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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Collapse of Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migration_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Migration Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migration_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Eastern Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Rise of Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birth_of_the_Latin_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_of_the_Latin_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Birth of the Latin West</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_of_the_Latin_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-700–850" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#700–850"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>700–850</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-700–850-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.3</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frankish_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frankish_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.4</span> <span>Frankish Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frankish_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feudalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feudalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.5</span> <span>Feudalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feudalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viking_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viking_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Viking Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viking_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bulgaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bulgaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Bulgaria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bulgaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kievan_Rus'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kievan_Rus'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.2</span> <span>Kievan Rus'</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kievan_Rus'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission_of_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission_of_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Transmission of learning</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transmission_of_learning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Transmission of learning subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Transmission_of_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carolingian_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carolingian_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Carolingian Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carolingian_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantium's_golden_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantium's_golden_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Byzantium's golden age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantium's_golden_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Islamic learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monasteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Monasteries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity_West_and_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity_West_and_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Christianity West and East</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Christianity_West_and_East-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Christianity West and East subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Christianity_West_and_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianization_of_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianization_of_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Christianization of the West</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianization_of_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_in_1000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_in_1000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Europe in 1000</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_in_1000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Middle East</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Middle East subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Islam_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Islam_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Rise of Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Islam_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Islamic expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caliphs_and_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caliphs_and_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Caliphs and empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caliphs_and_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Timeline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginning_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginning_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Beginning years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginning_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ending_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ending_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Ending years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ending_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Early Middle Ages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="العصور الوسطى المبكرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصور الوسطى المبكرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_Edat_Meya" title="Alta Edat Meya – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Alta Edat Meya" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_Ed%C3%A1_Media" title="Alta Edá Media – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alta Edá Media" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A1-k%C3%AE_Tiong-s%C3%A8-k%C3%AD" title="Chá-kî Tiong-sè-kí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chá-kî Tiong-sè-kí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Ранно средновековие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ранно средновековие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_edat_mitjana" title="Alta edat mitjana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alta edat mitjana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ran%C3%BD_st%C5%99edov%C4%9Bk" title="Raný středověk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Raný středověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oesoedd_Canol_Cynnar" title="Oesoedd Canol Cynnar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Oesoedd Canol Cynnar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidlig_middelalder" title="Tidlig middelalder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tidlig middelalder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%BChmittelalter" title="Frühmittelalter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Frühmittelalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varakeskaeg" title="Varakeskaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Varakeskaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Πρώιμος Μεσαίωνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρώιμος Μεσαίωνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_Edad_Media" title="Alta Edad Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alta Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frua_Mezepoko" title="Frua Mezepoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Frua Mezepoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goi_Erdi_Aroa" title="Goi Erdi Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Goi Erdi Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86" title="قرون وسطای آغازین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قرون وسطای آغازین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haut_Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Haut Moyen Âge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Haut Moyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iere_Midsiuwen" title="Iere Midsiuwen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Iere Midsiuwen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alte_et%C3%A2t_di_mie%C3%A7" title="Alte etât di mieç – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Alte etât di mieç" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Mhe%C3%A1naois_Luath" title="An Mheánaois Luath – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Mheánaois Luath" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_Idade_Media" title="Alta Idade Media – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alta Idade Media" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0" title="중세 전기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 전기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A1%D5%B2_%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Վաղ միջնադար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վաղ միջնադար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Pertengahan_Awal" title="Abad Pertengahan Awal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Pertengahan Awal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievie_temporan" title="Medievie temporan – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Medievie temporan" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rmi%C3%B0aldir" title="Ármiðaldir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ármiðaldir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alto_Medioevo" title="Alto Medioevo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alto Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ראשית ימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ראשית ימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Ерте ортағасыр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ерте ортағасыр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankstyvieji_viduram%C5%BEiai" title="Ankstyvieji viduramžiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ankstyvieji viduramžiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt_Medioevo" title="Alt Medioevo – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Alt Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Ран среден век – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ран среден век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaik_Patangahan_Awal" title="Abaik Patangahan Awal – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Abaik Patangahan Awal" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%8D%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D0%B5" title="Дундад зууны эхэн үе – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дундад зууны эхэн үе" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vroege_middeleeuwen" title="Vroege middeleeuwen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vroege middeleeuwen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E5%89%8D%E6%9C%9F" title="中世前期 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世前期" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidlig_middelalder" title="Tidlig middelalder – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tidlig middelalder" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidleg_mellomalder" title="Tidleg mellomalder – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tidleg mellomalder" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauta_Edat_Mejana" title="Nauta Edat Mejana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Nauta Edat Mejana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%DA%93%D9%8A_%D9%BE%DA%93%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87" title="د منځنيو پېړيو لومړي پړاوونه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د منځنيو پېړيو لومړي پړاوونه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wczesne_%C5%9Bredniowiecze" title="Wczesne średniowiecze – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wczesne średniowiecze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_M%C3%A9dia#Alta_Idade_Média" title="Idade Média – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Idade Média" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evul_Mediu_Timpuriu" title="Evul Mediu Timpuriu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evul Mediu Timpuriu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temp_medieval_tempriv" title="Temp medieval tempriv – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Temp medieval tempriv" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5" title="Раннее Средневековье – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Раннее Средневековье" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edade_M%C3%A8dia_Arta" title="Edade Mèdia Arta – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Edade Mèdia Arta" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesjeta_e_hershme" title="Mesjeta e hershme – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mesjeta e hershme" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Early Middle Ages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%BE%D9%88_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="اونداھو دور – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اونداھو دور" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%8Dasn%C3%BD_stredovek" title="Včasný stredovek – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Včasný stredovek" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Рани средњи век – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рани средњи век" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_srednji_vijek" title="Rani srednji vijek – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rani srednji vijek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varhaiskeskiaika" title="Varhaiskeskiaika – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Varhaiskeskiaika" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99" title="สมัยกลางตอนต้น – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยกลางตอนต้น" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erken_Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F" title="Erken Orta Çağ – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Erken Orta Çağ" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%94_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F" title="Раннє середньовіччя – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Раннє середньовіччя" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C6%A1_k%E1%BB%B3_Trung_C%E1%BB%95" title="Sơ kỳ Trung Cổ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sơ kỳ Trung Cổ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E5%89%8D%E6%9C%9F" title="中世纪前期 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中世纪前期" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q202763#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of European history</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scholarly journal, see <a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval_Europe_(journal)" title="Early Medieval Europe (journal)">Early Medieval Europe (journal)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Early Middle Ages">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Early+Middle+Ages%22">"Early Middle Ages"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Early+Middle+Ages%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Early+Middle+Ages%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Early+Middle+Ages%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Early+Middle+Ages%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Early+Middle+Ages%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg/220px-Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg/330px-Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg/440px-Codex_Aureus_Sankt_Emmeram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Treasure_binding" title="Treasure binding">jewelled cover</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Aureus_of_St._Emmeram" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram">Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 870</span>, a Carolingian <a href="/wiki/Gospel_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospel book">Gospel book</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Early Middle Ages</b> (or <b>early medieval period</b>), sometimes controversially referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a>, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th to the 10th century.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They marked the start of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">European history</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, and preceding the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 11th to 14th centuries). The alternative term <i><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity#Terminology" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a></i>, for the early part of the period, emphasizes elements of continuity with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, while <i>Early Middle Ages</i> is used to emphasize developments characteristic of the earlier medieval period. </p><p>The period saw a continuation of trends evident since late <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Population_decline" title="Population decline">population decline</a>, especially in urban centres, a decline of trade, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">a small rise in average temperatures in the North Atlantic region</a> and <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">increased migration</a>. In the 19th century the Early Middle Ages were often labelled the <i>Dark Ages</i>, a characterization based on the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time. The term is rarely used by academics today.<sup id="cite_ref-Mommsen226227_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mommsen226227-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eastern Roman Empire, or <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, survived, though in the 7th century the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> conquered the southern part of the Roman territory. </p><p>Many of the listed trends reversed later in the period. In 800, the title of <i><a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">Emperor</a></i> was revived in Western Europe with <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> greatly affected later European social structure and history. Europe experienced a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Feudal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal system">feudal system</a>, which adopted such innovations as <a href="/wiki/Three-field_system" title="Three-field system">three-field planting</a> and the heavy plough. <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Barbarian migration</a> stabilized in much of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, although the <a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Viking expansion</a> greatly affected <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collapse_of_Rome">Collapse of Rome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Collapse of Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></div> <p>Starting in the 2nd century, various indicators of Roman civilization began to decline, including <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, seaborne commerce, and population. <a href="/wiki/Archaeologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologists">Archaeologists</a> have identified only 40 percent as many <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> shipwrecks from the 3rd century as from the first.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the population of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> during the period from 150 to 400 suggest a fall from 65 million to 50 million, a decline of more than 20 percent. Some scholars have connected this de-population to the <a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age" title="Late Antique Little Ice Age">Dark Ages Cold Period</a> (300–700), when a decrease in global temperatures impaired agricultural yields.