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id="toc-Intuition/deduction_thesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intuition/deduction_thesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Intuition/deduction thesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intuition/deduction_thesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Innate_knowledge_thesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Innate_knowledge_thesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Innate knowledge thesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Innate_knowledge_thesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Innate_concept_thesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Innate_concept_thesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Innate concept thesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Innate_concept_thesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rationalist_philosophy_in_Western_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rationalist_philosophy_in_Western_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Rationalist philosophy in Western antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rationalist_philosophy_in_Western_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pythagoras_(570–495_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pythagoras_(570–495_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Pythagoras (570–495 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pythagoras_(570–495_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plato_(427–347_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plato_(427–347_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Plato (427–347 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plato_(427–347_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotle_(384–322_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle_(384–322_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Aristotle (384–322 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle_(384–322_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_rationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_rationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Classical rationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_rationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-René_Descartes_(1596–1650)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#René_Descartes_(1596–1650)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>René Descartes (1596–1650)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-René_Descartes_(1596–1650)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baruch_Spinoza_(1632–1677)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baruch_Spinoza_(1632–1677)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baruch_Spinoza_(1632–1677)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gottfried_Leibniz_(1646–1716)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gottfried_Leibniz_(1646–1716)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gottfried_Leibniz_(1646–1716)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immanuel_Kant_(1724–1804)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immanuel_Kant_(1724–1804)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immanuel_Kant_(1724–1804)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_rationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_rationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Contemporary rationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_rationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Primary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Secondary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Rationalism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasionalisme" title="Rasionalisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rasionalisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%AD%E1%8A%91%E1%8B%AB%E1%8B%8A%E1%8A%90%E1%89%B5" title="ምክኑያዊነት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ምክኑያዊነት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9)" title="عقلانية (فلسفة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عقلانية (فلسفة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalismu" title="Racionalismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Racionalismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasionalizm" title="Rasionalizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Rasionalizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="যুক্তিবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যুক্তিবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AD-s%C3%A8ng_ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Lí-sèng chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lí-sèng chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC_(%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Рацыяналізм (філасофія) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рацыяналізм (філасофія)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="बुद्धिवाद – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बुद्धिवाद" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Рационализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Рационализъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalizam" title="Racionalizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Racionalizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalisme_(filosofia)" title="Racionalisme (filosofia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Racionalisme (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalismus" title="Racionalismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Racionalismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesymoliaeth" title="Rhesymoliaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhesymoliaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalisme" title="Rationalisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rationalisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalismus" title="Rationalismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rationalismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratsionalism" title="Ratsionalism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ratsionalism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%B8%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ορθολογισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ορθολογισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalismo" title="Racionalismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Racionalismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raciismo" title="Raciismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Raciismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrazionalismo_(filosofia)" title="Arrazionalismo (filosofia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arrazionalismo (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="خردگرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خردگرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalisme" title="Rationalisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rationalisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalismo" title="Racionalismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Racionalismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="理性主義 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="理性主義" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9D%E0%AA%AE" title="રેશનાલિઝમ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="રેશનાલિઝમ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%A9%EB%A6%AC%EB%A1%A0" title="합리론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="합리론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իրատեսություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իրատեսություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="तर्कबुद्धिवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तर्कबुद्धिवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalizam" title="Racionalizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Racionalizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasionalisme" title="Rasionalisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rasionalisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6khyggja" title="Rökhyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rökhyggja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razionalismo" title="Razionalismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Razionalismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="רציונליזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רציונליזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="რაციონალიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რაციონალიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Рационализм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Рационализм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasyonal%C3%AEzm" title="Rasyonalîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Rasyonalîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalismus" title="Rationalismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rationalismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racion%C4%81lisms" title="Racionālisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Racionālisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalizmas" title="Racionalizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Racionalizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalizmus" title="Racionalizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Racionalizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Рационализам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Рационализам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasi%C3%B4nalisma" title="Rasiônalisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rasiônalisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="യുക്തിവാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യുക്തിവാദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="बुद्धिवाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बुद्धिवाद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="العقلانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="العقلانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasionalisme" title="Rasionalisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rasionalisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Рационализм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Рационализм" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalisme" title="Rationalisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rationalisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="理性主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="理性主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasjonalisme" title="Rasjonalisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rasjonalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasjonalisme" title="Rasjonalisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Rasjonalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalisme" title="Racionalisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Racionalisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratsionalizm" title="Ratsionalizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ratsionalizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE" title="ਤਰਕਸ਼ੀਲਤਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤਰਕਸ਼ੀਲਤਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87" title="سولپالنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سولپالنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashanalizim" title="Rashanalizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Rashanalizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratschonalismus" title="Ratschonalismus – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ratschonalismus" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racjonalizm_filozoficzny" title="Racjonalizm filozoficzny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Racjonalizm filozoficzny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalismo" title="Racionalismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Racionalismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C8%9Bionalism" title="Raționalism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Raționalism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Рационализм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Рационализм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Рационализм (философия) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рационализм (философия)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalizmi" title="Racionalizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Racionalizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rationalism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalizmus_(filozofia)" title="Racionalizmus (filozofia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Racionalizmus (filozofia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="ڕاسیۆنالیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕاسیۆنالیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Рационализам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рационализам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racionalizam" title="Racionalizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Racionalizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalismi_(tietoteoria)" title="Rationalismi (tietoteoria) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rationalismi (tietoteoria)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rationalism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பகுத்தறிவியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பகுத்தறிவியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_(%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99)" title="Рационализм (фәлсәфә) – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Рационализм (фәлсәфә)" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="เหตุผลนิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เหตุผลนิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak%C4%B1lc%C4%B1l%C4%B1k" title="Akılcılık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Akılcılık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Раціоналізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Раціоналізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_duy_l%C3%BD" title="Chủ nghĩa duy lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa duy lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasyonalismo" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Epistemological view centered on reason</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the philosophical concept. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Rationalism (disambiguation)">Rationalism (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Rationalization (disambiguation)">rationalization</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:91px;max-width:91px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:105px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/89px-Spinoza.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/134px-Spinoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Spinoza.jpg/178px-Spinoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="1600" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:91px;max-width:91px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:105px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/89px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/134px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/178px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm 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style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Full_and_partial" title="Belief">Credence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <b>rationalism</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> view that "regards <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> as the chief source and test of knowledge"<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or “the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge”,<sup id="cite_ref-Audi_902_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audi_902-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often in contrast to other possible sources of knowledge such as <a href="/wiki/Religious_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious faith">faith</a>, tradition, or <a href="/wiki/Sensory_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory experience">sensory experience</a>. More formally, rationalism is defined as a <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> "in which the criterion of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> is not sensory but intellectual and <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Bourke_263_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourke_263-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a major philosophical debate during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-essay_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-essay-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rationalism (sometimes here equated with <a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">innatism</a>) was opposed to <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>. On the one hand, rationalists like <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> emphasized that knowledge is primarily innate and the intellect, the inner faculty of the human mind, can therefore directly grasp or derive <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">logical truths</a>; on the other hand, empiricists like <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> emphasized that knowledge is not primarily innate and is best gained by careful observation of the physical world outside the mind, namely through sensory experiences. Rationalists asserted that certain principles exist in <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain certain truths – in other words, "there are significant ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience".<sup id="cite_ref-Rationalism_vs._Empiricism_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rationalism_vs._Empiricism-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more extreme position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-Audi_902_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audi_902-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given a <a href="/wiki/Pre-modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-modern">pre-modern</a> understanding of reason, rationalism is identical to <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socratic</a> life of inquiry, or the zetetic (<a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skeptical</a>) clear interpretation of authority (open to the underlying or essential cause of things as they appear to our sense of certainty). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rationalism has a philosophical history dating from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">antiquity</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytical</a> nature of much of philosophical enquiry, the awareness of apparently <a href="/wiki/A_priori_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori knowledge">a priori</a> domains of knowledge such as mathematics, combined with the emphasis of obtaining knowledge through the use of rational faculties (commonly rejecting, for example, direct <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>) have made rationalist themes very prevalent in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a>. </p><p>Since the Enlightenment, rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy as seen in the works of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bourke_263_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bourke_263-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is commonly called <b>continental rationalism</b>, because it was predominant in the continental schools of Europe, whereas in Britain <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> dominated. </p><p>Even then, the distinction between rationalists and empiricists was drawn at a later period and would not have been recognized by the philosophers involved. Also, the distinction between the two philosophies is not as clear-cut as is sometimes suggested; for example, Descartes and Locke have similar views about the nature of human ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Rationalism_vs._Empiricism_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rationalism_vs._Empiricism-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the axioms of <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, one could <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductively</a> derive the rest of all possible knowledge. Notable philosophers who held this view most clearly were <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, whose attempts to grapple with the epistemological and metaphysical problems raised by Descartes led to a development of the fundamental approach of rationalism. Both Spinoza and Leibniz asserted that, <i>in principle</i>, all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, could be gained through the use of reason alone, though they both observed that this was not possible <i>in practice</i> for human beings except in specific areas such as <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>. On the other hand, Leibniz admitted in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> that "we are all mere <a href="/wiki/Empirics" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirics">Empirics</a> in three fourths of our actions."<sup id="cite_ref-Audi_771_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audi_771-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_usage">Political usage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Political usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, rationalism, since the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, historically emphasized a "politics of reason" centered upon <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – the latter aspect's <a href="/wiki/Antitheism" title="Antitheism">antitheism</a> was later softened by the adoption of pluralistic reasoning methods practicable regardless of religious or irreligious ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Cottingham" title="John Cottingham">John Cottingham</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> noted how rationalism, a <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a>, became socially conflated with <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldview</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the past, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, the term 'rationalist' was often used to refer to free thinkers of an anti-clerical and anti-religious outlook, and for a time the word acquired a distinctly pejorative force (thus in 1670 Sanderson spoke disparagingly of 'a mere rationalist, that is to say in plain English an atheist of the late edition...'). The use of the label 'rationalist' to characterize a world outlook which has no place for the supernatural is becoming less popular today; terms like '<a href="/wiki/Secular_humanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular humanist">humanist</a>' or '<a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a>' seem largely to have taken its place. But the old usage still survives.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_usage">Philosophical usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Philosophical usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rationalism is often contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>. Taken very broadly, these views are not mutually exclusive, since – on some definitions – a philosopher can be both rationalist and empiricist.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacey_286_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacey_286-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Audi_902_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audi_902-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taken to extremes, the empiricist view holds that all ideas come to us <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a posteriori</i></a>, that is to say, through experience; either through the external senses or through such inner sensations as pain and gratification. The empiricist essentially believes that knowledge is based on or derived directly from experience. The rationalist believes we come to knowledge <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a> – through the use of logic –  and is thus independent of sensory experience. In other words, as <a href="/wiki/Galen_Strawson" title="Galen Strawson">Galen Strawson</a> once wrote, "you can see that it is true just lying on your couch. You don't have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in the physical world. You don't have to do any science."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between both philosophies, the issue at hand is the fundamental source of human knowledge and the proper techniques for verifying what we think we know. Whereas both philosophies are under the umbrella of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, their argument lies in the understanding of the warrant, which is under the wider epistemic umbrella of the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">theory of justification</a>. Part of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, this theory attempts to understand the justification of <a href="/wiki/Propositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositions">propositions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>. Epistemologists are concerned with various epistemic features of belief, which include the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">justification</a>, warrant, <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>. Of these four terms, the term that has been most widely used and discussed by the early 21st century is "warrant". Loosely speaking, justification is the reason that someone (probably) holds a belief. </p><p>If <i>A</i> makes a claim and then <i>B</i> casts doubt on it, <i>A</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s next move would normally be to provide justification for the claim. The precise method one uses to provide justification is where the lines are drawn between rationalism and empiricism (among other philosophical views). Much of the debate in these fields are focused on <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">analyzing</a> the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">belief</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">justification</a>. </p><p>At its core, rationalism consists of three basic claims. For people to consider themselves rationalists, they must adopt at least one of these three claims: the intuition/deduction thesis, the innate knowledge thesis, or the innate concept thesis. In addition, a rationalist can choose to adopt the claim of Indispensability of Reason and or the claim of Superiority of Reason, although one can be a rationalist without adopting either thesis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><b>The indispensability of reason thesis</b>: "The knowledge we gain in subject area, <i>S</i>, by intuition and deduction, as well as the ideas and instances of knowledge in <i>S</i> that are innate to us, could not have been gained by us through sense experience."<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In short, this thesis claims that experience cannot provide what we gain from reason. </p><p><b>The superiority of reason thesis</b>: '"The knowledge we gain in subject area <i>S</i> by intuition and deduction or have innately is superior to any knowledge gained by sense experience".<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, this thesis claims reason is superior to experience as a source for knowledge. </p><p>Rationalists often adopt similar stances on other aspects of philosophy. Most rationalists reject skepticism for the areas of knowledge they claim are knowable <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a>. When you claim some truths are innately known to us, one must reject skepticism in relation to those truths. Especially for rationalists who adopt the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the idea of epistemic <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a> tends to crop up. This is the view that we know some truths without basing our belief in them on any others and that we then use this foundational knowledge to know more truths.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intuition/deduction_thesis"><span id="Intuition.2Fdeduction_thesis"></span>Intuition/deduction thesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intuition/deduction thesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (philosophy)">Intuition (philosophy)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>"Some propositions in a particular subject area, S, are knowable by us by intuition alone; still others are knowable by being deduced from intuited propositions."