers.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size of wafers for photovoltaics is 100–200 mm square and the thickness is 100–500 μm.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electronics use wafer sizes from 100 to 450 mm diameter. The largest wafers made have a diameter of 450 mm,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but are not yet in general use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cleaning,_texturing_and_etching"><span id="Cleaning.2C_texturing_and_etching"></span>Cleaning, texturing and etching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cleaning, texturing and etching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wafers are cleaned with <a href="/wiki/Weak_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak acid">weak acids</a> to remove unwanted particles. There are several standard cleaning procedures to make sure the surface of a silicon wafer contains no contamination. One of the most effective methods is the <a href="/wiki/RCA_clean" title="RCA clean">RCA clean</a>. When used for <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>, the wafers are textured to create a rough surface to increase surface area and so their efficiency. The generated PSG (<a href="/wiki/Phosphosilicate_glass" title="Phosphosilicate glass">phosphosilicate glass</a>) is removed from the edge of the wafer in the <a href="/wiki/Etching" title="Etching">etching</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wafer_properties">Wafer properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wafer properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_wafer_sizes">Standard wafer sizes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Standard wafer sizes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silicon_substrate">Silicon substrate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Silicon substrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Silicon wafers are available in a variety of diameters from 25.4 mm (1 inch) to 300 mm (11.8 inches).<sup id="cite_ref-f450c_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-f450c-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_fabrication_plant" title="Semiconductor fabrication plant">Semiconductor fabrication plants</a>, colloquially known as <i>fabs</i>, are defined by the diameter of wafers that they are tooled to produce. The diameter has gradually increased to improve throughput and reduce cost with the current state-of-the-art fab using <span class="nowrap">300 mm</span>, with a proposal to adopt <span class="nowrap">450 mm</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>, <a href="/wiki/TSMC" title="TSMC">TSMC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a> were separately conducting research to the advent of <span class="nowrap">450 mm</span> "<a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototype</a>" (research) <a href="/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fab (semiconductors)">fabs</a>, though serious hurdles remain.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wafer_2_Zoll_bis_8_Zoll_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Wafer_2_Zoll_bis_8_Zoll_2.jpg/275px-Wafer_2_Zoll_bis_8_Zoll_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Wafer_2_Zoll_bis_8_Zoll_2.jpg/413px-Wafer_2_Zoll_bis_8_Zoll_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Wafer_2_Zoll_bis_8_Zoll_2.jpg/550px-Wafer_2_Zoll_bis_8_Zoll_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="557" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>2-inch (51 mm), 4-inch (100 mm), 6-inch (150 mm), and 8-inch (200 mm) wafers</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Wafer size </th> <th>Typical thickness </th> <th>Year introduced <sup id="cite_ref-f450c_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-f450c-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Weight per wafer </th> <th>100 mm2 (10 mm) Die per wafer </th></tr> <tr> <td>1-inch (25 mm) </td> <td> </td> <td>1960 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2-inch (51 mm) </td> <td>275 <a href="/wiki/%CE%9Cm" class="mw-redirect" title="Μm">μm</a> </td> <td>1969 </td> <td> </td> <td>9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3-inch (76 mm) </td> <td>375 μm </td> <td>1972 </td> <td> </td> <td>29 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4-inch (100 mm) </td> <td>525 μm </td> <td>1976 </td> <td>10 grams <sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>56 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4.9 inch (125 mm) </td> <td>625 μm </td> <td>1981 </td> <td> </td> <td>95 </td></tr> <tr> <td>150 mm (5.9 inch, usually referred to as "6 inch") </td> <td>675 μm </td> <td>1983 </td> <td> </td> <td>144 </td></tr> <tr> <td>200 mm (7.9 inch, usually referred to as "8 inch") </td> <td>725 μm. </td> <td>1992 </td> <td>53 grams <sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>269 </td></tr> <tr> <td>300 mm (11.8 inch, usually referred to as "12 inch") </td> <td>775 μm </td> <td>1999 </td> <td>125 grams<sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>640 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="nowrap">450 mm</span> (17.7 inch) (proposed)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>925 μm </td> <td>– </td> <td>342 grams <sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1490 </td></tr> <tr> <td>675-millimetre (26.6 in) (theoretical)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>unknown </td> <td>– </td> <td>unknown </td> <td>3427 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Wafers grown using materials other than silicon will have different thicknesses than a silicon wafer of the same diameter. Wafer thickness is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical strength">mechanical strength</a> of the material used; the wafer must be thick enough to support its own weight without cracking during handling. The tabulated thicknesses relate to when that process was introduced, and are not necessarily correct currently, for example the IBM BiCMOS7WL process is on 8-inch wafers, but these are only 200 μm thick. The weight of the wafer increases with its thickness and the square of its diameter. Date of introduction does not indicate that factories will convert their equipment immediately, in fact, many factories do not bother upgrading. Instead, companies tend to expand and build whole new lines with newer technologies, leaving a large spectrum of technologies in use at the same time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gallium_Nitride_substrate">Gallium Nitride substrate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gallium Nitride substrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>GaN substrate wafers typically have had their own independent timelines, parallel but far lagging silicon substrate, but ahead of other substrates. The world's first 300 mm wafer made of GaN was announced in Sept 2024 by Infineon, suggesting in the coming future they could put into use the first factory with 300 mm GaN commercial output.