<sup id="cite_ref-beberglund_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beberglund-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg/230px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg/345px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg/460px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1586" data-file-height="2327" /></a><figcaption>Replica of the <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo_helmet" title="Sutton Hoo helmet">Sutton Hoo helmet</a>; the original was buried with an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> leader, probably <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_East_Anglia" title="List of monarchs of East Anglia">King</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A6dwald_of_East_Anglia" title="Rædwald of East Anglia">Rædwald of East Anglia</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 620–625 CE</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Early in the 3rd century <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> migrated south from <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and reached the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, creating formidable confederations which opposed the local <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Dacia" title="Dacia">Dacia</a> (present-day Romania) and on the steppes north of the Black Sea the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, a Germanic people, established at least two kingdoms: <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Therving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greuthungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Greuthungs">Greuthung</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> in 372–375 ended the history of these kingdoms. The Huns, a confederation of central Asian tribes, founded an empire. They had mastered the difficult art of shooting composite <a href="/wiki/Recurve_bow" title="Recurve bow">recurve</a> <a href="/wiki/Bow_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (weapon)">bows</a> from horseback. The Goths sought refuge in Roman territory (376), agreeing to enter the Empire as unarmed settlers. However many bribed the Danube border-guards into allowing them to bring their weapons. </p><p>The discipline and organization of a <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legion</a> made it a superb fighting unit. The Romans preferred infantry to cavalry because infantry could be trained to retain the formation in combat, while cavalry tended to scatter when faced with opposition. While a barbarian army could be raised and inspired by the promise of plunder, the legions required a central government and taxation to pay for salaries, constant training, equipment, and food. The decline in agricultural and economic activity reduced the empire's taxable income and thus its ability to maintain a professional army to defend itself from external threats. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba">The Barbarians' Invasions</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/300px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/450px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png/600px-Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1382" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The destruction of the Gothic kingdoms by the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> in 372–375 triggered the Germanic migrations of the 5th century. The <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> captured and looted the city of Rome in 410; the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> followed suit in 455 <hr /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <dl><dt>Germanic tribes</dt></dl> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fefe00; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#e7772d; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> (100.000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#c30952; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ba01fc; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> (200.000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff53e7; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a> (100.000)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#01aa45; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0c0fd0; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> (80.000)</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <dl><dt>Roman Empire</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f7d6ab; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#d0c09f; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Empire</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></div></div></div></div></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(376%E2%80%93382)" title="Gothic War (376–382)">Gothic War (376–382)</a>, the Goths revolted and confronted the <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">main Roman army</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">Battle of Adrianople</a> (378). By this time, the distinction in the Roman army between Roman regulars and barbarian <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxiliaries</a> had broken down, and the Roman army was composed mainly of barbarians and soldiers recruited for a single campaign. The general decline in discipline also led to the use of smaller shields and lighter weaponry.<sup id="cite_ref-Eisenberg_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisenberg-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not wanting to share the glory, Eastern Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> ordered an attack on the <a href="/wiki/Thervings" class="mw-redirect" title="Thervings">Therving</a> infantry under <a href="/wiki/Fritigern" title="Fritigern">Fritigern</a> without waiting for Western Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a>, who was on the way with reinforcements. While the Romans were fully engaged, the Greuthung cavalry arrived. Only one-third of the Roman army managed to escape. This represented the most shattering defeat that the Romans had suffered since the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Battle of Cannae</a> (216 BC), according to the Roman military writer <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The core army of the Eastern Roman Empire was destroyed, Valens was killed, and the Goths were freed to lay waste to the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, including the armories along the Danube. As <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> comments, "The Romans, who so coolly and so concisely mention the acts of <i>justice</i> which were exercised by the legions, reserve their compassion and their eloquence for their own sufferings, when the provinces were invaded and desolated by the arms of the successful Barbarians."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The empire lacked the resources, and perhaps the will, to reconstruct the professional mobile army destroyed at Adrianople, so it had to rely on barbarian armies to fight for it. The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> succeeded in buying off the Goths with tribute. The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> proved less fortunate. <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, the western empire's half-Vandal military commander, stripped the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> frontier of troops to fend off invasions of Italy by the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> in 402–03 and by other Goths in 406–07. </p><p>Fleeing before the advance of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suebi" title="Suebi">Suebi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a> launched an attack across the frozen Rhine near <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>; on 31 December 406, the frontier gave way and these tribes surged into <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a>. There soon followed the <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a> and bands of the <a href="/wiki/Alamanni" class="mw-redirect" title="Alamanni">Alamanni</a>. In the fit of anti-barbarian hysteria which followed, the Western Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> had Stilicho summarily beheaded (408). Stilicho submitted his neck, "with a firmness not unworthy of the <a href="/wiki/Last_of_the_Romans" title="Last of the Romans">last of the Roman generals</a>", wrote Gibbon. Honorius was left with only worthless courtiers to advise him. In 410, the Visigoths led by <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric I</a> <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">captured the city of Rome</a> and for three days fire and slaughter ensued as bodies filled the streets, palaces were stripped of their valuables, and the invaders interrogated and tortured those citizens thought to have hidden wealth. As newly converted Christians, the Goths respected church property, but those who found sanctuary in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a> and in other churches were the fortunate few. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Migration_Period">Migration Period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Migration Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Early Middle Ages">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">Germanic kingship</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Early Slavs</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:398px;max-width:398px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba">Migration Period</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG/225px-Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG/338px-Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG/450px-Mausoleum_of_Theoderic.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Theodoric" title="Mausoleum of Theodoric">Mausoleum of Theodoric</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> is the only extant example of <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostrogoth">Ostrogothic</a> architecture.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg/165px-Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="165" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg/248px-Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg/330px-Reino_de_los_visigodos-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="670" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Around 500, the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> ruled large parts of what is now France, Spain, Andorra and Portugal.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Goths and Vandals were only the first of many bands of peoples that flooded <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> in the absence of administrative governance. Some<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2018)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> lived only for war and pillage and disdained Roman ways. Other peoples<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had been in prolonged contact with the Roman civilization, and were, to a certain degree, romanized. "A poor Roman plays the Goth, a rich Goth the Roman," said King <a href="/wiki/Theoderic_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoderic the Great">Theoderic</a> of the Ostrogoths.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subjects of the Roman empire were a mixture of <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman Christian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian Christian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian Christian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Germanic peoples knew little of cities, money, or writing, and were mostly pagan, though they were increasingly converting to <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">non-trinitarian</a> form of Christianity that considers God the Son to have been created by, and thus inferior to, God the Father, rather than the two being <a href="/wiki/Pre-existence_of_Christ" title="Pre-existence of Christ">co-eternal</a>, which is the position of <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian Christianity</a>. Arianism found some favour in the Roman Empire before being eclipsed by the Chalcedonian position and then suppressed as heretical. </p><p>During the migrations, or <i><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkerwanderung" class="mw-redirect" title="Völkerwanderung">Völkerwanderung</a></i> (wandering of the peoples), the earlier settled populations were sometimes left intact though usually partially or entirely displaced. <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Roman culture</a> north of the <a href="/wiki/Po_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Po River">Po River</a> was almost entirely displaced by the migrations. Whereas the peoples of France, Italy, Spain and Portugal continued to speak the dialects of <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> that today constitute the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, the language of the smaller Roman-era population of what is now England disappeared with barely a trace in the territories settled by the Anglo-Saxons, although the Brittanic kingdoms of the west remained <a href="/wiki/British_language_(Celtic)" class="mw-redirect" title="British language (Celtic)">Brythonic</a> speakers. The new peoples greatly altered established society, including law, culture, religion, and patterns of property ownership. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tr%C3%A9sor_de_Gourdon_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tr%C3%A9sor_de_Gourdon_02.JPG/250px-Tr%C3%A9sor_de_Gourdon_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tr%C3%A9sor_de_Gourdon_02.JPG/375px-Tr%C3%A9sor_de_Gourdon_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tr%C3%A9sor_de_Gourdon_02.JPG/500px-Tr%C3%A9sor_de_Gourdon_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="1287" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Paten" title="Paten">paten</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Treasure_of_Gourdon" title="Treasure of Gourdon">Treasure of Gourdon</a>, found at <a href="/wiki/Gourdon,_Sa%C3%B4ne-et-Loire" title="Gourdon, Saône-et-Loire">Gourdon, Saône-et-Loire</a>, France.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">pax Romana</a></i> had provided safe conditions for trade and manufacture, and a unified cultural and educational milieu of far-ranging connections. As this was lost, it was replaced by the rule of local potentates, sometimes members of the established Romanized ruling elite, sometimes new lords of alien culture. In <a href="/wiki/Aquitania" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitania">Aquitania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>, southern Italy and Sicily, <a href="/wiki/Baetica" class="mw-redirect" title="Baetica">Baetica</a> or southern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and the Iberian Mediterranean coast, Roman culture lasted until the 6th or 7th centuries. </p><p>The gradual breakdown and transformation of economic and social linkages and infrastructure resulted in increasingly localized outlooks. This breakdown was often fast and dramatic as it became unsafe to travel or carry goods over any distance; there was a consequent collapse in trade and manufacture for export. Major industries that depended on trade, such as large-scale pottery manufacture, vanished almost overnight in places like Britain. <a href="/wiki/Tintagel" title="Tintagel">Tintagel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, as well as several other centres, managed to obtain supplies of Mediterranean luxury goods well into the 6th century, but then lost their trading links. Administrative, educational and military infrastructure quickly vanished, and the loss of the established <i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a></i> led to the collapse of the schools and to a rise of illiteracy even among the leadership. The careers of <a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a> (died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 585</span>) at the beginning of this period and of <a href="/wiki/Alcuin_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcuin of York">Alcuin of York</a> (died 804) at its close were founded alike on their valued literacy. For the formerly Roman area, there was another 20 per cent decline in population between 400 and 600, or a one-third decline for 150–600.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 8th century, the volume of trade reached its lowest level. The very small number of <a href="/wiki/Shipwreck" title="Shipwreck">shipwrecks</a> found that dated from the 8th century supports this (which represents less than 2 per cent of the number of shipwrecks dated from the 1st century). There was also reforestation and a retreat of agriculture centred around 500.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Romans had practiced <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">two-field agriculture</a>, with a crop grown in one field and the other left fallow and ploughed under to eliminate weeds. Systematic agriculture largely disappeared and yields declined. It is estimated that the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> which began in 541 and recurred periodically for 150 years thereafter killed as many as 100 million people across the world.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians such as Josiah C. Russell (1958) have suggested a total European population loss of 50 to 60 per cent between 541 and 700.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the year 750, major epidemic diseases did not appear again in Europe until the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> of the 14th century. The disease <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, which was eradicated in the late 20th century, did not definitively enter <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> until about 581 when Bishop <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> provided an eyewitness account that describes the characteristic findings of smallpox.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Waves of <a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epidemics">epidemics</a> wiped out large rural populations.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the details about the epidemics are lost, probably due to the scarcity of surviving written records. </p><p>For almost a thousand years, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> was the most politically important, richest and largest city in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 100 AD, it had a population of about 450,000,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and declined to a mere 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages, reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Roman_Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Eastern Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba">Byzantine Empire</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Justinien_527-565.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/300px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/450px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Justinien_527-565.svg/600px-Justinien_527-565.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1810" data-file-height="871" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><b><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty</a></b> <ul><li>Under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> (r. 527–565), the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> were able to reestablish Roman rule in Italy and most of North Africa.