</i><sup id="cite_ref-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Generally speaking, intuition is <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a> knowledge or experiential belief characterized by its immediacy; a form of rational insight. We simply "see" something in such a way as to give us a warranted belief. Beyond that, the nature of intuition is hotly debated. In the same way, generally speaking, deduction is the process of <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> from one or more general <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a> to reach a logically certain conclusion. Using valid <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a>, we can deduce from intuited premises. </p><p>For example, when we combine both concepts, we can intuit that the number three is prime and that it is greater than two. We then deduce from this knowledge that there is a prime number greater than two. Thus, it can be said that intuition and deduction combined to provide us with <i>a priori</i> knowledge – we gained this knowledge independently of sense experience. </p><p>To argue in favor of this thesis, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, a prominent German philosopher, says, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The senses, although they are necessary for all our actual knowledge, are not sufficient to give us the whole of it, since the senses never give anything but instances, that is to say particular or individual truths. Now all the instances which confirm a general truth, however numerous they may be, are not sufficient to establish the universal necessity of this same truth, for it does not follow that what happened before will happen in the same way again. … From which it appears that necessary truths, such as we find in pure mathematics, and particularly in arithmetic and geometry, must have principles whose proof does not depend on instances, nor consequently on the testimony of the senses, although without the senses it would never have occurred to us to think of them…<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Empiricists such as <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> have been willing to accept this thesis for describing the relationships among our own concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, empiricists argue that we are allowed to intuit and deduce truths from knowledge that has been obtained <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a posteriori</i></a>. </p><p>By injecting different subjects into the Intuition/Deduction thesis, we are able to generate different arguments. Most rationalists agree <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> is knowable by applying the intuition and deduction. Some go further to include <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical truths</a> into the category of things knowable by intuition and deduction. Furthermore, some rationalists also claim <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> is knowable in this thesis. Naturally, the more subjects the rationalists claim to be knowable by the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the more certain they are of their warranted beliefs, and the more strictly they adhere to the infallibility of intuition, the more controversial their truths or claims and the more radical their rationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to different subjects, rationalists sometimes vary the strength of their claims by adjusting their understanding of the warrant. Some rationalists understand warranted beliefs to be beyond even the slightest doubt; others are more conservative and understand the warrant to be belief beyond a reasonable doubt. </p><p>Rationalists also have different understanding and claims involving the connection between intuition and truth. Some rationalists claim that intuition is infallible and that anything we intuit to be true is as such. More contemporary rationalists accept that intuition is not always a source of certain knowledge – thus allowing for the possibility of a deceiver who might cause the rationalist to intuit a false proposition in the same way a third party could cause the rationalist to have perceptions of <a href="/wiki/Nonexistent_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonexistent object">nonexistent objects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Innate_knowledge_thesis">Innate knowledge thesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Innate knowledge thesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>"We have knowledge of some truths in a particular subject area, S, as part of our rational nature."</i><sup id="cite_ref-The_Innate_Knowledge_Thesis_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Innate_Knowledge_Thesis-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Innate Knowledge thesis is similar to the Intuition/Deduction thesis in the regard that both theses claim <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> is gained <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a>. The two theses go their separate ways when describing how that knowledge is gained. As the name, and the rationale, suggests, the Innate Knowledge thesis claims knowledge is simply part of our rational nature. Experiences can trigger a process that allows this knowledge to come into our consciousness, but the experiences do not provide us with the knowledge itself. The knowledge has been with us since the beginning and the experience simply brought into focus, in the same way a photographer can bring the background of a picture into focus by changing the aperture of the lens. The background was always there, just not in focus. </p><p>This thesis targets a problem with the nature of inquiry originally postulated by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i>. Here, Plato asks about inquiry; how do we gain knowledge of a theorem in geometry? We inquire into the matter. Yet, knowledge by inquiry seems impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, "If we already have the knowledge, there is no place for inquiry. If we lack the knowledge, we don't know what we are seeking and cannot recognize it when we find it. Either way we cannot gain knowledge of the theorem by inquiry. Yet, we do know some theorems."<sup id="cite_ref-The_Innate_Knowledge_Thesis_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Innate_Knowledge_Thesis-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Innate Knowledge thesis offers a solution to this <a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">paradox</a>. By claiming that knowledge is already with us, either <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciously</a> or <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconsciously</a>, a rationalist claims we don't really learn things in the traditional usage of the word, but rather that we simply use words we know. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Innate_concept_thesis">Innate concept thesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Innate concept thesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>"We have some of the concepts we employ in a particular subject area, S, as part of our rational nature."</i><sup id="cite_ref-The_Innate_Concept_Thesis_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Innate_Concept_Thesis-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Similar to the Innate Knowledge thesis, the Innate Concept thesis suggests that some concepts are simply part of our rational nature. These concepts are <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a> in nature and sense experience is irrelevant to determining the nature of these concepts (though, sense experience can help bring the concepts to our <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">conscious mind</a>). </p><p>In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> postulates three classifications for our <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a> when he says, "Among my ideas, some appear to be innate, some to be adventitious, and others to have been invented by me. My understanding of what a thing is, what truth is, and what thought is, seems to derive simply from my own nature. But my hearing a noise, as I do now, or seeing the sun, or feeling the fire, comes from things which are located outside me, or so I have hitherto judged. Lastly, <a href="/wiki/Siren_(mythology)" title="Siren (mythology)">sirens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippogriff" title="Hippogriff">hippogriffs</a> and the like are my own invention."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adventitious ideas are those concepts that we gain through sense experiences, ideas such as the sensation of heat, because they originate from outside sources; transmitting their own likeness rather than something else and something you simply cannot <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a> away. Ideas invented by us, such as those found in <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legends</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tales</a>, are created by us from other ideas we possess. Lastly, innate ideas, such as our ideas of <a href="/wiki/Perfection" title="Perfection">perfection</a>, are those ideas we have as a result of mental processes that are beyond what experience can directly or indirectly provide. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> defends the idea of innate concepts by suggesting the mind plays a role in determining the nature of concepts, to explain this, he likens the mind to a block of marble in the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Essays_on_Human_Understanding" title="New Essays on Human Understanding">New Essays on Human Understanding</a></i>, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is why I have taken as an illustration a block of veined marble, rather than a wholly uniform block or blank tablets, that is to say what is called <i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">tabula rasa</a></i> in the language of the philosophers. For if the soul were like those blank tablets, truths would be in us in the same way as the figure of Hercules is in a block of marble, when the marble is completely indifferent whether it receives this or some other figure. But if there were veins in the stone which marked out the figure of Hercules rather than other figures, this stone would be more determined thereto, and Hercules would be as it were in some manner innate in it, although labour would be needed to uncover the veins, and to clear them by polishing, and by cutting away what prevents them from appearing. It is in this way that ideas and truths are innate in us, like natural inclinations and dispositions, natural habits or potentialities, and not like activities, although these potentialities are always accompanied by some activities which correspond to them, though they are often imperceptible."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Some philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> (who is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a>), argue that the Innate Knowledge thesis and the Innate Concept thesis are the same.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Carruthers_(philosopher)" title="Peter Carruthers (philosopher)">Peter Carruthers</a>, argue that the two theses are distinct from one another. As with the other theses covered under the umbrella of rationalism, the more types and greater number of concepts a philosopher claims to be innate, the more controversial and radical their position; "the more a concept seems removed from experience and the mental operations we can perform on experience the more plausibly it may be claimed to be innate. Since we do not experience perfect triangles but do experience pains, our concept of the former is a more promising candidate for being innate than our concept of the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Innate_Concept_Thesis_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Innate_Concept_Thesis-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rationalist_philosophy_in_Western_antiquity">Rationalist philosophy in Western antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rationalist philosophy in Western antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pythagoras_with_tablet_of_ratios.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Pythagoras_with_tablet_of_ratios.jpg/220px-Pythagoras_with_tablet_of_ratios.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Pythagoras_with_tablet_of_ratios.jpg/330px-Pythagoras_with_tablet_of_ratios.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Pythagoras_with_tablet_of_ratios.jpg/440px-Pythagoras_with_tablet_of_ratios.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="571" /></a><figcaption>Detail of Pythagoras with a tablet of ratios, numbers sacred to the Pythagoreans, from <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatican Palace">Vatican Palace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although rationalism in its modern form post-dates antiquity, philosophers from this time laid down the foundations of rationalism. In particular, the understanding that we may be aware of knowledge available only through the use of rational thought.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pythagoras_(570–495_BCE)"><span id="Pythagoras_.28570.E2.80.93495_BCE.29"></span>Pythagoras (570–495 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pythagoras (570–495 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></div> <p>Pythagoras was one of the first Western philosophers to stress rationalist insight.<sup id="cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_modern_philosophies_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epistemological_rationalism_in_modern_philosophies-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is often revered as a great <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>, but he is best known for the <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a>, which bears his name, and for discovering the mathematical relationship between the length of strings on lute and the pitches of the notes. Pythagoras "believed these harmonies reflected the ultimate nature of reality. He summed up the implied metaphysical rationalism in the words 'All is number'. It is probable that he had caught the rationalist's vision, later seen by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> (1564–1642), of a world governed throughout by mathematically formulable laws".