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="SiC_substrate">SiC substrate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: SiC substrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meanwhile world's first Silicon Carbide (SiC) 200 mm wafers were announced in July 2021 by ST Microelectronics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not known if SiC 200 mm has entered volume production as of 2024, as typically the largest fabs for SiC in commercial production remain at 150 mm. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silicon_on_sapphire">Silicon on sapphire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Silicon on sapphire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Silicon_on_sapphire" title="Silicon on sapphire">Silicon on sapphire</a> is different from silicon substrate as the substrate is sapphire, while superstrate is silicon, while epitaxal layers and doping can be anything. SOS in commercial production is typically maxed out at 150 mm wafer sizes as of 2024. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gallium_Arsenide_substrate">Gallium Arsenide substrate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gallium Arsenide substrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>GaAs wafers tend to be 150 mm at largest, in commercial production as of 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aluminum_Nitride_substrate">Aluminum Nitride substrate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aluminum Nitride substrate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>AlN tends to be 50 mm or 2 inch wafers in commercial production, while 100 mm or 4 inch wafers are <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asahi-kasei.com/news/2024/e240612.html">being developed as of 2024</a> by wafer suppliers like Asahi Kasei. However, merely because a wafer exists commercially, does not imply in any way that processing equipment to produce chips on that wafer exists, indeed such equipment tends to lag development until paying end customer demand materializes. Even after equipment is developed (years), it can take further years for fabs to figure out how to use the machines productively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical_increases_of_wafer_size">Historical increases of wafer size</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Historical increases of wafer size"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A unit of <a href="/wiki/Wafer_fabrication" title="Wafer fabrication">wafer fabrication</a> step, such as an etch step, can produce more chips proportional to the increase in wafer area, while the cost of the unit fabrication step goes up more slowly than the wafer area. This was the cost basis for increasing wafer size. Conversion to 300 mm wafers from 200 mm wafers began in early 2000, and reduced the price per die for about 30–40%.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Larger diameter wafers allow for more die per wafer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Photovoltaic">Photovoltaic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Photovoltaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>M1 wafer size (156.75 mm) is in the process of being phased out in China as of 2020. Various nonstandard wafer sizes have arisen, so efforts to fully adopt the M10 standard (182 mm) are ongoing. Like other semiconductor fabrication processes, driving down costs has been the main driving factor for this attempted size increase, in spite of the differences in the manufacturing processes of different types of devices.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crystalline_orientation">Crystalline orientation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Crystalline orientation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png/220px-Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png/330px-Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png/440px-Silicon-unit-cell-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>Diamond cubic crystal structure of a silicon unit cell</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wafer_flats_convention_v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Wafer_flats_convention_v2.svg/220px-Wafer_flats_convention_v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Wafer_flats_convention_v2.svg/330px-Wafer_flats_convention_v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Wafer_flats_convention_v2.svg/440px-Wafer_flats_convention_v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="150" /></a><figcaption>Flats can be used to denote <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductors)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doping (semiconductors)">doping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallographic</a> orientation. Red represents material that has been removed.</figcaption></figure> <p>Wafers are grown from crystal having a regular <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a>, with silicon having a <a href="/wiki/Diamond_cubic" title="Diamond cubic">diamond cubic</a> structure with a lattice spacing of 5.430710 Å (0.5430710 nm).<sup id="cite_ref-HandbookSi_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HandbookSi-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When cut into wafers, the surface is aligned in one of several relative directions known as crystal orientations. Orientation is defined by the <a href="/wiki/Miller_index" title="Miller index">Miller index</a> with (100) or (111) faces being the most common for silicon.