</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f6b65f; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Justinian's conquests</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f7865e; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Empire</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The death of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> in 395 was followed by the division of the empire between his two sons. The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> disintegrated into a mosaic of warring Germanic kingdoms in the 5th century, effectively making the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> in Constantinople the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Greek-speaking</a> successor to the classical Roman Empire. The inhabitants continued to regard themselves as Romans, or <i>Romaioi</i>, until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1453. Despite this, to distinguish it from its predominantly <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin-speaking</a> predecessor, historians began referring to the empire as "Byzantine", after the original name of Constantinople, <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>. </p><p>The Eastern Roman or "Byzantine" Empire aimed to retain control of the trade routes between Europe and the Orient, which made the Empire the richest polity in Medieval Europe. Making use of their sophisticated warfare and superior diplomacy, the Byzantines managed to fend off assaults by the migrating barbarians. Their dreams of subduing the Western potentates briefly materialized during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> in 527–565. Not only did Justinian restore some western territories to the Roman Empire, including Rome and the Italian peninsula itself, but he also codified <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">his codification</a> remaining in force in many areas of Europe until the 19th century) and commissioned the building of the largest and most architecturally advanced edifice of the Early Middle Ages, the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>. However, his reign also saw the outbreak of a <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Harbeck,_et_al._21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harbeck,_et_al.-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bos_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bos-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> now known retroactively as the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a>. The Emperor himself was afflicted, and within the span of less than a year, an estimated 200,000 Constantinopolites—two out of every five city residents—had died of the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodora_mosaik_ravenna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Theodora_mosaik_ravenna.jpg/220px-Theodora_mosaik_ravenna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Theodora_mosaik_ravenna.jpg/330px-Theodora_mosaik_ravenna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Theodora_mosaik_ravenna.jpg/440px-Theodora_mosaik_ravenna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="497" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Theodora_(6th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodora (6th century)">Theodora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a>'s wife, and her retinue<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Justinian's successors <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> confronted invasions by the <a href="/wiki/Avars_(Carpathians)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avars (Carpathians)">Avar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic</a> tribes. After the devastations by the Slavs and the Avars, large areas of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> became depopulated. In 626 Constantinople, by far the largest city of early medieval Europe, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">withstood a combined siege</a> by Avars and Persians. Within several decades, Heraclius completed a holy war against the Persians, taking their capital and having a <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a> monarch assassinated. Yet Heraclius lived to see his spectacular success undone by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> of <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a>, three <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)#Middle_Ages" title="Palestine (region)">Palaestina provinces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_Antiquity#Vandals_and_Byzantines" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africa during Antiquity">North Africa</a> which was considerably facilitated by religious disunity and the proliferation of heretical movements (notably <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a>) in the areas converted to Islam. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG/280px-Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG/420px-Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG/560px-Walls_of_Constantinople.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Restored <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">Walls of Constantinople</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although Heraclius's successors managed to salvage <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> from two <a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Sieges of Constantinople">Arab sieges</a> (in 674–77 and 717), the empire of the 8th and early 9th century was rocked by the great <a href="/wiki/Iconoclastic_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconoclastic Controversy">Iconoclastic Controversy</a>, punctuated by dynastic struggles between various factions at court. The <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic</a> tribes profited from these disorders and invaded <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. After the decisive victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ongala" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ongala">Ongala</a> in 680 the armies of the Bulgars and Slavs advanced to the south of the Balkan mountains, defeating again the Byzantines who were then forced to sign a humiliating peace treaty which acknowledged the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a> on the borders of the Empire. </p><p>To counter these threats a new system of administration was introduced. The regional civil and military administration were combined in the hands of a general, or strategos. A <a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">theme</a>, which formerly denoted a subdivision of the Byzantine army, came to refer to a region governed by a strategos. The reform led to the emergence of great landed families which controlled the regional military and often pressed their claims to the throne (see <a href="/wiki/Bardas_Phokas_the_Elder" title="Bardas Phokas the Elder">Bardas Phocas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bardas_Sklerus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bardas Sklerus">Bardas Sklerus</a> for characteristic examples). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Porphyrogenetus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Porphyrogenetus.jpg/150px-Porphyrogenetus.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Porphyrogenetus.jpg/225px-Porphyrogenetus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Porphyrogenetus.jpg/300px-Porphyrogenetus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="1091" /></a><figcaption><i>Christ crowning <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a></i><br />ivory plaque, ca. 945</figcaption></figure> <p>By the early 8th century, notwithstanding the shrinking territory of the empire, Constantinople remained the largest and the wealthiest city west of <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">China</a>, comparable only to Sassanid <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. The population of the imperial capital fluctuated between 300,000 and 400,000 as the emperors undertook measures to restrain its growth. The only other large Christian cities were Rome (50,000) and <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a> (30,000).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even before the 8th century was out, the Farmer's Law signalled the resurrection of agricultural technologies in the Roman Empire. As the 2006 <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> noted, "the technological base of Byzantine society was more advanced than that of contemporary western Europe: iron tools could be found in the villages; water mills dotted the landscape; and field-sown beans provided a diet rich in protein".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ascension of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian dynasty</a> in 867 marked the end of the period of political and religious turmoil and introduced a new golden age of the empire. While the talented generals such as <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_Phokas_the_Elder" title="Nikephoros Phokas the Elder">Nicephorus Phocas</a> expanded the frontiers, the Macedonian emperors (such as <a href="/wiki/Leo_the_Wise" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo the Wise">Leo the Wise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a>) presided over the cultural flowering in Constantinople, known as the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Renaissance" title="Macedonian Renaissance">Macedonian Renaissance</a>. The enlightened Macedonian rulers scorned the rulers of Western Europe as illiterate barbarians and maintained a nominal claim to rule over the West. Although this fiction had been exploded with the coronation of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> in Rome (800), the Byzantine rulers did not treat their Western counterparts as equals. Generally, they had little interest in political and economic developments in the barbarian (from their point of view) West. </p><p>Against this economic background the culture and the imperial traditions of the Eastern Roman Empire attracted its northern neighbours—Slavs, Bulgars, and Khazars—to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, in search of either pillage or enlightenment. The movement of the Germanic tribes to the south triggered the great migration of the <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>, who occupied the vacated territories. In the 7th century, they moved westward to the <a href="/wiki/Elbe" title="Elbe">Elbe</a>, southward to the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> and eastward to the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a>. By the 9th century, the Slavs had expanded into sparsely inhabited territories to the south and east from these natural frontiers, peacefully assimilating the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finnic_peoples" title="Finnic peoples">Finnic</a> populations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Islam">Rise of Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rise of Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>632–750</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Spain">Umayyad conquest of Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">History of Islam in southern Italy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_around_650.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Europe_around_650.jpg/350px-Europe_around_650.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Europe_around_650.jpg/525px-Europe_around_650.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Europe_around_650.jpg/700px-Europe_around_650.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3891" data-file-height="2392" /></a><figcaption>Europe around 650</figcaption></figure> <p>From the 7th century, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine history</a> was greatly affected by the rise of Islam and the <a href="/wiki/Caliphates" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphates">Caliphates</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Muslim Arabs</a> first invaded historically Roman territory under <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Bakr" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Bakr">Abū Bakr</a>, first Caliph of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, who entered <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Mesopotamia">Roman Mesopotamia</a>. The Byzantines and neighbouring Persian <a href="/wiki/Sasanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanids">Sasanids</a> had been severely weakened by a long succession of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian wars">Byzantine–Sasanian wars</a>, especially the climactic <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>. Under <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>, the second Caliph, the Muslims decisively conquered <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Palestine" title="Roman Palestine">Roman Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman North Africa</a>, while they entirely toppled the Sasanids. In the mid 7th century, following the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a>, Islam penetrated into the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> region, of which parts <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars" title="Russo-Persian Wars">would later</a> permanently become part of Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This expansion of Islam continued under Umar's successors and then the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Iberian Peninsula</a>. Over the next centuries Muslim forces were able to take further European territory, including <a href="/wiki/Cyprus_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Cyprus in the Middle Ages">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septimania" title="Septimania">Septimania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete" title="Emirate of Crete">Crete</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Sicily and parts of southern Italy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Muslim conquest of Hispania began when the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a>) invaded the <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigothic Kingdom</a> in the year 711, under their Berber leader <a href="/wiki/Tariq_ibn_Ziyad" title="Tariq ibn Ziyad">Tariq ibn Ziyad</a>. They landed at <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> on 30 April and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his superior, <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusair" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa ibn Nusair">Musa ibn Nusair</a>. During the eight-year campaign most of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> was brought under <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> rule—except for small areas in the north-northwest (<a href="/wiki/Asturias" title="Asturias">Asturias</a>) and largely <a href="/wiki/Basque_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Basque people">Basque</a> regions in the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a>. This territory, under the Arab name <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, became part of the expanding <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> empire. </p><p>The unsuccessful <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">second siege of Constantinople</a> (717) weakened the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad dynasty</a> and reduced their prestige. After their success in overrunning Iberia, the conquerors moved northeast across the Pyrenees. They were defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Poitiers</a> in 732. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the <a href="/wiki/Abb%C4%81sids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbāsids">Abbāsids</a> and most of the Umayyad clan were massacred. </p><p>A surviving Umayyad prince, <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-rahman_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-rahman I">Abd-ar-rahman I</a>, escaped to Spain and founded a new Umayyad dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/Caliph_of_Cordoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph of Cordoba">Emirate of Cordoba</a> in 756. Charles Martel's son <a href="/wiki/Pippin_the_Short" class="mw-redirect" title="Pippin the Short">Pippin the Short</a> retook <a href="/wiki/Narbonne" title="Narbonne">Narbonne</a>, and his grandson Charlemagne established the <a href="/wiki/Marca_Hispanica" class="mw-redirect" title="Marca Hispanica">Marca Hispanica</a> across the Pyrenees in part of what today is <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, reconquering <a href="/wiki/Girona" title="Girona">Girona</a> in 785 and <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> in 801. The Umayyads in Hispania proclaimed themselves caliphs in 929. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_of_the_Latin_West">Birth of the Latin West</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Birth of the Latin West"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="700–850"><span id="700.E2.80.93850"></span>700–850</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 700–850"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sutton_Hoo_helmet_2016.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sutton_Hoo_helmet_2016.png/170px-Sutton_Hoo_helmet_2016.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sutton_Hoo_helmet_2016.png/255px-Sutton_Hoo_helmet_2016.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sutton_Hoo_helmet_2016.png/340px-Sutton_Hoo_helmet_2016.png 2x" data-file-width="1949" data-file-height="2791" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo_helmet" title="Sutton Hoo helmet">Sutton Hoo helmet</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> helmet from the early 7th century</figcaption></figure> <p>Climatic conditions in Western Europe began to improve after 700.<sup id="cite_ref-beberglund_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beberglund-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that year, the two major powers in western Europe were the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a> in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_102_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_102-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Lombards had been thoroughly Romanized, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">their kingdom</a> was stable and well developed. The Franks, in contrast, were barely any different from their barbarian Germanic ancestors. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Franks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Franks">Kingdom of the Franks</a> was weak and divided.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Impossible to guess at the time, but by the end of the century, the Lombardic kingdom would be extinct, while the Frankish kingdom would have nearly reassembled the Western Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_102_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_102-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though much of Roman civilization north of the <a href="/wiki/Po_(river)" title="Po (river)">Po River</a> had been wiped out in the years after the end of the Western Roman Empire, between the 5th and 8th centuries, new political and social infrastructure began to develop. Much of this was initially Germanic and pagan. <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian Christian</a> missionaries had been spreading Arian Christianity throughout northern Europe, though by 700 the religion of northern Europeans was largely a mix of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a>, Christianized paganism, and Arian Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_147_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_147-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian Christianity</a> had barely started to spread in northern Europe by this time. Through the practice of <a href="/wiki/Simony" title="Simony">simony</a>, local princes typically auctioned off ecclesiastical offices, causing priests and bishops to function as though they were yet another noble under the patronage of the prince.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, a network of <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monasteries</a> had sprung up as monks sought separation from the world. These monasteries remained independent from local princes, and as such constituted the "church" for most northern Europeans during this time. Being independent from local princes, they increasingly stood out as centres of learning, of scholarship, and as religious centres where individuals could receive spiritual or monetary assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_147_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_147-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The interaction between the culture of the newcomers, their warband loyalties, the remnants of classical culture, and Christian influences, produced a new model for society, based in part on <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal obligations</a>. The centralized administrative systems of the Romans did not withstand the changes, and the institutional support for <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">chattel slavery</a> largely disappeared. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a> in England had also started to convert from <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon polytheism</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_mission" title="Gregorian mission">arrival of Christian missionaries in 597</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy (medieval)">Kingdom of Italy (medieval)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy in the Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">King of Italy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Corsica" title="Medieval Corsica">Medieval Corsica</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italien_zur_Langobardenzeit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Italien_zur_Langobardenzeit.jpg/250px-Italien_zur_Langobardenzeit.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Italien_zur_Langobardenzeit.jpg/375px-Italien_zur_Langobardenzeit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Italien_zur_Langobardenzeit.jpg/500px-Italien_zur_Langobardenzeit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2036" data-file-height="2584" /></a><figcaption>The Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom <i>(Neustria, Austria and Tuscia)</i> and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento</figcaption></figure> <p>The Lombards, who first entered Italy in 568 under <a href="/wiki/Alboin" title="Alboin">Alboin</a>, carved out a state in the north, with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Pavia" title="Pavia">Pavia</a>. At first, they were unable to conquer the <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Rome" title="Duchy of Rome">Ducatus Romanus</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a>. The next two hundred years were occupied in trying to conquer these territories from the Byzantine Empire. </p><p>The Lombard state was relatively Romanized, at least when compared to the Germanic kingdoms in northern Europe. It was highly decentralized at first, with the territorial dukes having practical sovereignty in their duchies, especially in the southern duchies of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Spoleto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Benevento</a>. For a decade following the death of <a href="/wiki/Cleph" title="Cleph">Cleph</a> in 575, the Lombards did not even elect a king; this period is called the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_the_Dukes" title="Rule of the Dukes">Rule of the Dukes</a>. The first written legal code was composed in poor Latin in 643: the <i><a href="/wiki/Edictum_Rothari" title="Edictum Rothari">Edictum Rothari</a></i>. It was primarily the codification of the oral legal tradition of the people. </p><p>The Lombard state was well-organized and stabilized by the end of the long reign of <a href="/wiki/Liutprand,_King_of_the_Lombards" title="Liutprand, King of the Lombards">Liutprand</a> (717–744), but its collapse was sudden. Unsupported by the dukes, King <a href="/wiki/Desiderius" title="Desiderius">Desiderius</a> was defeated and forced to surrender his kingdom to Charlemagne in 774. The Lombard kingdom ended and a period of Frankish rule was initiated. The Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Pepin_the_Short" title="Pepin the Short">Pepin the Short</a> had, by the <a href="/wiki/Donation_of_Pepin" title="Donation of Pepin">Donation of Pepin</a>, given the pope the "<a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>" and the territory north of that swath of papally-governed land was ruled primarily by Lombard and Frankish vassals of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> until the rise of the city-states in the 11th and 12th centuries. </p><p>In the south, a period of chaos began. The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">Duchy of Benevento</a> maintained its sovereignty in the face of the pretensions of both the Western and Eastern Empires. In the 9th century, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily" title="Muslim conquest of Sicily">Muslims conquered Sicily</a>. The cities on the <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea" title="Tyrrhenian Sea">Tyrrhenian Sea</a> departed from Byzantine allegiance. Various states owing various nominal allegiances fought constantly over territory until events came to a head in the early 11th century with the coming of the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>, who conquered the whole of the south by the end of the century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Britain">Britain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Brittany" title="History of Brittany">History of Brittany</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cornwall" title="History of Cornwall">History of Cornwall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Scotland in the Early Middle Ages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Wales in the Early Middle Ages</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> was in a state of political and economic collapse at the time of the <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">Roman departure</a> c. 400. A <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">series of settlements</a> (traditionally referred to as an invasion) by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a> began in the early fifth century, and by the sixth century the island would consist of many small kingdoms engaged in ongoing warfare with each other. The Germanic kingdoms are now collectively referred to as <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>. Christianity began to take hold among the Anglo-Saxons in the sixth century, with 597 given as the traditional date for its large-scale adoption. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gokstadskipet1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Gokstadskipet1.jpg/170px-Gokstadskipet1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Gokstadskipet1.jpg/255px-Gokstadskipet1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Gokstadskipet1.jpg/340px-Gokstadskipet1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Gokstad_ship" title="Gokstad ship">Gokstad ship</a>, a 9th-century Viking <a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">longship</a>, excavated in 1882. Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway</figcaption></figure> <p>Western Britain (<a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>), eastern and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Scotland" title="Northern Scotland">northern Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Pictland</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish highlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Scotland" title="List of islands of Scotland">isles</a> continued their separate evolution. The <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> descended and Irish-influenced people of western Scotland were Christian from the fifth century onward, the Picts adopted Christianity in the sixth century under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a>, and the Welsh had been Christian since the Roman era. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Kingdom of Northumbria</a> was the pre-eminent power c. 600–700, absorbing several weaker Anglo-Saxon and <a href="/wiki/Britons_(Celtic_people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Britons (Celtic people)">Brythonic</a> kingdoms, while <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> held a similar status c. 700–800. <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> would absorb all of the kingdoms in the south, both Anglo-Saxon and Briton. In Wales consolidation of power would not begin until the ninth century under the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Merfyn_Frych" title="Merfyn Frych">Merfyn Frych</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, establishing a hierarchy that would last until the <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion of Wales</a> in 1081. </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Viking</a> raids on Britain began before 800, increasing in scope and destructiveness over time. In 865 a large, well-organized <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</a> Viking army (called the <a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a>) attempted a conquest, breaking or diminishing Anglo-Saxon power everywhere but in Wessex. Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> and his descendants, Wessex would at first survive, then coexist with, and eventually conquer the Danes. It would then establish the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a> and rule until the establishment of an Anglo-Danish kingdom under <a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great">Cnut</a>, and then again until the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman Invasion</a> of 1066. </p><p>Viking raids and invasion were no less dramatic for the north. Their defeat of the Picts in 839 led to a lasting <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norse</a> heritage in northernmost Scotland, and it led to the combination of the Picts and <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Alpin" title="House of Alpin">House of Alpin</a>, which became the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a>, the predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a>. The Vikings combined with the Gaels of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrides" title="Hebrides">Hebrides</a> to become the <a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Gall-Gaidel</a> and establish the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Kingdom of the Isles</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frankish_Empire">Frankish Empire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Frankish Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Frankish_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Empire">Frankish Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_814.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Europe_814.svg/280px-Europe_814.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Europe_814.svg/420px-Europe_814.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Europe_814.svg/560px-Europe_814.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1399" data-file-height="919" /></a><figcaption>Europe in 814. Charlemagne's empire included most of modern France, Germany, <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">the Low Countries</a>, Austria and northern Italy.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacre_de_Charlemagne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sacre_de_Charlemagne.jpg/220px-Sacre_de_Charlemagne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sacre_de_Charlemagne.jpg/330px-Sacre_de_Charlemagne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sacre_de_Charlemagne.jpg/440px-Sacre_de_Charlemagne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>On 25 December 800, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> was crowned emperor by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg/220px-Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg/330px-Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg/440px-Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2051" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Palatine_Chapel,_Aachen" title="Palatine Chapel, Aachen">Charlemagne's palace chapel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, now the central part of the <a href="/wiki/Aachen_cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Aachen cathedral">cathedral</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a> established themselves in the power vacuum of the former <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman provinces</a> in Gaul, and <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">converted to Christianity</a> following his victory over the <a href="/wiki/Alemanni" title="Alemanni">Alemanni</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tolbiac" title="Battle of Tolbiac">Battle of Tolbiac</a> (496), laying the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a>, the dominant state of early medieval Western <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. The Frankish kingdom grew through a complex development of conquest, patronage, and alliance building. Due to <a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">salic custom</a>, inheritance rights were absolute, and all land was <a href="/wiki/Partible_inheritance" title="Partible inheritance">divided equally</a> among the sons of a dead land holder.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_165_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_165-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This meant that, when the king granted a prince land in reward for service, that prince and all of his descendants had an irrevocable right to that land that no future king could undo. Likewise, those princes (and their sons) could sublet their land to their own vassals, who could in turn sublet the land to lower sub-vassals.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_165_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_165-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This all had the effect of weakening the power of the king as his kingdom grew, since the result was that the land became controlled not just by more princes and vassals, but by multiple layers of vassals. This also allowed his nobles to attempt to build their own power base, though given the strict salic tradition of hereditary kingship, few would ever consider overthrowing the king.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_165_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_165-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This increasingly fragmented arrangement was highlighted by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a>, who as <a href="/wiki/Mayor_of_the_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayor of the Palace">Mayor of the Palace</a> was effectively the strongest prince in the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_189_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_189-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His accomplishments were highlighted, not just by his famous defeat of invading Muslims at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a>, which is typically considered the battle that saved Europe from Muslim conquest, but by the fact that he greatly expanded Frankish influence. It was under his patronage that <a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Boniface</a> expanded Frankish influence into Germany by rebuilding the German church, with the result that, within a century, the German church was the strongest church in western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_189_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_189-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet despite this, Charles Martel refused to overthrow the Frankish king. His son, Pepin the Short, inherited his power, and used it to further expand Frankish influence. Unlike his father, however, Pepin decided to seize the Frankish kingship. Given how strongly Frankish culture held to its principle of inheritance, few would support him if he attempted to overthrow the king.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_170-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, he sought the assistance of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Zachary" title="Pope Zachary">Pope Zachary</a>, who was himself newly vulnerable due to fallout with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Emperor">Byzantine Emperor</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Iconoclastic_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconoclastic Controversy">Iconoclastic Controversy</a>. Pepin agreed to support the pope and to give him land (the <a href="/wiki/Donation_of_Pepin" title="Donation of Pepin">Donation of Pepin</a>, which created the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>) in exchange for being consecrated as the new Frankish king. Given that Pepin's claim to the kingship was now based on an authority higher than Frankish custom, no resistance was offered to Pepin.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_170-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this, the Merovingian line of kings ended, and the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian</a> line began. </p><p>Pepin's son <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> continued in the footsteps of his father and grandfather. He further expanded and consolidated the Frankish kingdom (now commonly called the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>). His reign also saw a cultural rebirth, commonly called the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>. Though the exact reasons are unclear, Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor" by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> on Christmas Day, 800. Upon Charlemagne's death, his empire had united much of modern-day France, western Germany and northern Italy. The years after his death illustrated how Germanic his empire remained.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_170-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than an orderly succession, his empire was divided in accordance with Frankish inheritance custom, which resulted in instability that plagued his empire until the last king of a united empire, <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Fat" title="Charles the Fat">Charles the Fat</a>, died in 887, which resulted in a permanent split of the empire into <a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West Francia</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Francia" title="East Francia">East Francia</a>. West Francia would be ruled by Carolingians until 987 and East Francia until 911, after which time the partition of the empire into France and Germany was complete.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_170-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feudalism">Feudalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Feudalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manoralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manoralism">Manoralism</a></div> <p>Around 800 there was a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Open_field_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Open field system">open field</a>, or strip, system. A <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manor</a> would have several fields, each subdivided into 1-acre (4,000 m<sup>2</sup>) strips of land. An acre measured one "furlong" of 220 yards by one "chain" of 22 yards (that is, about 200 m by 20 m). A furlong (from "furrow long") was considered to be the distance an ox could plough before taking a rest; the strip shape of the acre field also reflected the difficulty in turning early heavy ploughs. In the idealized form of the system, each family got thirty such strips of land. The three-field system of <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a> was first developed in the 9th century: wheat or rye was planted in one field, the second field had a nitrogen-fixing crop, and the third was fallow.