<sup id="cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plato_(427–347_BCE)"><span id="Plato_.28427.E2.80.93347_BCE.29"></span>Plato (427–347 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Plato (427–347 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato_by_Raphael.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Plato_by_Raphael.png/220px-Plato_by_Raphael.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Plato_by_Raphael.png/330px-Plato_by_Raphael.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Plato_by_Raphael.png 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Plato held rational insight to a very high standard, as is seen in his works such as <a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a>. He taught on the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a> (or the Theory of Ideas)<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which asserts that the highest and most fundamental kind of reality is not the material world of change <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">known to us through sensation</a>, but rather the abstract, non-material (but <a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">substantial</a>) world of forms (or ideas).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Plato, these forms were accessible only to reason and not to sense.<sup id="cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, it is said that Plato admired reason, especially in <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, so highly that he had the phrase "Let no one ignorant of geometry enter" inscribed over the door to his academy.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aristotle_(384–322_BCE)"><span id="Aristotle_.28384.E2.80.93322_BCE.29"></span>Aristotle (384–322 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aristotle (384–322 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s main contribution to rationalist thinking was the use of <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogistic</a> logic and its use in argument. Aristotle defines syllogism as "a discourse in which certain (specific) things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this very general definition, Aristotle limits himself to categorical syllogisms which consist of three <a href="/wiki/Categorical_proposition" title="Categorical proposition">categorical propositions</a> in his work <i><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included categorical <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal</a> syllogisms.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/220px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/330px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/440px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a> Portrait on Silver Vase</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the three great Greek philosophers disagreed with one another on specific points, they all agreed that rational thought could bring to light knowledge that was self-evident – information that humans otherwise could not know without the use of reason. After Aristotle's death, Western rationalistic thought was generally characterized by its application to theology, such as in the works of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic philosopher">Islamic philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna (Ibn Sina)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes (Ibn Rushd)</a>, and Jewish philosopher and theologian <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> sect also incorporated rationalism into their movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Heckethorn_2011_p._139_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heckethorn_2011_p._139-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One notable event in the Western timeline was the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> who attempted to merge Greek rationalism and Christian revelation in the thirteenth-century.<sup id="cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gill_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> viewed Rationalists as a threat, labeling them as those who "while admitting revelation, reject from the word of God whatever, in their private judgment, is inconsistent with human reason."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_rationalism">Classical rationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Classical rationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="René_Descartes_(1596–1650)"><span id="Ren.C3.A9_Descartes_.281596.E2.80.931650.29"></span>René Descartes (1596–1650)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: René Descartes (1596–1650)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="Category:René Descartes">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.6em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes,_bust,_three-quarter_facing_left_in_an_oval_border,_(white_background_removed).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes%2C_bust%2C_three-quarter_facing_left_in_an_oval_border%2C_%28white_background_removed%29.png/150px-Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes%2C_bust%2C_three-quarter_facing_left_in_an_oval_border%2C_%28white_background_removed%29.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes%2C_bust%2C_three-quarter_facing_left_in_an_oval_border%2C_%28white_background_removed%29.png/225px-Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes%2C_bust%2C_three-quarter_facing_left_in_an_oval_border%2C_%28white_background_removed%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes%2C_bust%2C_three-quarter_facing_left_in_an_oval_border%2C_%28white_background_removed%29.png/300px-Portrait_of_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes%2C_bust%2C_three-quarter_facing_left_in_an_oval_border%2C_%28white_background_removed%29.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="936" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">Mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Doubt and certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">Dream argument</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">Evil demon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_adequacy_principle" title="Causal adequacy principle">Causal adequacy principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_geometry" title="Analytic geometry">Analytic geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system" title="Cartesian coordinate system">Coordinate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_circle" title="Cartesian circle">Cartesian circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folium_of_Descartes" title="Folium of Descartes">Folium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_rule_of_signs" title="Descartes' rule of signs">Rule of signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_diver" title="Cartesian diver">Cartesian diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balloonist_theory" title="Balloonist theory">Balloonist theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wax_argument" title="Wax argument">Wax argument</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mental_substance" title="Mental substance">Res cogitans</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Res_extensa" title="Res extensa">Res extensa</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rules_for_the_Direction_of_the_Mind" title="Rules for the Direction of the Mind">Rules for the Direction of the Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Search_for_Truth_by_Natural_Light" title="The Search for Truth by Natural Light">The Search for Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_World_(Descartes)" class="mw-redirect" title="The World (Descartes)">The World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">Discourse on the Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie" title="La Géométrie">La Géométrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" title="Principles of Philosophy">Principles of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passions_of_the_Soul" title="Passions of the Soul">Passions of the Soul</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christina,_Queen_of_Sweden" title="Christina, Queen of Sweden">Christina, Queen of Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francine_Descartes" title="Francine Descartes">Francine Descartes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Descartes" title="Template:Descartes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Descartes" title="Template talk:Descartes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Descartes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Descartes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></div> <p>Descartes was the first of the modern rationalists and has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy.' Much subsequent <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> is a response to his writings,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are studied closely to this day. </p><p>Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truths – including the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences –  could be attained by reason alone; other knowledge, the knowledge of physics, required experience of the world, aided by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. He also argued that although <a href="/wiki/Dream" title="Dream">dreams</a> appear as real as <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">sense experience</a>, these dreams cannot provide persons with knowledge. Also, since conscious sense experience can be the cause of illusions, then sense experience itself can be doubtable. As a result, Descartes deduced that a rational pursuit of truth should doubt every belief about sensory reality. He elaborated these beliefs in such works as <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">Discourse on the Method</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" title="Principles of Philosophy">Principles of Philosophy</a></i>. Descartes developed a method to attain truths according to which nothing that cannot be recognised by the intellect (or <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>) can be classified as knowledge. These truths are gained "without any sensory experience," according to Descartes. Truths that are attained by reason are broken down into elements that intuition can grasp, which, through a purely deductive process, will result in clear truths about reality. </p><p>Descartes therefore argued, as a result of his method, that reason alone determined knowledge, and that this could be done independently of the senses. For instance, his famous dictum, <i><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogito ergo sum">cogito ergo sum</a></i> or "I think, therefore I am", is a conclusion reached <i><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a></i> i.e., prior to any kind of experience on the matter. The simple meaning is that doubting one's existence, in and of itself, proves that an "I" exists to do the thinking. In other words, doubting one's own doubting is absurd.<sup id="cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_modern_philosophies_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epistemological_rationalism_in_modern_philosophies-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was, for Descartes, an irrefutable principle upon which to ground all forms of other knowledge. Descartes posited a metaphysical <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian dualism">dualism</a>, distinguishing between the substances of the human body ("<i>res extensa</i>") and the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> or soul ("<i>res cogitans</i>"). This crucial distinction would be left unresolved and lead to what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>, since the two substances in the Cartesian system are independent of each other and irreducible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baruch_Spinoza_(1632–1677)"><span id="Baruch_Spinoza_.281632.E2.80.931677.29"></span>Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of Spinoza">Philosophy of Spinoza</a></div> <p>The philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> is a systematic, logical, rational philosophy developed in seventeenth-century <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tws9904_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9904-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws07dec212_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws07dec212-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws07dec211_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws07dec211-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spinoza's philosophy is a system of ideas constructed upon basic building blocks with an internal consistency with which he tried to answer life's major questions and in which he proposed that "God exists only philosophically."<sup id="cite_ref-tws07dec211_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws07dec211-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws908_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was heavily influenced by Descartes,<sup id="cite_ref-tws07dec114_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws07dec114-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a><sup id="cite_ref-tws908_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-tws07dec114_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws07dec114-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as theologians in the Jewish philosophical tradition such as <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tws07dec114_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws07dec114-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But his work was in many respects a departure from the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian-Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Christian-Islamic">Judeo-Christian-Islamic</a> tradition. Many of Spinoza's ideas continue to vex thinkers today and many of his principles, particularly regarding the <a href="/wiki/Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">emotions</a>, have implications for modern approaches to <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>. To this day, many important thinkers have found Spinoza's "geometrical method"<sup id="cite_ref-tws07dec211_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws07dec211-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> difficult to comprehend: <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a> admitted that he found this concept confusing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> His <i><a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i>, contains unresolved obscurities and has a forbidding mathematical structure modeled on Euclid's geometry.