<sup id="cite_ref-HandbookSi_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HandbookSi-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orientation is important since many of a single crystal's structural and electronic properties are highly <a href="/wiki/Anisotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisotropic">anisotropic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</a> depths depend on the wafer's crystal orientation, since each direction offers distinct <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation#Ion_channelling" title="Ion implantation">paths</a> for transport.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wafer <a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)" title="Cleavage (crystal)">cleavage</a> typically occurs only in a few well-defined directions. Scoring the wafer along cleavage planes allows it to be easily diced into individual chips ("<a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">dies</a>") so that the billions of individual <a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">circuit elements</a> on an average wafer can be separated into many individual circuits.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crystallographic_orientation_notches">Crystallographic orientation notches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Crystallographic orientation notches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wafers under 200 mm diameter have <i>flats</i> cut into one or more sides indicating the <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallographic</a> planes of the wafer (usually a {110} face). In earlier-generation wafers a pair of flats at different angles additionally conveyed the doping type (see illustration for conventions). Wafers of 200 mm diameter and above use a single small notch to convey wafer orientation, with no visual indication of doping type. 450 mm wafers are notchless, relying on a laser scribed structure on the wafer surface for orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impurity_doping">Impurity doping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Impurity doping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Silicon wafers are generally not 100% pure silicon, but are instead formed with an initial impurity <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductors)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doping (semiconductors)">doping</a> concentration between 10<sup>13</sup> and 10<sup>16</sup> atoms per cm<sup>3</sup> of <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a> which is added to the melt and defines the wafer as either bulk n-type or p-type.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, compared with single-crystal silicon's atomic density of 5×10<sup>22</sup> atoms per cm<sup>3</sup>, this still gives a purity greater than 99.9999%. The wafers can also be initially provided with some <a href="/wiki/Interstitial_defect" title="Interstitial defect">interstitial</a> oxygen concentration. Carbon and metallic contamination are kept to a minimum.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">Transition metals</a>, in particular, must be kept below parts per billion concentrations for electronic applications.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="450_mm_wafers"><span class="anchor" id="Proposed_450_mm_transition"></span>450 mm wafers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 450 mm wafers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges">Challenges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is considerable resistance to the 450 mm transition despite the possible productivity improvement, because of concern about insufficient return on investment.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also issues related to increased inter-die / edge-to-edge wafer variation and additional edge defects. 450mm wafers are expected to cost 4 times as much as 300mm wafers, and equipment costs are expected to rise by 20 to 50%.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher cost semiconductor fabrication equipment for larger wafers increases the cost of 450 mm fabs (semiconductor fabrication facilities or factories). Lithographer <a href="/wiki/Chris_Mack_(scientist)" title="Chris Mack (scientist)">Chris Mack</a> claimed in 2012 that the overall price per die for 450 mm wafers would be reduced by only 10–20% compared to 300 mm wafers, because over 50% of total wafer processing costs are lithography-related. Converting to larger 450 mm wafers would reduce price per die only for process operations such as etch where cost is related to wafer count, not wafer area.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Cost for processes such as lithography is proportional to wafer area, and larger wafers would not reduce the lithography contribution to die cost.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nikon planned to deliver 450-mm lithography equipment in 2015, with volume production in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-Nikon_2014-05-20_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2014-05-20-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nikon_2013-09-13_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nikon_2013-09-13-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2013 <a href="/wiki/ASML_Holding" title="ASML Holding">ASML</a> paused development of 450-mm lithography equipment, citing uncertain timing of chipmaker demand.<sup id="cite_ref-ASML_2013_Annual_report_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASML_2013_Annual_report-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012, a group consisting of <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York State</a> (<a href="/wiki/SUNY_Polytechnic_Institute" title="SUNY Polytechnic Institute">SUNY Poly</a>/<a href="/wiki/SUNY_Poly_College_of_Nanoscale_Science_and_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="SUNY Poly College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering">College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering</a> (CNSE)), Intel, TSMC, Samsung, IBM, Globalfoundries and Nikon companies has formed a <a href="/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership" title="Public–private partnership">public-private partnership</a> called Global 450mm Consortium (G450C, similar to <a href="/wiki/SEMATECH" title="SEMATECH">SEMATECH</a>) who made a 5-year plan (expiring in 2016) to develop a "cost effective wafer fabrication infrastructure, equipment prototypes and tools to enable coordinated industry transition to 450mm wafer level".