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compared to the earlier two-field system, a three-field system allowed for significantly more land to be put under cultivation. Even more important, the system allowed for two harvests a year, reducing the risk that a single crop failure will lead to famine. Three-field agriculture created a surplus of oats that could be used to feed horses. This surplus allowed for the replacement of the ox by the horse after the introduction of the padded <a href="/wiki/Horse_collar" title="Horse collar">horse collar</a> in the 12th century. Because the system required a major rearrangement of real estate and of the social order, it took until the 11th century before it came into general use. The heavy wheeled plough was introduced in the late 10th century. It required greater animal power and promoted the use of teams of oxen. Illuminated manuscripts depict two-wheeled ploughs with both a mouldboard, or curved metal ploughshare, and a coulter, a vertical blade in front of the ploughshare. The Romans had used light, wheel-less ploughs with flat iron shares that often proved unequal to the heavy soils of northern Europe. </p><p>The return to systemic agriculture coincided with the introduction of a new social system called <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>. This system featured a hierarchy of reciprocal obligations. Each man was bound to serve his superior in return for the latter's protection. This made for confusion of territorial sovereignty since allegiances were subject to change over time and were sometimes mutually contradictory. Feudalism allowed the state to provide a degree of public safety despite the continued absence of bureaucracy and written records. </p><p>Manors became largely self-sufficient, and the volume of trade along long-distance routes and in market towns declined during this period, though never ceased entirely. Roman roads decayed and long-distance trade depended more heavily on water transport.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viking_Age">Viking Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Viking Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viking_Expansion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Viking_Expansion.svg/300px-Viking_Expansion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Viking_Expansion.svg/450px-Viking_Expansion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Viking_Expansion.svg/600px-Viking_Expansion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption> Scandinavian settlements and raiding territory. Note : yellow in England and southern Italy covers the Viking expansion from <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, called by the name of Norman <hr /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#800000; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> 8th century homeland</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fe0000; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> 9th century expansion</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff7f00; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> 10th century expansion</li></ul></div> <hr /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ff01; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">Viking raiding</a> regions</figcaption></figure> <p>The Viking Age spans the period roughly between the late 8th and mid-11th centuries in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a> (and the <a href="/wiki/Vendel_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Vendel Age">Vendel Age</a> in Sweden). During this period, the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>, Scandinavian warriors and traders raided and explored most parts of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">south-western Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">northern Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">north-eastern North America</a>. </p><p>With the means to travel (longships and open water), desire for goods led Scandinavian traders to explore and develop extensive trading partnerships in new territories. Some of the most important trading ports during the period include both existing and ancient cities such as <a href="/wiki/Aarhus" title="Aarhus">Aarhus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ribe" title="Ribe">Ribe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hedeby" title="Hedeby">Hedeby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vineta" title="Vineta">Vineta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Truso" title="Truso">Truso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaupang" title="Kaupang">Kaupang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birka" title="Birka">Birka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bordeaux" title="Bordeaux">Bordeaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jorvik" class="mw-redirect" title="Jorvik">York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dublin" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Staraya_Ladoga" title="Staraya Ladoga">Aldeigjuborg</a>. </p><p>Viking raiding expeditions were separate from, though coexisted with, regular trading expeditions. Apart from exploring Europe via its oceans and rivers, with the aid of their advanced navigational skills, they extended their trading routes across vast parts of the continent. They also engaged in warfare, looting and enslaving numerous Christian communities of Medieval Europe for centuries, contributing to the development of feudal systems in Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Europe">Eastern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>600–1000</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Avar Khaganate">Avar Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khaganate">Khazar Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Old Great Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alani" class="mw-redirect" title="Alani">Alani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_migrations_to_the_Balkans" title="Slavic migrations to the Balkans">Slavic migrations to the Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Principality of Serbia (early medieval)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia" title="Duchy of Croatia">Duchy of Croatia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba"><a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic tribes</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg/220px-Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg/330px-Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg/440px-Slavic_tribes_in_the_7th_to_9th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1520" data-file-height="1442" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavic</a> tribes in central, eastern and southern Europe during the 7th to 9th centuries <hr /></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The Early Middle Ages marked the beginning of the cultural distinctions between Western and Eastern Europe north of the Mediterranean. Influence from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> impacted the Christianization and hence almost every aspect of the cultural and political development of the East from the preeminence of <a href="/wiki/Caesaropapism" title="Caesaropapism">Caesaropapism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a> to the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a>. The turmoil of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Barbarian invasions</a> in the beginning of the period gradually gave way to more stabilized societies and states as the origins of contemporary Eastern Europe began to take shape during the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba"><a href="/wiki/Magyar_tribes" title="Magyar tribes">Magyar tribes</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalandozasok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Kalandozasok.jpg/220px-Kalandozasok.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Kalandozasok.jpg/330px-Kalandozasok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Kalandozasok.jpg/440px-Kalandozasok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="496" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Magyar campaigns in the 10th century <hr /> <p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#eca0a2; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Magyar region </p> <hr /> Most European nations were praying for mercy: "Sagittis hungarorum libera nos, Domine" – "Lord save us from the arrows of Hungarians" <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Like the famous 'A furore Normannorum libera nos, Domine' (which cannot be found in any Medieval Prayer book), this phrase is quoted everywhere and yet nobody seems to bother to provide a citation so it seems reasonable to expect a citation to whichever prayer book "Sagittis hungarorum libera nos Domine" came from and some proof that this prayer was widely used. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Turkic and Iranian invaders from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> pressured the agricultural populations both in the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and in Central Europe creating a number of successor states in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppe">Pontic steppes</a>. After the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Huns#Unified_Empire_under_Attila" title="Huns">Hunnic Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Avar Khaganate">Avar Khaganates</a> dominated territories from <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Basin" title="Pannonian Basin">Pannonia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> before being replaced by the short lived <a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Old Great Bulgaria</a> and the more successful <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Khaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Khaganate">Khazar Khaganate</a> north of the Black Sea and the <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a> in Central Europe. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a> were a nomadic Turkic people who managed to develop a multiethnic commercial state which owed its success to the control of much of the waterway trade between Europe and Central Asia. The Khazars also exacted tribute from the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> tribes, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Goths" title="Crimean Goths">Crimean Goths</a>, and the Greeks of <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a>. Through a network of Jewish itinerant merchants, or <a href="/wiki/Radhanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhanites">Radhanites</a>, they were in contact with the trade emporia of India and Spain. </p><p>Once they found themselves confronted by <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab expansionism</a>, the Khazars pragmatically allied themselves with Constantinople and clashed with the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>. Despite initial setbacks, they managed to recover <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a> and eventually penetrated as far south as <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia" title="Principality of Iberia">Caucasian Iberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>. In doing so, they effectively blocked the northward expansion of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> into <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> even before <a href="/wiki/Khan_Tervel" class="mw-redirect" title="Khan Tervel">khan Tervel</a> achieved the same at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%9318)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–18)">Second Arab Siege of Constantinople</a> and several decades before the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours</a> in Western Europe. Islam eventually penetrated into Eastern Europe in the 920s when <a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a> exploited the decline of Khazar power in the region to adopt Islam from the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> missionaries. The state religion of Khazaria, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, disappeared as a political force with the fall of Khazaria, while Islam of Volga Bulgaria has survived in the region up to the present. </p><p>In the beginning of the period, the <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavic tribes</a> started to expand aggressively into Byzantine possessions on the Balkans. The first attested <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> polities were <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Moravia" title="Great Moravia">Great Moravia</a>, the latter of which emerged under the aegis of the Frankish Empire in the early 9th century. Great Moravia was ultimately overrun by the <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a>, who invaded the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Basin" title="Pannonian Basin">Pannonian Basin</a> around 896. The Slavic state became a stage for confrontation between the Christian missionaries from Constantinople and Rome. Although <a href="/wiki/West_Slavs" title="West Slavs">West Slavs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croats" title="Croats">Croats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovenes" title="Slovenes">Slovenes</a> eventually acknowledged Roman ecclesiastical authority, the clergy of Constantinople succeeded in converting to Eastern Christianity two of the largest states of early medieval Europe, <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> around 864, and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> c. 990. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bulgaria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St._Theodor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/St._Theodor.jpg/180px-St._Theodor.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/St._Theodor.jpg/270px-St._Theodor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/St._Theodor.jpg/360px-St._Theodor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>Ceramic icon of <a href="/wiki/Theodore_the_Studite" title="Theodore the Studite">St Theodore</a> from around 900, found in <a href="/wiki/Preslav" class="mw-redirect" title="Preslav">Preslav</a>, Bulgarian capital from 893 to 972</figcaption></figure> <p>In 632 the <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a> established the khanate of <a href="/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria" title="Old Great Bulgaria">Old Great Bulgaria</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Kubrat" title="Kubrat">Kubrat</a>. The Khazars managed to oust the Bulgars from Southern Ukraine into lands along middle <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgaria" title="Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a>) and along lower <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Danube Bulgaria</a>). </p><p>In 681 the Bulgars founded a powerful and ethnically diverse state that played a defining role in the history of early medieval <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</a>. Bulgaria withstood the pressure from <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppe">Pontic steppe</a> tribes like the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Pechenegs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cumans" title="Cumans">Cumans</a>, and in 806 destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Avars_(Carpathians)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avars (Carpathians)">Avar</a> Khanate. The Danube Bulgars were quickly slavicized and, despite constant campaigning against Constantinople, accepted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Through the efforts of missionaries <a href="/wiki/Cyril_and_Methodius" title="Cyril and Methodius">Cyril and Methodius</a>, mainly their disciples like <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Ohrid" title="Clement of Ohrid">Clement of Ohrid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Naum" title="Saint Naum">Naum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the spread, initially of the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Glagolitic alphabet">Glagolitic</a>, and later of the <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> alphabet, developed in the capital Preslav. The local vernacular dialect, now known as <a href="/wiki/Old_Bulgarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Bulgarian">Old Bulgarian</a> or Old Church Slavonic, was established as the language of books and liturgy among <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy#Christianity" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodox Christian</a> Slavs. </p><p>After the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in 864, Bulgaria became a cultural and spiritual hub of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> Slavic world. The <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a> was developed around 885–886, and was afterwards also introduced with books to <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. Literature, art, and architecture were thriving with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Preslav_Literary_School" title="Preslav Literary School">Preslav</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ohrid_Literary_School" title="Ohrid Literary School">Ohrid Literary Schools</a> along with the distinct Preslav Ceramics School. In 927 the <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Orthodox_Church" title="Bulgarian Orthodox Church">Bulgarian Orthodox Church</a> was the first European national Church to gain independence with its own Patriarch while conducting services in the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a>. </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Simeon_I_of_Bulgaria" title="Simeon I of Bulgaria">Simeon I</a> (893–927), the state was the largest and one of the most powerful political entities of Europe, and it consistently threatened the existence of the Byzantine empire. From the middle of the 10th century Bulgaria was in decline as it entered a social and spiritual turmoil. It was in part due to Simeon's devastating wars, but was also exacerbated by a series of successful Byzantine military campaigns. Bulgaria was conquered after a long resistance in 1018. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kievan_Rus'"><span id="Kievan_Rus.27"></span>Kievan Rus'</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Kievan Rus'"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></div> <p>Led by a <a href="/wiki/Varangian" class="mw-redirect" title="Varangian">Varangian</a> dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> controlled the <a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">routes connecting Northern Europe to Byzantium</a> and to the Orient (for example: the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a>). The Kievan state began with the rule (882–912) of <a href="/wiki/Oleg_of_Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Oleg of Novgorod">Prince Oleg</a>, who extended his control from <a href="/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod" title="Veliky Novgorod">Novgorod</a> southwards along the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a> river valley in order to protect trade from <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazar</a> incursions from the east and moved his capital to the more strategic <a href="/wiki/Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev">Kiev</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sviatoslav I of Kiev">Sviatoslav I</a> (died 972) achieved the first major expansion of Kievan Rus' territorial control, fighting a war of conquest against the <a href="/wiki/Khazar_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar Empire">Khazar Empire</a> and inflicting a serious blow on <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav%27s_invasion_of_Bulgaria" title="Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria">Rus' attack</a> (967 or 968), instigated by the Byzantines, led to the collapse of the Bulgarian state and the occupation of the east of the country by the Rus'. An ensuing <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(970%E2%80%93971)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (970–971)">direct military confrontation between the Rus' and Byzantium</a> (970–971) ended with a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dorostolon" title="Siege of Dorostolon">Byzantine victory</a> (971). The Rus' withdrew and the Byzantine Empire incorporated eastern Bulgaria. Both before and after their <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">conversion to Christianity</a> (conventionally dated 988 under <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_I_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir I of Kiev">Vladimir I of Kiev</a>—known as Vladimir the Great), the Rus' also embarked on predatory military campaigns against the Byzantine Empire, some of which resulted in trade treaties. The importance of Russo-Byzantine relations to Constantinople was highlighted by the fact that Vladimir I of Kiev, son of <a href="/wiki/Sviatoslav_I" title="Sviatoslav I">Svyatoslav I</a>, became the only foreigner to marry (989) a <a href="/wiki/Anna_Porphyrogenita" title="Anna Porphyrogenita">Byzantine princess</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian dynasty</a> (which ruled the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> from 867 to 1056), a singular honour sought in vain by many other rulers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transmission_of_learning">Transmission of learning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Transmission of learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silos-Claustro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Silos-Claustro.jpg/170px-Silos-Claustro.