<sup id="cite_ref-tws908_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws908-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spinoza's philosophy attracted believers such as <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a><sup id="cite_ref-tws9903_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9903-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and much intellectual attention.<sup id="cite_ref-tws9902_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9902-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9910_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9910-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9901_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9901-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9908_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9908-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tws9906_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tws9906-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gottfried_Leibniz_(1646–1716)"><span id="Gottfried_Leibniz_.281646.E2.80.931716.29"></span>Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a></div> <p>Leibniz was the last major figure of seventeenth-century rationalism who contributed heavily to other fields such as <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>; he is also considered to be one of the last "universal geniuses".<sup id="cite_ref-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not develop his system, however, independently of these advances. Leibniz rejected Cartesian dualism and denied the existence of a material world. In Leibniz's view there are infinitely many simple substances, which he called "<a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">monads</a>" (which he derived directly from <a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a>). </p><p>Leibniz developed his theory of monads in response to both Descartes and <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a>, because the rejection of their visions forced him to arrive at his own solution. Monads are the fundamental unit of reality, according to Leibniz, constituting both inanimate and animate objects. These units of reality represent the universe, though they are not subject to the laws of causality or space (which he called "<a href="/wiki/Well-founded_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Well-founded phenomenon">well-founded phenomena</a>"). Leibniz, therefore, introduced his principle of <a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a> to account for apparent causality in the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Immanuel_Kant_(1724–1804)"><span id="Immanuel_Kant_.281724.E2.80.931804.29"></span>Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Immanuel_Kant" title="Category:Immanuel Kant">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.8em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Immanuel Kant"><img alt="Immanuel Kant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/200px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/300px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/400px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">Major works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to<wbr /> Any Future Metaphysics</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" title="What Is Enlightenment?">Answering the<wbr /> Question: What Is Enlightenment?</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysic_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Metaphysics of Morals">The Metaphysics of Morals</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_a_Supposed_Right_to_Tell_Lies_from_Benevolent_Motives" title="On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives">On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from<wbr /> Benevolent Motives</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_Postumum" title="Opus Postumum">Opus Postumum</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">Critical philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">Thing-in-itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">Schema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">Categorical imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">Hypothetical imperative</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_teleology" title="Kant's teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">J. G. Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">F. H. Jacobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border:none;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Immanuel_Kant" title="Category:Immanuel Kant">Category</a> • <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></div> <p>Kant is one of the central figures of modern <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and set the terms by which all subsequent thinkers have had to grapple. He argued that human perception structures natural laws, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to hold a major influence in contemporary thought, especially in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant named his brand of epistemology "<a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental Idealism">Transcendental Idealism</a>", and he first laid out these views in his famous work <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">The Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>. In it he argued that there were fundamental problems with both rationalist and empiricist dogma. To the rationalists he argued, broadly, that pure reason is flawed when it goes beyond its limits and claims to know those things that are necessarily beyond the realm of every possible experience: the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a>, free will, and the immortality of the human soul. Kant referred to these objects as "The Thing in Itself" and goes on to argue that their status as objects beyond all possible experience by definition means we cannot know them. To the empiricist, he argued that while it is correct that experience is fundamentally necessary for human knowledge, reason is necessary for processing that experience into coherent thought. He therefore concludes that both reason and experience are necessary for human knowledge. In the same way, Kant also argued that it was wrong to regard thought as mere analysis. "In Kant's views, <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a> concepts do exist, but if they are to lead to the amplification of knowledge, they must be brought into relation with empirical data".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_rationalism">Contemporary rationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Contemporary rationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rationalism has become a rarer label of philosophers today; rather many different kinds of specialised rationalisms are identified. For example, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a> has appropriated the terms "rationalist expressivism" and "rationalist pragmatism" as labels for aspects of his programme in <i>Articulating Reasons</i>, and identified "linguistic rationalism", the claim that the contents of propositions "are essentially what can serve as both premises and conclusions of inferences", as a key thesis of <a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Sellars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilfred Sellars">Wilfred Sellars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Outside of academic philosophy, some participants in the internet communities surrounding <a href="/wiki/LessWrong" title="LessWrong">LessWrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slate_Star_Codex" title="Slate Star Codex">Slate Star Codex</a> have described themselves as "rationalists" in reference to <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, rather than rationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term has also been used in this way by critics such as <a href="/wiki/Timnit_Gebru" title="Timnit Gebru">Timnit Gebru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rationalism was criticized by American psychologist <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> for being out of touch with reality. James also criticized rationalism for representing the universe as a closed system, which contrasts with his view that the universe is an open system.<sup id="cite_ref-pragmatism_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pragmatism-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proponents of <a href="/wiki/Emotional_choice_theory" title="Emotional choice theory">emotional choice theory</a> criticize rationalism by drawing on new findings from emotion research in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>. They point out that the rationalist paradigm is generally based on the assumption that <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> is a conscious and reflective process based on thoughts and beliefs. It presumes that people decide on the basis of calculation and deliberation. However, cumulative research in neuroscience suggests that only a small part of the brain's activities operate at the level of conscious reflection. The vast majority of its activities consist of unconscious appraisals and emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The significance of emotions in decision-making has generally been ignored by rationalism, according to these critics. Moreover, emotional choice theorists contend that the rationalist paradigm has difficulty incorporating emotions into its models, because it cannot account for the social nature of emotions. Even though emotions are felt by individuals, psychologists and sociologists have shown that emotions cannot be isolated from the social environment in which they arise. Emotions are inextricably intertwined with people's social norms and identities, which are typically outside the scope of standard rationalist accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emotional choice theory seeks to capture not only the social but also the physiological and dynamic character of emotions. It represents a unitary action model to organize, explain, and predict the ways in which emotions shape decision-making.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/17th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="17th-century philosophy">17th-century philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_choice_theory" title="Emotional choice theory">Emotional choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrationalism" title="Irrationalism">Irrationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noology" class="mw-redirect" title="Noology">Noology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity (science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancritical_rationalism" title="Pancritical rationalism">Pancritical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panrationalism" title="Panrationalism">Panrationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Philosophical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">Platonic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_expectations" title="Rational expectations">Rational expectations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_mysticism" title="Rational mysticism">Rational mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational realism">Rational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalist_International" title="Rationalist International">Rationalist International</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rationality_and_Power" title="Rationality and Power">Rationality and Power</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realistic_rationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Realistic rationalism">Realistic rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_rationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralistic rationalism">Pluralistic rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_rationalism" title="Theistic rationalism">Theistic rationalism</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopædia_Britannica:_Rationalism_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/492034/rationalism">"Rationalism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Britannica.com</a>. 28 May 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518105808/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/492034/rationalism">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rationalism&rft.pub=Britannica.com&rft.date=2023-05-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F492034%2Frationalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Audi_902-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_902_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_902_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Audi_902_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAudi2015" class="citation book cs1">Audi, Robert (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1107015057"><i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 902. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1107015057" title="Special:BookSources/1107015057"><bdi>1107015057</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=902&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=1107015057&rft.aulast=Audi&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fvid%3DISBN1107015057&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bourke_263-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bourke_263_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bourke_263_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bourke, Vernon J., "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-essay-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-essay_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> (1690), <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rationalism_vs._Empiricism-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rationalism_vs._Empiricism_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rationalism_vs._Empiricism_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/">"Rationalism vs. Empiricism"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929143915/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/">Archived</a> 2018-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Audi_771-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Audi_771_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Audi, Robert, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999, p. 771.