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid of 2014 CNSE has announced that it will reveal first fully patterned 450mm wafers at SEMICON West.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 2017, the G450C began to dismantle its activities over 450mm wafer research due to undisclosed reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rulison_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rulison-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various sources have speculated that demise of the group came after charges of <a href="/wiki/Bid_rigging" title="Bid rigging">bid rigging</a> made against <a href="/wiki/Alain_E._Kaloyeros" title="Alain E. Kaloyeros">Alain E. Kaloyeros</a>, who at the time was a chief executive at the SUNY Poly.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rulison_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rulison-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The industry realization of the fact that the 300mm manufacturing optimization is more cheap than costly 450mm transition may also have played a role.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The timeline for 450 mm has not been fixed. In 2012, it was expected that 450mm production would start in 2017, which never realized.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mark Durcan, then CEO of <a href="/wiki/Micron_Technology" title="Micron Technology">Micron Technology</a>, said in February 2014 that he expects 450 mm adoption to be delayed indefinitely or discontinued. "I am not convinced that 450mm will ever happen but, to the extent that it does, it's a long way out in the future. There is not a lot of necessity for Micron, at least over the next five years, to be spending a lot of money on 450mm."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"There is a lot of investment that needs to go on in the equipment community to make that happen. And the value at the end of the day – so that customers would buy that equipment – I think is dubious."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of March 2014, Intel Corporation expected 450 mm deployment by 2020 (by the end of this decade).<sup id="cite_ref-intel450mm_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intel450mm-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mark LaPedus of semiengineering.com reported in mid-2014 that chipmakers had delayed adoption of 450 mm "for the foreseeable future." According to this report some observers expected 2018 to 2020, while G. Dan Hutcheson, chief executive of VLSI Research, didn't see 450mm fabs moving into production until 2020 to 2025.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The step up to 300 mm required major changes, with <a href="/wiki/Automatic_factory" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic factory">fully automated factories</a> using 300 mm wafers versus barely automated factories for the 200 mm wafers, partly because a <a href="/wiki/FOUP" title="FOUP">FOUP</a> for 300 mm wafers weighs about 7.5 kilograms<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when loaded with 25 300 mm wafers where a <a href="/wiki/SMIF_(interface)" title="SMIF (interface)">SMIF</a> weighs about 4.8 kilograms<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when loaded with 25 200 mm wafers, thus requiring twice the amount of physical strength from factory workers, and increasing fatigue. 300mm FOUPs have handles so that they can be still be moved by hand. 450mm FOUPs weigh 45 kilograms<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when loaded with 25 450 mm wafers, thus cranes are necessary to manually handle the FOUPs<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and handles are no longer present in the FOUP. FOUPs are moved around using material handling systems from <a href="/wiki/Muratec" class="mw-redirect" title="Muratec">Muratec</a> or <a href="/wiki/Daifuku_(company)" title="Daifuku (company)">Daifuku</a>. These major investments were undertaken in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_downturn" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic downturn">economic downturn</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">dot-com bubble</a>, resulting in huge resistance to upgrading to 450 mm by the original timeframe. On the ramp-up to 450 mm, the crystal ingots will be 3 times heavier (total weight a metric ton) and take 2–4 times longer to cool, and the process time will be double.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All told, the development of 450 mm wafers requires significant engineering, time, and cost to overcome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analytical_die_count_estimation">Analytical die count estimation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Analytical die count estimation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to minimize the cost per <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">die</a>, manufacturers wish to maximize the number of dies that can be made from a single wafer; dies always have a square or rectangular shape due to the constraint of <a href="/wiki/Wafer_dicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wafer dicing">wafer dicing</a>. In general, this is a <a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computationally complex</a> problem with no analytical solution, dependent on both the area of the dies as well as their <a href="/wiki/Aspect_ratio" title="Aspect ratio">aspect ratio</a> (square or rectangular) and other considerations such as the width of the <a href="/wiki/Die_preparation#Semiconductor-die_cutting" title="Die preparation">scribeline</a> or saw lane, and additional space occupied by alignment and <a href="/wiki/Wafer_testing" title="Wafer testing">test structures</a>. (By simplifying the problem so that the scribeline and saw lane are both zero-width, the wafer is perfectly circular with no flats, and the dies have a square aspect ratio, we arrive at the <a href="/wiki/Gauss_circle_problem" title="Gauss circle problem">Gauss Circle Problem</a>, an unsolved open problem in mathematics.) </p><p>Note that formulas estimating the gross dies per wafer (<b>DPW</b>) account only for the number of complete dies that can fit on the wafer; gross DPW calculations do <i>not</i> account for yield loss among those complete dies due to defects or parametric issues.