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.isi.org/catalog/resource/view/id/678">Oakeshott, Michael,"Rationalism in Politics," <i>The Cambridge Journal</i> 1947, vol. 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180913150754/https://faculty.isi.org/catalog/resource/view/id/678">Archived</a> 2018-09-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usj.sagepub.com/content/43/5-6/863.abstract">Boyd, Richard, "The Value of Civility?," <i>Urban Studies Journal</i>, May 2006, vol. 43 (no. 5–6), pp. 863–878</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120401135541/http://usj.sagepub.com/content/43/5-6/863.abstract">Archived</a> 2012-04-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2013-01-13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.factcheck.org/spindetectors/about/"><i>FactCheck.org Mission Statement</i>, January 2020</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191102201015/https://www.factcheck.org/spindetectors/about/">Archived</a> 2019-11-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2020-01-01.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cottingham, John. 1984. <i>Rationalism</i>. Paladi/Granada.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lacey_286-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lacey_286_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lacey, A.R. (1996), <i>A Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, 1st edition, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976. 2nd edition, 1986. 3rd edition, Routledge, London, 1996. p. 286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sommers (2003), p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Intuition/Deduction_Thesis_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#2">The Intuition/Deduction Thesis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929143915/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#2">Archived</a> 2018-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1704, <i>New Essays on Human Understanding</i>, Preface, pp. 150–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Innate_Knowledge_Thesis-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Innate_Knowledge_Thesis_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Innate_Knowledge_Thesis_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#3">The Innate Knowledge Thesis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929143915/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#3">Archived</a> 2018-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Meno, 80d–e.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Innate_Concept_Thesis-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Innate_Concept_Thesis_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Innate_Concept_Thesis_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#4">The Innate Concept Thesis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929143915/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/#4">Archived</a> 2018-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCottingham1996" class="citation book cs1">Cottingham, J., ed. (1996) [1986]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/descartesmeditat00rend"><i>Meditations on First Philosophy With Selections from the Objections and Replies</i></a></span> (revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521558181" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521558181"><bdi>978-0521558181</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meditations+on+First+Philosophy+With+Selections+from+the+Objections+and+Replies&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0521558181&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdescartesmeditat00rend&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span> – The original <i>Meditations</i>, translated, in its entirety.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">René Descartes AT VII 37–38; CSM II 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1704, <i>New Essays on Human Understanding</i>, Preface, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Locke, <i>Concerning Human Understanding</i>, Book I, Ch. III, Par. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Epistemological_rationalism_in_modern_philosophies-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_modern_philosophies_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_modern_philosophies_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/rationalism">"rationalism | Definition, Types, History, Examples, & Descartes"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 28 May 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518105808/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/492034/rationalism">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=rationalism+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+Types%2C+History%2C+Examples%2C+%26+Descartes&rft.date=2023-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Frationalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epistemological_rationalism_in_ancient_philosophies_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/rationalism">"rationalism | Definition, Types, History, Examples, & Descartes | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. 28 May 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518105808/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/492034/rationalism">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=rationalism+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+Types%2C+History%2C+Examples%2C+%26+Descartes+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2023-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Frationalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tusculan_Disputations" class="mw-redirect" title="Tusculan Disputations">Tusculan Disputations</a></i>, 5.3.8–9 = <a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a> fr. 88 Wehrli, <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> 1.12, 8.8, <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> <i>VP</i> 58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by <a href="/wiki/C.J._de_Vogel" class="mw-redirect" title="C.J. de Vogel">C.J. de Vogel</a>, <i>Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism</i> (1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, <i>Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence</i> (2005), p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Modern English textbooks and translations prefer "Theory of Forms" to "Theory of Ideas," but the latter has a long and respected tradition starting with Cicero and continuing in German philosophy until present, and some English philosophers prefer this in English too. See W. D. Ross, Plato's Theory of Ideas (1951) and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophyprofessor.com/philosophies/platos-theory-of-forms.php">this</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927061811/http://www.philosophyprofessor.com/philosophies/platos-theory-of-forms.php">Archived</a> 2011-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> reference site.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name of this aspect of Plato's thought is not modern and has not been extracted from certain dialogues by modern scholars. The term was used at least as early as <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a>, who called it (Plato's) "Theory of Forms:" <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Πλάτων ἐν τῇ περὶ τῶν ἰδεῶν ὑπολήψει</span></span>...., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">"Plato". <i>Lives of Eminent Philosophers</i>. Vol. Book III Paragraph 15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plato&rft.btitle=Lives+of+Eminent+Philosophers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plato uses many different words for what is traditionally called <i>form</i> in English translations and <i>idea</i> in German and Latin translations (Cicero). These include <i>idéa</i>, <i>morphē</i>, <i>eîdos</i>, and <i>parádeigma</i>, but also <i>génos</i>, <i>phýsis</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousía</a></i>. He also uses expressions such as <i>to x auto</i>, "the x itself" or <i>kath' auto</i> "in itself." See Christian Schäfer: <i>Idee/Form/Gestalt/Wesen</i>, in <i>Platon-Lexikon</i>, Darmstadt 2007, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Forms (usually given a capital F) were properties or essences of things, treated as non-material abstract, but substantial, entities. They were eternal, changeless, supremely real, and independent of ordinary objects that had their being and properties by 'participating' in them.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophyprofessor.com/philosophies/platos-theory-of-forms.php">Plato's theory of forms (or ideas)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927061811/http://www.philosophyprofessor.com/philosophies/platos-theory-of-forms.php">Archived</a> 2011-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzanne" class="citation web cs1">Suzanne, Bernard F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato-dialogues.org/faq/faq009.htm">"Plato FAQ: "Let no one ignorant of geometry enter"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>plato-dialogues.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130519153541/http://plato-dialogues.org/faq/faq009.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-05-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=plato-dialogues.org&rft.atitle=Plato+FAQ%3A+%22Let+no+one+ignorant+of+geometry+enter%22&rft.aulast=Suzanne&rft.aufirst=Bernard+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato-dialogues.org%2Ffaq%2Ffaq009.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i>Prior Analytics</i>, 24b18–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#SynSemSen">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#SynSemSen">Archived</a> 2018-08-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: <i>Ancient Logic</i> Aristotle Non-Modal Syllogistic.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#ModLog">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180828102117/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#ModLog">Archived</a> 2018-08-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: <i>Ancient Logic</i> Aristotle Modal Logic.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heckethorn_2011_p._139-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heckethorn_2011_p._139_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeckethorn2011" class="citation book cs1">Heckethorn, C.W. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ta-GttanhRYC&pg=PA139"><i>The Secret Societies of All Ages & Countries (Two Volumes in One)</i></a>. Cosimo Classics. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61640-555-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61640-555-7"><bdi>978-1-61640-555-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230211004210/https://books.google.com/books?id=ta-GttanhRYC&pg=PA139">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+Societies+of+All+Ages+%26+Countries+%28Two+Volumes+in+One%29&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Cosimo+Classics&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-61640-555-7&rft.aulast=Heckethorn&rft.aufirst=C.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dta-GttanhRYC%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gill-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gill_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill2009" class="citation book cs1">Gill, John (2009). <i>Andalucía : a cultural history</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 108–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195376104" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195376104"><bdi>978-0195376104</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Andaluc%C3%ADa+%3A+a+cultural+history&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=108-110&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0195376104&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellarmine1902" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Bellarmine, Robert</a> (1902). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Sermons from the Latins/Sermon 26"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sermons_from_the_Latins/Sermon_26">"Low Sunday: Rationalism" </a></span>. <i>Sermons from the Latins</i>. Benziger Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Low+Sunday%3A+Rationalism&rft.btitle=Sermons+from+the+Latins&rft.pub=Benziger+Brothers&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Bellarmine&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey94E3sOMA0C&pg=PA516"><i>History of western philosophy</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231018123108/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey94E3sOMA0C&pg=PA516">Archived</a> 2023-10-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> pp. 511, 516–517</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heidegger [1938] (2002) p. 76 "Descartes... that which he himself founded... modern (and that means, at the same time, Western) metaphysics."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Watson_(philosopher)" title="Richard Watson (philosopher)">Watson, Richard A.</a> (31 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes">"René Descartes"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507222658/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/158787/Rene-Descartes">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ren%C3%A9+Descartes&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online.+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Inc&rft.date=2012-03-31&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F158787%2FRene-Descartes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws9904-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9904_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLisa_Montanarelli_(book_reviewer)2006" class="citation news cs1">Lisa Montanarelli (book reviewer) (January 8, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/01/08/RVGO9GEOKH1.DTL">"Spinoza stymies 'God's attorney' – Stewart argues the secular world was at stake in Leibniz face off"</a>. <i>San Francisco Chronicle</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090903233734/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/01/08/RVGO9GEOKH1.DTL">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-09-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Spinoza+stymies+%27God%27s+attorney%27+%E2%80%93+Stewart+argues+the+secular+world+was+at+stake+in+Leibniz+face+off&rft.date=2006-01-08&rft.au=Lisa+Montanarelli+%28book+reviewer%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ff%3D%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F01%2F08%2FRVGO9GEOKH1.DTL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws07dec212-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws07dec212_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelley_L._Ross1999" class="citation web cs1">Kelley L. Ross (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friesian.com/spinoza.htm">"Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)"</a>. History of Philosophy As I See It. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104193706/http://friesian.com/spinoza.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-01-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-07</span></span>. <q>While for Spinoza all is God and all is Nature, the active/passive dualism enables us to restore, if we wish, something more like the traditional terms. Natura Naturans is the most God-like side of God, eternal, unchanging, and invisible, while Natura Naturata is the most Nature-like side of God, transient, changing, and visible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Baruch+Spinoza+%281632%E2%80%931677%29&rft.pub=History+of+Philosophy+As+I+See+It&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Kelley+L.+Ross&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.friesian.com%2Fspinoza.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws07dec211-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws07dec211_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws07dec211_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws07dec211_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_Gottlieb1999" class="citation news cs1">Anthony Gottlieb (July 18, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.times.com/books/99/07/18/reviews/990718.18gottlit.html">"God Exists, Philosophically"</a>. The New York Times: Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231018123108/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/18/reviews/990718.18gottlit.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-10-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-07</span></span>. <q>Spinoza, a Dutch Jewish thinker of the 17th century, not only preached a philosophy of tolerance and benevolence but actually succeeded in living it. He was reviled in his own day and long afterward for his supposed atheism, yet even his enemies were forced to admit that he lived a saintly life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=God+Exists%2C+Philosophically&rft.date=1999-07-18&rft.au=Anthony+Gottlieb&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.times.com%2Fbooks%2F99%2F07%2F18%2Freviews%2F990718.18gottlit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws908-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws908_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_Gottlieb2009" class="citation news cs1">Anthony Gottlieb (2009-09-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/18/reviews/990718.18gottlit.html">"God Exists, Philosophically (review of "Spinoza: A Life" by Steven Nadler)"</a>. The New York Times – Books. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090417015246/http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/18/reviews/990718.18gottlit.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-04-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=God+Exists%2C+Philosophically+%28review+of+%22Spinoza%3A+A+Life%22+by+Steven+Nadler%29&rft.date=2009-09-07&rft.au=Anthony+Gottlieb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F99%2F07%2F18%2Freviews%2F990718.18gottlit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws07dec114-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tws07dec114_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws07dec114_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tws07dec114_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_LeBuffe_(book_reviewer)2006" class="citation news cs1">Michael LeBuffe (book reviewer) (2006-11-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110615071049/http://ndpr.nd.edu/review.cfm?id=8004">"Spinoza's Ethics: An Introduction, by Steven Nadler"</a>. University of Notre Dame. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ndpr.nd.edu/review.cfm?id=8004">the original</a> on 2011-06-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-07</span></span>. <q>Spinoza's Ethics is a recent addition to Cambridge's Introductions to Key Philosophical Texts, a series developed for the purpose of helping readers with no specific background knowledge to begin the study of important works of Western philosophy...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Spinoza%27s+Ethics%3A+An+Introduction%2C+by+Steven+Nadler&rft.date=2006-11-05&rft.au=Michael+LeBuffe+%28book+reviewer%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fndpr.nd.edu%2Freview.cfm%3Fid%3D8004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws9903-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9903_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B1EFC3E54167A93C7AB178FD85F4D8285F9">"Einstein Believes in "Spinoza's God"; Scientist Defines His Faith in Reply, to Cablegram From Rabbi Here. Sees a Divine Order But Says Its Ruler Is Not Concerned "Wit Fates and Actions of Human Beings."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. April 25, 1929. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513034043/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B1EFC3E54167A93C7AB178FD85F4D8285F9">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-05-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Einstein+Believes+in+%22Spinoza%27s+God%22%3B+Scientist+Defines+His+Faith+in+Reply%2C+to+Cablegram+From+Rabbi+Here.+Sees+a+Divine+Order+But+Says+Its+Ruler+Is+Not+Concerned+%22Wit+Fates+and+Actions+of+Human+Beings.%22&rft.date=1929-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF10B1EFC3E54167A93C7AB178FD85F4D8285F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws9902-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9902_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchison1932" class="citation news cs1">Hutchison, Percy (November 20, 1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40A14F83A5513738DDDA90A94D9415B828FF1D3">"Spinoza, "God-Intoxicated Man"; Three Books Which Mark the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Philosopher's Birth 'Blessed Spinoza. A Biography'. By Lewis Browne. 319 pp. New York: Macmillan. 'Spinoza. Liberator of God and Man'. By Benjamin De Casseres, 145 pp. New York: E. Wickham Sweetland. 'Spinoza'. By Frederick Kettner. Introduction by Nicholas Roerich, New Era Library. 255 pp. New York: Roerich Museum Press. 'Spinoza'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100326014329/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40A14F83A5513738DDDA90A94D9415B828FF1D3">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Spinoza%2C+%22God-Intoxicated+Man%22%3B+Three+Books+Which+Mark+the+Three+Hundredth+Anniversary+of+the+Philosopher%27s+Birth+%27Blessed+Spinoza.+A+Biography%27.+By+Lewis+Browne.+319+pp.+New+York%3A+Macmillan.+%27Spinoza.+Liberator+of+God+and+Man%27.+By+Benjamin+De+Casseres%2C+145+pp.+New+York%3A+E.+Wickham+Sweetland.+%27Spinoza%27.+By+Frederick+Kettner.+Introduction+by+Nicholas+Roerich%2C+New+Era+Library.+255+pp.+New+York%3A+Roerich+Museum+Press.+%27Spinoza%27&rft.date=1932-11-20&rft.aulast=Hutchison&rft.aufirst=Percy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF40A14F83A5513738DDDA90A94D9415B828FF1D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws9910-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9910_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D1EFF395C147A93C3A81789D95F438285F9">"Spinoza's First Biography Is Recovered; The Oldest Biography of Spinoza Edited with Translations, Introduction, Annotations, &c., by A. Wolf. 196 pp. New York: Lincoln Macveagh. The Dial Press"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. December 11, 1927. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100326014335/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D1EFF395C147A93C3A81789D95F438285F9">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Spinoza%27s+First+Biography+Is+Recovered%3B+The+Oldest+Biography+of+Spinoza+Edited+with+Translations%2C+Introduction%2C+Annotations%2C+%26c.%2C+by+A.+Wolf.+196+pp.+New+York%3A+Lincoln+Macveagh.+The+Dial+Press.&rft.date=1927-12-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF60D1EFF395C147A93C3A81789D95F438285F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws9901-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9901_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin_Edman1934" class="citation news cs1">Irwin Edman (July 22, 1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0610FC395D13728DDDAB0A94DF405B848FF1D3">"The Unique and Powerful Vision of Baruch Spinoza; Professor Wolfson's Long-Awaited Book Is a Work of Illuminating Scholarship. (Book review) 'The Philosophy of Spinoza. By Henry Austryn Wolfson"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100326020800/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0610FC395D13728DDDAB0A94DF405B848FF1D3">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Unique+and+Powerful+Vision+of+Baruch+Spinoza%3B+Professor+Wolfson%27s+Long-Awaited+Book+Is+a+Work+of+Illuminating+Scholarship.+%28Book+review%29+%27The+Philosophy+of+Spinoza.+By+Henry+Austryn+Wolfson&rft.date=1934-07-22&rft.au=Irwin+Edman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DFB0610FC395D13728DDDAB0A94DF405B848FF1D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws9908-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9908_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCummings1929" class="citation news cs1">Cummings, M E (September 8, 1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100324043102/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/370934682.html?dids=370934682:370934682&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+08%2C+1929&author=&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=ROTH+EVALUATES+SPINOZA&pqatl=google">"Roth Evaluates Spinoza"</a>. <i>Los Angeles Times</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/370934682.html?dids=370934682:370934682&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+08%2C+1929&author=&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=ROTH+EVALUATES+SPINOZA&pqatl=google">the original</a> on 2010-03-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Roth+Evaluates+Spinoza&rft.date=1929-09-08&rft.aulast=Cummings&rft.aufirst=M+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpqasb.pqarchiver.com%2Flatimes%2Faccess%2F370934682.html%3Fdids%3D370934682%3A370934682%26FMT%3DABS%26FMTS%3DABS%3AAI%26type%3Dhistoric%26date%3DSep%2B08%252C%2B1929%26author%3D%26pub%3DLos%2BAngeles%2BTimes%26desc%3DROTH%2BEVALUATES%2BSPINOZA%26pqatl%3Dgoogle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tws9906-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tws9906_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSocial_News_Books1932" class="citation news cs1">Social News Books (November 25, 1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D13F6355516738DDDAC0A94D9415B828FF1D3">"Tribute to Spinoza Paid by Educators; Dr. Robinson Extols Character of Philosopher, 'True to the Eternal Light Within Him.' Hailed as 'Great Rebel'; De Casseres Stresses Individualism of Man Whose Tercentenary Is Celebrated at Meeting"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100326020755/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D13F6355516738DDDAC0A94D9415B828FF1D3">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Tribute+to+Spinoza+Paid+by+Educators%3B+Dr.+Robinson+Extols+Character+of+Philosopher%2C+%27True+to+the+Eternal+Light+Within+Him.%27+Hailed+as+%27Great+Rebel%27%3B+De+Casseres+Stresses+Individualism+of+Man+Whose+Tercentenary+Is+Celebrated+at+Meeting.&rft.date=1932-11-25&rft.au=Social+News+Books&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF30D13F6355516738DDDAC0A94D9415B828FF1D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz/">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200805133308/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz/">Archived</a> 2020-08-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">"Immanuel Kant (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)"</a>. Plato.stanford.edu. 20 May 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123355/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-01-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant+%28Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy%29&rft.pub=Plato.stanford.edu&rft.date=2010-05-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121227102857/http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/rationalism.html">"Rationalism"</a>. <i>abyss.uoregon.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/rationalism.html">the original</a> on 2012-12-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-05-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=abyss.uoregon.edu&rft.atitle=Rationalism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabyss.uoregon.edu%2F~js%2Fglossary%2Frationalism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Articulating reasons</i>, 2000. Harvard University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lesswrong.com/tag/rationalist-movement">"Rationalist Movement – LessWrong"</a>. <i>www.lesswrong.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230617203001/https://www.lesswrong.com/tag/rationalist-movement">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lesswrong.com&rft.atitle=Rationalist+Movement+%E2%80%93+LessWrong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lesswrong.com%2Ftag%2Frationalist-movement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetz2021" class="citation news cs1">Metz, Cade (2021-02-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/13/technology/slate-star-codex-rationalists.html">"Silicon Valley's Safe Space"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420171731/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/13/technology/slate-star-codex-rationalists.