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wafermap_showing_fully_and_partially_patterned_dies.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wafermap_showing_fully_and_partially_patterned_dies.svg/220px-Wafermap_showing_fully_and_partially_patterned_dies.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wafermap_showing_fully_and_partially_patterned_dies.svg/330px-Wafermap_showing_fully_and_partially_patterned_dies.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wafermap_showing_fully_and_partially_patterned_dies.svg/440px-Wafermap_showing_fully_and_partially_patterned_dies.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="657" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>Wafermap showing fully patterned dies, and partially patterned dies which don't fully lie within the wafer</figcaption></figure> <p>Nevertheless, the number of gross DPW can be estimated starting with the <a href="/wiki/First-order_approximation" class="mw-redirect" title="First-order approximation">first-order approximation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Floor_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Floor function">floor function</a> of wafer-to-die area ratio, </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DPW=\left\lfloor {\frac {\pi r^{2}}{S}}\right\rfloor =\left\lfloor {\frac {\pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right\rfloor }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>⌊</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mi>S</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⌋</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>⌊</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>⌋</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DPW=\left\lfloor {\frac {\pi r^{2}}{S}}\right\rfloor =\left\lfloor {\frac {\pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right\rfloor }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fded670db1e5d2f621bd4d8e7fe11788df0c1788" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:26.434ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DPW=\left\lfloor {\frac {\pi r^{2}}{S}}\right\rfloor =\left\lfloor {\frac {\pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right\rfloor }"></span>,</dd></dl> <p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"></span> is the wafer diameter (typically in mm)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> the size of each die (mm<sup>2</sup>) including the width of the scribeline ( or in the case of a saw lane, the <a href="/wiki/Kerf" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerf">kerf</a> plus a tolerance).</li></ul> <p>This formula simply states that the number of dies which can fit on the wafer <a href="/wiki/Pigeonhole_principle" title="Pigeonhole principle">cannot exceed</a> the area of the wafer divided by the area of each individual die. It will always overestimate the true best-case gross DPW, since it includes the area of partially patterned dies which do not fully lie on the wafer surface (see figure). These partially patterned dies don't represent complete <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">ICs</a>, so they usually cannot be sold as functional parts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Refinements of this simple formula typically add an edge correction, to account for partial dies on the edge, which in general will be more significant when the area of the die is large compared to the total area of the wafer. In the other limiting case (infinitesimally small dies or infinitely large wafers), the edge correction is negligible.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The correction factor or correction term generally takes one of the forms cited by De Vries:<sup id="cite_ref-devries_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-devries-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}-{\frac {\displaystyle \pi d}{\sqrt {2S}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> <msqrt> <mn>2</mn> <mi>S</mi> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}-{\frac {\displaystyle \pi d}{\sqrt {2S}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eecce0d860cc25d5d50ca49628c2aa19255c2c0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:21.918ex; height:6.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}-{\frac {\displaystyle \pi d}{\sqrt {2S}}}}"></span> (area ratio – circumference/(die diagonal length))</dd> <dd>or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DPW=\left({\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right)\exp(-2{\sqrt {S}}/d)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>S</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DPW=\left({\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right)\exp(-2{\sqrt {S}}/d)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/483aed372b7978ae22b806ed9254ef1ff362c122" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:31.598ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DPW=\left({\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right)\exp(-2{\sqrt {S}}/d)}"></span> (area ratio scaled by an exponential factor)</dd> <dd>or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\left(1-{\frac {\displaystyle 2{\sqrt {S}}}{d}}\right)^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mn>2</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>S</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\left(1-{\frac {\displaystyle 2{\sqrt {S}}}{d}}\right)^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fae0e5190b877912fbdd50d5f5bb6d62358223a8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:27.556ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\left(1-{\frac {\displaystyle 2{\sqrt {S}}}{d}}\right)^{2}}"></span> (area ratio scaled by a polynomial factor).</dd></dl> <p>Studies comparing these analytical formulas to <a href="/wiki/Brute-force_search" title="Brute-force search">brute-force</a> computational results show that the formulas can be made more accurate, over practical ranges of die sizes and aspect ratios, by adjusting the coefficients of the corrections to values above or below unity, and by replacing the linear die dimension <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {S}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>S</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sqrt {S}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/bff86975b0e7944720b3e635c53c22c032a7a6f1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.435ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {S}}}"></span> with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (H+W)/2}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>H</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>W</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (H+W)/2}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d1ea5c13f29726f052de24e8d6c3c2235daf3a19" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:11.473ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (H+W)/2}"></span> (average side length) in the case of dies with large aspect ratio:<sup id="cite_ref-devries_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-devries-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}-0.58^{*}{\frac {\displaystyle \pi d}{\sqrt {S}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mn>0.58</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> <msqrt> <mi>S</mi> </msqrt> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}-0.58^{*}{\frac {\displaystyle \pi d}{\sqrt {S}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ea344e40fffb556972e909762e8cf632b7f88c76" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.838ex; width:25.944ex; height:6.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}-0.58^{*}{\frac {\displaystyle \pi d}{\sqrt {S}}}}"></span></dd> <dd>or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DPW=\left({\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right)\exp(-2.32^{*}{\sqrt {S}}/d)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mi>exp</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mn>2.32</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>S</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DPW=\left({\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right)\exp(-2.32^{*}{\sqrt {S}}/d)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee0cbd70a616bfd69e88bb5b14772181f1218ee6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:35.624ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DPW=\left({\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\right)\exp(-2.32^{*}{\sqrt {S}}/d)}"></span></dd> <dd>or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\left(1-{\frac {\displaystyle 1.16^{*}{\sqrt {S}}}{d}}\right)^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> <mi>P</mi> <mi>W</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> <mi>S</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mn>1.16</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>∗</mo> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mi>S</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\left(1-{\frac {\displaystyle 1.16^{*}{\sqrt {S}}}{d}}\right)^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9404803dd65160de3a745a36604a10e0528ea8a9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:31.582ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DPW={\frac {\displaystyle \pi d^{2}}{4S}}\left(1-{\frac {\displaystyle 1.16^{*}{\sqrt {S}}}{d}}\right)^{2}}"></span>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compound_semiconductors">Compound semiconductors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Compound semiconductors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While silicon is the prevalent material for wafers used in the <a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">electronics industry</a>, other <a href="/wiki/Compound_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound semiconductor">compound</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">III-V</a> or <a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">II-VI</a> materials have also been employed. <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">Gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs), a <a href="/wiki/III-V_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="III-V semiconductor">III-V semiconductor</a> produced via the Czochralski method, <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">gallium nitride</a> (GaN) and <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a> (SiC) are also common wafer materials, with GaN and <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a> being extensively used in <a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LED</a> manufacturing.<sup id="cite_ref-Grover_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grover-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Die_preparation" title="Die preparation">Die preparation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epitaxial_wafer" title="Epitaxial wafer">Epitaxial wafer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">Epitaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_thermal_processing" title="Rapid thermal processing">Rapid thermal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RCA_clean" title="RCA clean">RCA clean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEMI_font" title="SEMI font">SEMI font</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_on_insulator" title="Silicon on insulator">Silicon on insulator</a> (SOI) wafers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wafer_bonding" title="Wafer bonding">Wafer bonding</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wafer_(electronics)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLaplante2005" class="citation book cs1">Laplante, Phillip A. 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