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Silicon+Valley%27s+Safe+Space&rft.date=2021-02-13&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Metz&rft.aufirst=Cade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2021%2F02%2F13%2Ftechnology%2Fslate-star-codex-rationalists.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YDbyDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Rationalist's Guide to the Galaxy: Superintelligent AI and the Geeks Who Are Trying to Save Humanity's Future</i></a>. Orion. 13 June 2019. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781474608800" title="Special:BookSources/9781474608800"><bdi>9781474608800</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230518113258/https://books.google.com/books?id=YDbyDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rationalist%27s+Guide+to+the+Galaxy%3A+Superintelligent+AI+and+the+Geeks+Who+Are+Trying+to+Save+Humanity%27s+Future&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2019-06-13&rft.isbn=9781474608800&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYDbyDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://washingtonspectator.org/understanding-tescreal-silicon-valleys-rightward-turn/">"The Wide Angle: Understanding TESCREAL — Silicon Valley's Rightward Turn"</a>. May 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230606223259/https://washingtonspectator.org/understanding-tescreal-silicon-valleys-rightward-turn/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Wide+Angle%3A+Understanding+TESCREAL+%E2%80%94+Silicon+Valley%27s+Rightward+Turn&rft.date=2023-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwashingtonspectator.org%2Funderstanding-tescreal-silicon-valleys-rightward-turn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pragmatism-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pragmatism_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1906" class="citation speech cs1">James, William (November 1906). <i>The Present Dilemma in Philosophy</i> (Speech). Lowell Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Present+Dilemma+in+Philosophy&rft.place=Lowell+Institute&rft.date=1906-11&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, David D. Franks (2014), "Emotions and Neurosociology," in Jan E. Stets and Jonathan H. Turner, eds., <i>Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions</i>, vol. 2. New York: Springer, p. 267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Arlie Russell Hochschild (2012), <i>The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling</i>, 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Robin Markwica (2018), <i>Emotional Choices: How the Logic of Affect Shapes Coercive Diplomacy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Primary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes, René</a> (1637), <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Method" title="Discourse on the Method">Discourse on the Method</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza, Baruch</a> (1677), <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza)">Ethics</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz, Gottfried</a> (1714), <i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant, Immanuel</a> (1781/1787), <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary">Secondary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Secondary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Audi, Robert</a> (ed., 1999), <i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, Cambridge, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairdWalter_Kaufmann2008" class="citation book cs1">Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0131585911" title="Special:BookSources/978-0131585911"><bdi>978-0131585911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0131585911&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&rft.au=Walter+Kaufmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Blackburn, Simon</a> (1996), <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, Oxford, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_J._Bourke" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon J. Bourke">Bourke, Vernon J.</a> (1962), "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962).</li> <li>Douglas, Alexander X.: <i>Spinoza and Dutch Cartesianism: Philosophy and Theology</i>. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Fischer" title="Louis Fischer">Fischer, Louis</a> (1997). <i>The Life of Mahatma Gandhi</i>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. pp. 306–307. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0006388876" title="Special:BookSources/0006388876"><bdi>0006388876</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Mahatma+Gandhi&rft.pages=306-307&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0006388876&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Förster, Eckart; Melamed, Yitzhak Y. (eds.): <i>Spinoza and <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a></i>. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012)</li> <li>Fraenkel, Carlos; Perinetti, Dario; Smith, Justin E. H. (eds.): <i>The Rationalists: Between Tradition and Innovation</i>. (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011)</li> <li>Hampshire, Stuart: <i>Spinoza and Spinozism</i>. (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005)</li> <li>Huenemann, Charles; Gennaro, Rocco J. (eds.): <i>New Essays on the Rationalists</i>. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999)</li> <li>Lacey, A.R. (1996), <i>A Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, 1st edition, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976. 2nd edition, 1986. 3rd edition, Routledge, London, 1996.</li> <li>Loeb, Louis E.: <i>From Descartes to Hume: Continental Metaphysics and the Development of Modern Philosophy</i>. (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981)</li> <li>Nyden-Bullock, Tammy: <i>Spinoza's Radical Cartesian Mind</i>. (Continuum, 2007)</li> <li>Pereboom, Derk (ed.): <i>The Rationalists: Critical Essays on Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz</i>. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999)</li> <li>Phemister, Pauline: <i>The Rationalists: Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz</i>. (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_D._Runes" title="Dagobert D. Runes">Runes, Dagobert D.</a> (ed., 1962), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ.</li> <li>Strazzoni, Andrea: <i>Dutch Cartesianism and the Birth of Philosophy of Science: A Reappraisal of the Function of Philosophy from Regius to 's Gravesande, 1640–1750</i>. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2018)</li> <li>Verbeek, Theo: <i>Descartes and the Dutch: Early Reactions to Cartesian Philosophy, 1637–1650</i>. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rationalism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Rationalism">Rationalism</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Rationalism" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Rationalism">Rationalism</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/">"Rationalism vs. Empiricism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rationalism+vs.+Empiricism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frationalism-empiricism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/rationalism">Rationalism</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2382">Rationalism</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoman" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Homan, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/cont-rat">"Continental Rationalism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Continental+Rationalism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Homan&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fcont-rat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLennonDea" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lennon, Thomas M.; Dea, Shannon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/continental-rationalism/">"Continental Rationalism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Continental+Rationalism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Lennon&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft.au=Dea%2C+Shannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcontinental-rationalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>John F. Hurst (1867), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19397">History of Rationalism Embracing a Survey of the Present State of Protestant Theology</a></i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a 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title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive 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href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a 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of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" 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civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Catholic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Template:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Template talk:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_philosophy_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic philosophy footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Catholic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Catholic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_price" title="Just price">Just price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory#Catholic_doctrine" title="Just war theory">Just war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_probabilism" title="Catholic probabilism">Probabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law#Catholic_natural_law_jurisprudence" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_personalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic personalism">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">Theological virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/70px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/105px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg/140px-Gentile_da_Fabriano_052.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="963" /></span></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/70px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/105px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg/140px-JohnDunsScotus_-_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="479" /></span></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/70px-William_of_Ockham.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/105px-William_of_Ockham.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/William_of_Ockham.png/140px-William_of_Ockham.png 2x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="361" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">Universals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">Augustinian realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotistic_realism" title="Scotistic realism">Scotistic realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Theological intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntarism_(philosophy)" title="Voluntarism (philosophy)">Theological voluntarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Gassendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Malebranche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Occam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Rahner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Ratzinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Scheler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Wojtyła</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actus_essendi" title="Actus essendi">Actus Essendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actus_primus" title="Actus primus">Actus primus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actus_purus" title="Actus purus">Actus purus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aevum" title="Aevum">Aevum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinian values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">Cardinal virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Cartesian dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehellenization_of_Christianity" title="Dehellenization of Christianity">Dehellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differentia" title="Differentia">Differentia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">Disputation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">Divine illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_truth" title="Double truth">Double truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">Evil demon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_distinction" title="Formal distinction">Formal distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_angel" title="Guardian angel">Guardian angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_many_angels_can_dance_on_the_head_of_a_pin%3F" title="How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?">Head of a pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_unius_libri" title="Homo unius libri">Homo unius libri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infused_righteousness" title="Infused righteousness">Infused righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memento_mori#In_Europe_from_the_Medieval_era_to_the_Victorian_era" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_axiom" title="Peripatetic axiom">Peripatetic axiom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Principle of double effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Quinque viae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment_(Scheler)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ressentiment (Scheler)">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rota_Fortunae" title="Rota Fortunae">Rota Fortunae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratification_of_emotional_life_(Scheler)" title="Stratification of emotional life (Scheler)">Stratification of emotional life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Univocity_of_being" title="Univocity of being">Univocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church" title="Doctor of the Church">Doctor of the Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a 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