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Silos-Claustro.jpg/255px-Silos-Claustro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Silos-Claustro.jpg/340px-Silos-Claustro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Santo_Domingo_de_Silos" title="Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos">Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos</a>. In the Early Middle Ages, cultural life was concentrated at <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> and with urban centres in decline, <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> and learning decreased in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_52_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_52-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Counterurbanization" title="Counterurbanization">De-urbanization</a> reduced the scope of education, and by the <a href="/wiki/6th_century" title="6th century">6th century</a> teaching and learning moved to monastic and cathedral schools, with the study of biblical texts at the centre of education.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The education of the <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">laity</a> continued with little interruption in Italy, Spain, and the southern part of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, where Roman influences lasted longer. In the 7th century, however, learning expanded in Ireland and the Celtic lands, where Latin was a foreign language and Latin texts were eagerly studied and taught.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_education_in_the_Western_world" title="Classical education in the Western world">classical education</a> appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/8th_century" title="8th century">8th century</a>. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (Byzantium), learning (in the sense of formal education involving literature) was maintained at a higher level than in the West. The classical education system, which would persist for hundreds of years, emphasized <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>. Pupils read and reread classic works and wrote essays imitating their style. By the 4th century, this education system was <a href="/wiki/Christianized" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianized">Christianized</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De Doctrina Christiana</a></i> (started 396, completed 426), <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> explained how classical education fits into the Christian worldview: Christianity is a religion of the book, so Christians must be literate. <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> was more skeptical of the value of classical learning, asking "What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?"<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science#Middle_Ages" title="History of science">History of science § Middle Ages</a></div> <p>In the ancient world, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> side of the Roman empire, and in Greek. Late Roman attempts to translate Greek writings into Latin had limited success.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the knowledge of Greek declined, the Latin West found itself cut off from some of its Greek philosophical and scientific roots. For a time, Latin-speakers who wanted to learn about science had access to only a couple of books by <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> (c. 470–524) that summarized Greek handbooks by <a href="/wiki/Nicomachus_of_Gerasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicomachus of Gerasa">Nicomachus of Gerasa</a>. <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> produced a Latin encyclopedia in 630. Private libraries would have existed, and monasteries would also keep various kinds of texts. </p><p>The study of nature was pursued more for practical reasons than as an abstract inquiry: the need to care for the sick led to the study of medicine and of ancient texts on drugs;<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the need for monks to determine the proper time to pray led them to study the motion of the stars;<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the need to compute the <a href="/wiki/Date_of_Easter" title="Date of Easter">date of Easter</a> led them to study and teach mathematics and the motions of the Sun and Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carolingian_Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Carolingian Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a></div> <p>In the late 8th century, there was renewed interest in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a> as part of the Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne carried out a reform in <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>. The English monk <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin of York</a> elaborated a project of scholarly development aimed at resuscitating classical knowledge by establishing programs of study based upon the seven <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a>: the <i>trivium</i>, or literary education (<a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>), and the <i>quadrivium</i>, or scientific education (<a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>). From 787 on, <a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">decrees</a> began to circulate recommending the restoration of old schools and the founding of new ones across the empire. </p><p>Institutionally, these new schools were either under the responsibility of a <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monastery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Monastic_school" title="Monastic school">monastic schools</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedral</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Noble_court" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble court">noble court</a>. The teaching of <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> (a discipline that corresponds to today's <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>) was responsible for the increase in the interest in speculative inquiry; from this interest would follow the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> tradition of <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a>. In the 12th and 13th centuries, many of those schools founded under the auspices of Charlemagne, especially <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">cathedral schools</a>, would become <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">universities</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantium's_golden_age"><span id="Byzantium.27s_golden_age"></span>Byzantium's golden age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Byzantium's golden age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba"><a href="/wiki/Byzantium_under_the_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantium under the Macedonians">Macedonian Byzantium</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol1v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol1v.jpg/220px-Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol1v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol1v.jpg/330px-Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol1v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Paris_psaulter_gr139_fol1v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="412" data-file-height="458" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Miniature from the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Psalter" title="Paris Psalter">Paris Psalter</a> <hr /> <a href="/wiki/Byzantium_under_the_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantium under the Macedonians">Byzantium in the 10th century</a> experienced a wide-scale cultural revival.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Byzantium's great intellectual achievement was the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> ("Body of Civil Law"), a massive compilation of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> made under <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> (r. 528–565). The work includes a section called the <i><a href="/wiki/Pandects" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandects">Digesta</a></i> which abstracts the principles of Roman law in such a way that they can be applied to any situation. The level of literacy was considerably higher in the Byzantine Empire than in the Latin West. Elementary education was much more widely available, sometimes even in the countryside. Secondary schools still taught the <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> and other classics. </p><p>As for higher education, the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic Academy">Neoplatonic Academy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> was closed in 526. There was also a school in Alexandria which remained open until the Arab conquest (640). The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">University of Constantinople</a>, founded by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> (425), seems to have dissolved around this time. It was refounded by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a> in 849. Higher education in this period focused on rhetoric, although <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s logic was covered in simple outline. Under the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_dynasty" title="Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian dynasty</a> (867–1056), Byzantium enjoyed a golden age and a revival of classical learning. There was little original research, but many lexicons, anthologies, encyclopedias, and commentaries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_learning">Islamic learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Islamic learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the course of the 11th century, Islam's scientific knowledge began to reach Western Europe, via Islamic Spain. The works of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, lost in the West, were translated from Arabic to Latin in Spain. The modern <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numeral system</a>, including a notation for zero, were developed by Hindu mathematicians in the 5th and 6th centuries. Muslim mathematicians learned of it in the 7th century and added a notation for decimal fractions in the 9th and 10th centuries. Around 1000, Gerbert of Aurillac (later <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_II" title="Pope Sylvester II">Pope Sylvester II</a>) made an <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> with counters engraved with <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a>. A treatise by <a href="/wiki/Al-Khw%C4%81rizm%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Khwārizmī">Al-Khwārizmī</a> on how to perform calculations with these numerals was translated into Latin in Spain in the 12th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monasteries">Monasteries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Monasteries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">Monasteries</a> were targeted in the eighth and ninth centuries by <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Vikings</a> who invaded the coasts of northern Europe. They were targeted not only because they stored books but also precious objects that were looted by invaders. In the earliest monasteries, there were no special rooms set aside as a library, but from the sixth century onwards libraries became an essential aspect of monastic life in Western Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Benedictines" title="Benedictines">Benedictines</a> placed books in the care of a librarian who supervised their use. In some monastic reading rooms, valuable books would be chained to shelves, but there were also lending sections as well. Copying was also another important aspect of monastic libraries, this was undertaken by resident or visiting monks and took place in the <i><a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptorium</a></i>. In the Byzantine world, religious houses rarely maintained their own copying centres. Instead they acquired donations from wealthy donors. In the tenth century, the largest collection in the Byzantine world was found in the monasteries of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a> (modern-day Greece), which accumulated over 10,000 books. Scholars travelled from one monastery to another in search of the texts they wished to study. Travelling monks were often given funds to buy books, and certain monasteries which held a reputation for intellectual activities welcomed travelling monks who came to copy manuscripts for their own libraries. One of these was the <a href="/wiki/Monastery_of_Bobbio" class="mw-redirect" title="Monastery of Bobbio">monastery of Bobbio</a> in Italy, which was founded by the Irish abbot <a href="/wiki/Columbanus" title="Columbanus">Columbanus</a> in 614, and by the ninth century boasted a catalogue of 666 manuscripts, including religious works, classical texts, histories and mathematical treatises.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christianity_West_and_East">Christianity West and East</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Christianity West and East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">Christianity in the 6th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">Christianity in the 7th century</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">Christianity in the 8th century</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Christians">Medieval Christians</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg/220px-Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg/330px-Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg/440px-Sacr_Gelasianum_131v_132.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="1165" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Sacramentarium_Gelasianum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacramentarium Gelasianum">Sacramentarium Gelasianum</a>. <hr /> Frontispiece of Incipit from the Vatican manuscript</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Boniface_-_Baptising-Martyrdom_-_Sacramentary_of_Fulda_-_11Century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/St_Boniface_-_Baptising-Martyrdom_-_Sacramentary_of_Fulda_-_11Century.jpg/220px-St_Boniface_-_Baptising-Martyrdom_-_Sacramentary_of_Fulda_-_11Century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/St_Boniface_-_Baptising-Martyrdom_-_Sacramentary_of_Fulda_-_11Century.jpg/330px-St_Boniface_-_Baptising-Martyrdom_-_Sacramentary_of_Fulda_-_11Century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/St_Boniface_-_Baptising-Martyrdom_-_Sacramentary_of_Fulda_-_11Century.jpg/440px-St_Boniface_-_Baptising-Martyrdom_-_Sacramentary_of_Fulda_-_11Century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="777" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/St_Boniface" class="mw-redirect" title="St Boniface">St Boniface</a> – Baptism and Martyrdom.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>From the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christians">early Christians</a>, early medieval Christians inherited a church united by major creeds, a stable <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a>, and a well-developed philosophical tradition. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of medieval Christianity">history of medieval Christianity</a> traces Christianity during the Middle Ages—the period after the fall of the Western Roman Empire until the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. The institutional structure of Christianity in the west during this period is different from what it would become later in the Middle Ages. As opposed to the later church, the church of the Early Middle Ages consisted primarily of the monasteries.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_153-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of <a href="/wiki/Simony" title="Simony">simony</a> has caused the ecclesiastical offices to become the property of local princes, and as such the monasteries constituted the only church institution independent of the local princes. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a> was relatively weak, and its power was mostly confined to central Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_153-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individualized religious practice was uncommon, as it typically required membership in a religious order, such as the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Saint Benedict">Order of Saint Benedict</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_153-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious orders would not proliferate until the high Middle Ages. For the typical Christian at this time, religious participation was largely confined to occasionally receiving mass from wandering monks. Few would receive this as often as once a month.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_153-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of this period, individual practice of religion was becoming more common, as monasteries started to transform into something approximating modern churches, where some monks might even give occasional sermons.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_153-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Early Middle Ages, the divide between Eastern and Western Christianity widened, paving the way for the <a href="/wiki/East-West_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="East-West Schism">East-West Schism</a> in the 11th century. In the West, the power of the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Rome">Bishop of Rome</a> expanded. In 607, <a href="/wiki/Boniface_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Boniface III">Boniface III</a> became the first Bishop of Rome to use the title <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Not mentioned in other Wikipedia articles such as Pope Boniface and History of the Papacy (September 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a> used his office as a temporal power, expanded Rome's missionary efforts to the British Isles, and laid the foundations for the expansion of monastic orders. Roman church traditions and practices gradually replaced local variants, including <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>. Various barbarian tribes went from raiding and pillaging the island to invading and settling. They were entirely pagan, having never been part of the Empire, though they experienced Christian influence from the surrounding peoples, such as those who were converted by the mission of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury" title="Augustine of Canterbury">Augustine of Canterbury</a>, sent by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a>. In the East, the conquests of Islam reduced the power of the Greek-speaking <a href="/wiki/Patriarchates" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchates">patriarchates</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianization_of_the_West">Christianization of the West</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Christianization of the West"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman Church</a>, the only centralized institution to survive the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> intact, was the sole unifying cultural influence in the West, preserving Latin learning, maintaining the art of writing, and preserving a centralized administration through its network of <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a> ordained in succession. The Early Middle Ages are characterized by the urban control of bishops and the territorial control exercised by dukes and counts. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">urban communes</a> marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Christianity">Christianization of Germanic tribes</a> began in the 4th century with the Goths and continued throughout the Early Middle Ages, led in the 6th to 7th centuries by the <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Hiberno-Scottish mission</a> and replaced in the 8th to 9th centuries by the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_mission" title="Anglo-Saxon mission">Anglo-Saxon mission</a>, with Anglo-Saxons like <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> playing an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Boniface</a>, the Apostle of the Germans, propagated Christianity in the Frankish Empire during the 8th century. He helped shape Western Christianity, and many of the dioceses he proposed remain until today. After his martyrdom, he was quickly hailed as a saint. By 1000, even <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> had become Christian, leaving only more remote parts of Europe (<a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic peoples">Baltic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Finnic_peoples" title="Finnic peoples">Finnic</a> lands) to be Christianized during the High Middle Ages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe_in_1000">Europe in 1000</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Europe in 1000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/AD_1000" title="AD 1000">AD 1000</a></div> <p>Speculation that the world would end in the year 1000 was confined to a few uneasy French monks.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ordinary clerks used <a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">regnal years</a>, e.g. the 4th year of the reign of Robert II (the Pious) of France. The use of the modern "anno domini" system of dating was largely confined to chroniclers of universal history, such as the <a href="/wiki/Venerable_Bede" class="mw-redirect" title="Venerable Bede">Venerable Bede</a>. </p><p>Western Europe remained less developed compared to the Islamic world, with its vast network of caravan trade, or China, at this time the world's most populous empire under the <a href="/wiki/Song_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Song Dynasty">Song Dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> had a population of about 300,000, but Rome had a mere 35,000 and Paris 20,000.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, in Islamic Spain, at this time the world's largest city contained 450,000 inhabitants. The <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> had a trade network in northern Europe, including a <a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">route connecting the Baltic to Constantinople</a> through Russia, as did the <a href="/wiki/Radhanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhanites">Radhanites</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg/220px-St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg/330px-St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg/440px-St_Michaels_Church_Hildesheim.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3274" data-file-height="1911" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Church,_Hildesheim" title="St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim">St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim</a>, Germany, 1010s. <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_architecture" title="Ottonian architecture">Ottonian architecture</a> draws its inspiration from <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_architecture" title="Carolingian architecture">Carolingian</a> and Byzantine architecture.</figcaption></figure> <p>With nearly the entire nation freshly ravaged by the Vikings, England was in a desperate state. The long-suffering English later responded with a massacre of Danish settlers in 1002, leading to a round of reprisals and finally to Danish rule (1013), though England regained independence shortly after. Christianization made rapid progress and proved itself the long-term solution to the problem of barbarian raiding. The territories of Scandinavia were soon to be fully Christianized Kingdoms: <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> in the 10th century, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> in the 11th, and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, the country with the least raiding activity, in the 12th. <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kievan Rus">Kievan Rus</a>, recently converted to Orthodox Christianity, flourished as the largest state in Europe. Iceland, <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> were all declared Christian about 1000. </p><p>In Europe, a formalized institution of marriage was established. The proscribed degree of <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a> varied, but the custom made marriages annullable by application to the Pope.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> North of Italy, where masonry construction was never extinguished, stone construction was replacing timber in important structures. Deforestation of the densely wooded continent was under way. The 10th century marked a return of urban life, with the Italian cities doubling in population. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, abandoned for many centuries, was again England's main economic centre by 1000. By 1000, <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a> held regular trade fairs behind castle walls, a tentative return of economic life to western Europe. </p><p>In the culture of Europe, several features surfaced soon after 1000 that mark the end of the Early Middle Ages: the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">medieval communes</a>, the reawakening of city life, and the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">burgher class</a>, the founding of the first <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">universities</a>, the rediscovery of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, and the beginnings of vernacular literature. </p><p>In 1000, the papacy was firmly under the control of German Emperor <a href="/wiki/Otto_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto III">Otto III</a>, or "emperor of the world" as he styled himself. But later church reforms enhanced its independence and prestige: the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Cluny" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Cluny">Cluniac movement</a>, the building of the first great Transalpine stone cathedrals and the collation of the mass of accumulated <a href="/wiki/Decretal" title="Decretal">decretals</a> into a formulated <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>. Meanwhile, a new Central European power was taking shape, and on <a href="/wiki/Christmas_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Christmas Day">Christmas Day</a> of 1000, Stephen I was crowned as the first king of Hungary, stabilising the country, which had been ruled by genera. Like the <a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a>, which was also consolidating at the time, the country was seen as a promising political and trading partner, and a <i>federati</i> (ally) by the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Muslim history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Islam_2">Rise of Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Rise of Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_euojgq1fmnfughy0hh2m3vgw7t439t0"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" coords="695,20,787,40" title="Muawiyah I" alt="Muawiyah I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" coords="594,20,725,40" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib" alt="Ali ibn Abi Talib" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affan" coords="458,20,583,40" title="Uthman ibn Affan" alt="Uthman ibn Affan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_al%2DKhattab" coords="269,20,411,40" title="Umar ibn al-Khattab" alt="Umar ibn al-Khattab" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" coords="202,20,282,40" title="Abu Bakr" alt="Abu Bakr" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad" coords="104,20,184,40" title="Muhammad" alt="Muhammad" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_euojgq1fmnfughy0hh2m3vgw7t439t0" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/euojgq1fmnfughy0hh2m3vgw7t439t0.png" /></div> <p><i>Consult particular article for details</i> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba">Rise of Islam</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabische_Rijk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Arabische_Rijk.jpg/220px-Arabische_Rijk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Arabische_Rijk.jpg/330px-Arabische_Rijk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Arabische_Rijk.jpg/440px-Arabische_Rijk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1418" data-file-height="878" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Arab expansion in the 7th century<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#87f987; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <i>Area I</i> : Muhammad</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#45d245; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <i>Area II</i> : Abu Bakr</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#22bc20; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <i>Area III</i> : Omar</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#098c0a; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <i>Area IV</i> : Uthman</li></ul> </div></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The rise of Islam begins around the time <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and his followers took flight, the <a href="/wiki/Hijra_(Islam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijra (Islam)">Hijra</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> to the city of <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>. Muhammad spent his last ten years in a <a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Muhammad" title="Military career of Muhammad">series of battles to conquer the Arabian region</a>. From 622 to 632, Muhammad as the leader of a Muslim community in Medina was engaged in a state of war with the Meccans. In the proceeding decades, the area of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> was conquered by the Muslims. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Muslim army</a> found it a suitable place to construct a base. Later the area was settled and a mosque was erected. <a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Madyan</a> was conquered and settled by Muslims, but the environment was considered harsh and the settlers moved to <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>. Umar defeated the rebellion of several Arab tribes in a successful campaign, unifying the entire Arabian peninsula and giving it stability. Under <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a>'s leadership, the empire, through the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a>, expanded into <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars</a> in 650, some areas of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> in 651, and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s. In this time, the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> extended over the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and to more than two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. The <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a>, or the First Islamic Civil War, lasted for the entirety of <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a>'s reign. After the recorded peace treaty with <a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassan ibn Ali">Hassan ibn Ali</a> and the suppression of early <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a>' disturbances, <a href="/wiki/Muawiyah_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Muawiyah I">Muawiyah I</a> acceded to the position of Caliph. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_expansion">Islamic expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Islamic expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:#f8eaba"><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim Expansions in 7th & 8th Centuries</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/220px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/330px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/440px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Islamic expansion of the 7th and 8th centuries <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a1584e; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Muhammad's conquests, 622–632</div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ef9070; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661</div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fad07d; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750</div></li></ul> </div></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Arab_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Arab Wars">Eastern Roman Empire and Arab wars</a> occurred between 634 and 750. Starting in 633, Muslims <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Iraq">conquered Iraq</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Syria">Muslim conquest of Syria</a> would begin in 634 and would be complete by 638. The <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a> started in 639. Before the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim invasion of Egypt</a> began, the Eastern Roman Empire had already lost the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and its Arab ally, the <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanid Kingdom</a>, to the Muslims. The Muslims would bring Alexandria under control and the fall of Egypt would be complete by 642. Between 647 and 709, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of North Africa">Muslims swept across North Africa</a> and established their authority over that region. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg/220px-Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg/330px-Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg/440px-Spain_Andalusia_Cordoba_BW_2015-10-27_13-54-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3762" data-file-height="2486" /></a><figcaption>The 10th-century <a href="/wiki/Mezquita" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezquita">Grand Mosque of Cordoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba, Spain</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The site of the Grand Mosque was originally a pagan temple, then a Visigothic Christian church, before the Umayyad Moors at first converted the building into a mosque and then built a new mosque on the site. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> region was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslim" title="Qutayba ibn Muslim">Qutayba ibn Muslim</a> between 706 and 715 and loosely held by the Umayyads from 715 to 738. This conquest was consolidated by <a href="/wiki/Nasr_ibn_Sayyar" title="Nasr ibn Sayyar">Nasr ibn Sayyar</a> between 738 and 740. It was under the Umayyads from 740 to 748 and under the Abbasids after 748. <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, attacked in 664, would be subjugated by 712. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad. The Umayyad conquest of <a href="/wiki/Hispania" title="Hispania">Hispania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Visigothic Spain">Visigothic Spain</a>) would begin in 711 and end by 718. The <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a>, under <a href="/wiki/Al-Samh_ibn_Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Samh ibn Malik">Al-Samh ibn Malik</a>, swept up the Iberian peninsula and by 719 overran <a href="/wiki/Septimania" title="Septimania">Septimania</a>; the area would fall under their full control in 720. With the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Persia">Islamic conquest of Persia</a>, the Muslim subjugation of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> would take place between 711 and 750. The end of the sudden Islamic Caliphate expansion ended around this time. The final Islamic dominion eroded the areas of the Iron Age Roman Empire in the Middle East and controlled strategic areas of the Mediterranean. </p><p>At the end of the 8th century, the former Western Roman Empire was decentralized and overwhelmingly rural. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily and Malta</a> was a process which started in the 9th century. Islamic rule over Sicily was effective from 902, and the complete rule of the island lasted from 965 until 1061. The Islamic presence on the Italian Peninsula was ephemeral and limited mostly to semi-permanent soldier camps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caliphs_and_empire">Caliphs and empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Caliphs and empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a> of caliphs, was the third of the Islamic caliphates. Under the Abbasids, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> philosophers, scientists, and engineers of the Islamic world contributed enormously to technology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding their own inventions and innovations. Scientific and intellectual achievements blossomed in the period. </p><p>The Abbasids built their capital in Baghdad after replacing the Umayyad caliphs from all but the Iberian peninsula. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian, and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. </p><p>The Abbasids flourished for two centuries but slowly went into decline with the rise to power of the Turkish army they had created, the <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">Mamluks</a>. Within 150 years of gaining control of Persia, the caliphs were forced to cede power to local dynastic emirs who only nominally acknowledged their authority. After the Abbasids lost their military dominance, the <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a> (or Samanid Empire) rose up in Central Asia. The Sunni Islam empire was a Tajik state and had a Zoroastrian theocratic nobility. It was the next native Persian dynasty after the collapse of the Sassanid Persian empire, caused by the Arab conquest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline of the Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginning_years">Beginning years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Beginning years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_h8wqb2lt6fqi590z2hnlkmvaijo3u1e"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674)" coords="651,30,798,50" title="Siege of Constantinople (674)" alt="Siege of Constantinople (674)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93552)" coords="361,30,452,50" title="Gothic War (535–552)" alt="Gothic War (535–552)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Roman%2DPersian_War" coords="514,30,644,50" title="Roman-Persian War" alt="Roman-Persian War" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tolbiac" coords="255,30,330,50" title="Battle of Tolbiac" alt="Battle of Tolbiac" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" coords="432,15,518,35" title="Pope Gregory I" alt="Pope Gregory I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Odoacer" coords="176,15,251,35" title="Odoacer" alt="Odoacer" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muhammad" coords="504,0,585,20" title="Muhammad" alt="Muhammad" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Justinian_I" coords="364,0,461,20" title="Justinian I" alt="Justinian I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Clovis_I" coords="234,0,315,20" title="Clovis I" alt="Clovis I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Saint_Augustine" coords="55,0,141,20" title="Saint Augustine" alt="Saint Augustine" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_h8wqb2lt6fqi590z2hnlkmvaijo3u1e" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/h8wqb2lt6fqi590z2hnlkmvaijo3u1e.png" /></div> <dl><dt>Dates</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>410: <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> under <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric I</a> sack Rome</li> <li>430: Death of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Augustine">Saint Augustine</a></li> <li>476: <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> deposes <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a></li> <li>496: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tolbiac" title="Battle of Tolbiac">Battle of Tolbiac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> converts to Chalcedonianism</li> <li>507: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vouill%C3%A9" title="Battle of Vouillé">Battle of Vouillé</a></li> <li>527–565: <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a></li> <li>535–552: <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93552)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic War (535–552)">Gothic Wars</a></li> <li>541–542: <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></li> <li>547: death of <a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span>: birth of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li>590–604 <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li>597: death of <a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a></li> <li>602–629: Last great <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars#Climax" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian War</a></li> <li>615: death of <a href="/wiki/Columbanus" title="Columbanus">Columbanus</a></li> <li>626: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">Joint Persian-Avar-Slav Siege of Constantinople</a></li> <li>632: death of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li>636: death of <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li>674–678: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (674)">First Arab siege of Constantinople</a></li> <li>681: <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a> established</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ending_years">Ending years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ending years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_milztk3is2va009p18vnt19d4zs00ky"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" coords="99,30,179,50" title="Battle of Tours" alt="Battle of Tours" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Al%2DAndalus" coords="51,15,143,35" title="Al-Andalus" alt="Al-Andalus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Otto_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor" coords="609,0,679,20" title="Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor" alt="Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" coords="443,0,569,20" title="Alfred the Great" alt="Alfred the Great" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Charlemagne" coords="232,0,329,20" title="Charlemagne" alt="Charlemagne" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ardo" coords="75,0,133,20" title="Ardo" alt="Ardo" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_milztk3is2va009p18vnt19d4zs00ky" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/milztk3is2va009p18vnt19d4zs00ky.png" /></div> <dl><dt>Dates</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>7th century: <a href="/wiki/Khazar" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar">Khazar</a> empire established</li> <li>711–718: <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of Hispania">Umayyad conquest of Hispania</a></li> <li>717: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(718)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (718)">Second Arab siege of Constantinople</a></li> <li>721: death of <a href="/wiki/Ardo" title="Ardo">Ardo</a>, last king of the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a></li> <li>718-722: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Covadonga" title="Battle of Covadonga">Battle of Covadonga</a>, establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a></li> <li>730: <a href="/wiki/First_Iconoclastic_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="First Iconoclastic Controversy">First Iconoclastic Controversy</a></li> <li>732: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tours" title="Battle of Tours">Battle of Tours/Poitiers</a></li> <li>735: death of <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, British historian</li> <li>746: <a href="/wiki/Blood_court_at_Cannstatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood court at Cannstatt">Blood court at Cannstatt</a></li> <li>751: <a href="/wiki/Pepin_the_Short" title="Pepin the Short">Pepin the Short</a> founds the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a></li> <li>754: death of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li>768–814: <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li>778: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Roncevaux_Pass" title="Battle of Roncevaux Pass">Battle of Roncevaux Pass</a></li> <li>782: <a href="/wiki/Bloody_Verdict_of_Verden" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloody Verdict of Verden">Bloody Verdict of Verden</a></li> <li>793: <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> raid on Lindisfarne; <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a> begins</li> <li>796–804: <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> initiates the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="Too strong a statement; it was started by Charlemagne by necessity; see Carolingian Renaissance (September 2016)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Early_Middle_Ages#Dubious" title="Talk:Early Middle Ages">discuss</a></i>]</sup></li> <li>815: <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm_(Byzantine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iconoclasm (Byzantine)">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li>843: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a></li> <li>862: <a href="/wiki/Rurikid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rurikid Dynasty">Rurikid Dynasty</a> established</li> <li>871–899: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a></li> <li>872–930: <a href="/wiki/Harald_I_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Harald I of Norway">Harald I of Norway</a></li> <li>874-930: <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_Iceland" title="Settlement of Iceland">Settlement of Iceland</a></li> <li>882: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> established</li> <li>911: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Clair-sur-Epte" title="Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte">Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte</a> (<a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>)</li> <li>955: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lechfeld" title="Battle of Lechfeld">Battle of Lechfeld</a></li> <li>962: <a href="/wiki/Otto_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor">Otto I</a> crowned <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a></li> <li>969: <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> subjugates <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a></li> <li>987–996: <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a></li> <li>988: <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Christianization of Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li>991: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Battle of Maldon</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian Ireland">Early Christian Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_European_dress" title="Early medieval European dress">Early medieval European dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_literature" title="Early medieval literature">Early medieval literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_medieval_clothing" title="English medieval clothing">English medieval clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Sassanid">Indo-Sassanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Medieval demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Medieval_and_Early_Modern_(6th_to_18th_centuries)" title="History of Africa">Medieval History of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic expansion">Turkic expansion</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/28px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/42px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/56px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="267" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Middle Ages portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For more detail on the various starting and ending dates used by historians, see <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages#Terminology_and_periodisation" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages § Terminology and periodisation</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Citations</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mommsen226227-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mommsen226227_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMommsen1942" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Ernst_Mommsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodor Ernst Mommsen">Mommsen, Theodore E.</a> (1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Speculum_(journal)" title="Speculum (journal)">Speculum</a></i>. <b>17</b> (2). Cambridge MA: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Academy_of_America" title="Medieval Academy of America">Medieval Academy of America</a>: <span class="nowrap">226–</span>227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2856364">10.2307/2856364</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2856364">2856364</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161360211">161360211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=Petrarch%27s+Conception+of+the+%27Dark+Ages%27&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E226-%3C%2Fspan%3E227&rft.date=1942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161360211%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2856364%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2856364&rft.aulast=Mommsen&rft.aufirst=Theodore+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopkins, Keith <i>Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 BC – AD 400)</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beberglund-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-beberglund_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-beberglund_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerglund2003" class="citation journal cs1">Berglund, B. E. 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New York: Palgrave. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlymedievaleur00coll/page/n64">100</a>–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230006737" title="Special:BookSources/978-0230006737"><bdi>978-0230006737</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Europe+300%E2%80%931000&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=100-110&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0230006737&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlymedievaleur00coll&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThayer" class="citation web cs1">Thayer, Bill. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Excerpta_Valesiana/2*.html">"LacusCurtius • Excerpta Valesiana – Latter Part"</a>. <i>penelope.uchicago.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=penelope.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=LacusCurtius+%E2%80%A2+Excerpta+Valesiana+%E2%80%93+Latter+Part&rft.aulast=Thayer&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FExcerpta_Valesiana%2F2%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McEvedy 1992, op. cit.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/1996/plague.htm">Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071007012619/http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/1996/plague.htm">Archived</a> 2007-10-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", News Release, National Institutes of Health, 18 July 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dpalm.med.uth.tmc.edu/courses/BT2003/BTstudents2003_files%5CPlague2003.htm">The History of the Bubonic Plague</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415231721/http://dpalm.med.uth.tmc.edu/courses/BT2003/BTstudents2003_files%5CPlague2003.htm">Archived</a> 15 April 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaugh" class="citation web cs1">Maugh, Thomas H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ph.ucla.edu/EPI/bioter/anempiresepidemic.html">"An Empire's Epidemic"</a>. <i>ph.ucla.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020804054553/http://www.ph.ucla.edu:80/epi/bioter/anempiresepidemic.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35168-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-35168-1"><bdi>978-0-226-35168-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greatest+Killer%3A+Smallpox+in+history&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-226-35168-1&rft.au=Hopkins+DR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatestkillersm0000hopk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span> Originally published as <i>Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History</i> (1983), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-35177-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-35177-7">0-226-35177-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/history/080623-hs-smallpox.html">How Smallpox Changed the World</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080906092625/http://www.livescience.com/history/080623-hs-smallpox.html">Archived</a> 6 September 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, By Heather Whipps, LiveScience, 23 June 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unrv.com/empire/roman-population.php">"Roman Empire Population | UNRV.com Roman History"</a>. <i>unrv.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unrv.com&rft.atitle=Roman+Empire+Population+%26%23124%3B+UNRV.com+Roman+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unrv.com%2Fempire%2Froman-population.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Storey, Glenn R., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501052229/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-20586744.html">The population of ancient Rome</a>", <i>Antiquity</i>, 1 December 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harbeck,_et_al.-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harbeck,_et_al._21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarbeckSeifertHänschWagner2013" class="citation journal cs1">Harbeck, Michaela; Seifert, Lisa; Hänsch, Stephanie; Wagner, David M.; Birdsell, Dawn; Parise, Katy L.; Wiechmann, Ingrid; Grupe, Gisela; Thomas, Astrid; Keim, P; Zöller, L; Bramanti, B; Riehm, JM; Scholz, HC (2013). <a href="/wiki/Nora_J._Besansky" title="Nora J. Besansky">Besansky, Nora J</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3642051">"Yersinia pestis DNA from Skeletal Remains from the 6th Century AD Reveals Insights into Justinianic Plague"</a>. <i>PLOS Pathogens</i>. <b>9</b> (5): e1003349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1003349">10.1371/journal.ppat.1003349</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3642051">3642051</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23658525">23658525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Pathogens&rft.atitle=Yersinia+pestis+DNA+from+Skeletal+Remains+from+the+6th+Century+AD+Reveals+Insights+into+Justinianic+Plague&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e1003349&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3642051%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23658525&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1003349&rft.aulast=Harbeck&rft.aufirst=Michaela&rft.au=Seifert%2C+Lisa&rft.au=H%C3%A4nsch%2C+Stephanie&rft.au=Wagner%2C+David+M.&rft.au=Birdsell%2C+Dawn&rft.au=Parise%2C+Katy+L.&rft.au=Wiechmann%2C+Ingrid&rft.au=Grupe%2C+Gisela&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Astrid&rft.au=Keim%2C+P&rft.au=Z%C3%B6ller%2C+L&rft.au=Bramanti%2C+B&rft.au=Riehm%2C+JM&rft.au=Scholz%2C+HC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3642051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bos-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bos_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosStevensNieseltPoinar2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bos, Kirsten; Stevens, Philip; Nieselt, Kay; Poinar, Hendrik N.; <a href="/wiki/Sharon_N._DeWitte" title="Sharon N. DeWitte">Dewitte, Sharon N.</a>; Krause, Johannes (28 November 2012). Gilbert, M. Thomas P (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3509097">"Yersinia pestis: New Evidence for an Old Infection"</a>. <i>PLOS One</i>. <b>7</b> (11): e49803. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012PLoSO...749803B">2012PLoSO...749803B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0049803">10.1371/journal.pone.0049803</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3509097">3509097</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23209603">23209603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+One&rft.atitle=Yersinia+pestis%3A+New+Evidence+for+an+Old+Infection&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e49803&rft.date=2012-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3509097%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23209603&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0049803&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012PLoSO...749803B&rft.aulast=Bos&rft.aufirst=Kirsten&rft.au=Stevens%2C+Philip&rft.au=Nieselt%2C+Kay&rft.au=Poinar%2C+Hendrik+N.&rft.au=Dewitte%2C+Sharon+N.&rft.au=Krause%2C+Johannes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3509097&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoepli-Phalon2006" class="citation book cs1">Hoepli-Phalon, Nancy (31 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xYui1vU3UDUC&q=Constantinople+40%25+population+plague"><i>Great Decisions: Foreign Policy Association</i></a>. Foreign Policy Association. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871242167" title="Special:BookSources/9780871242167"><bdi>9780871242167</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Decisions%3A+Foreign+Policy+Association&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Foreign+Policy+Association&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft.isbn=9780871242167&rft.aulast=Hoepli-Phalon&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxYui1vU3UDUC%26q%3DConstantinople%2B40%2525%2Bpopulation%2Bplague&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">6th century mosaic from the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">City populations from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etext.org/Politics/World.Systems/datasets/citypop/civilizations/citypops_2000BC-1988AD"><i>Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080211233018/http://www.etext.org/Politics/World.Systems/datasets/citypop/civilizations/citypops_2000BC-1988AD">Archived</a> 11 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1987, Edwin Mellon Press) by Tertius Chandler</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071222083734/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9239">"Byzantine Empire. The successors of Heraclius: Islam and the Bulgars"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9239">the original</a> on 22 December 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Empire.+The+successors+of+Heraclius%3A+Islam+and+the+Bulgars&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter2004" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Shireen (2004). <i>Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security</i>. Routledge. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765612830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0765612830"><bdi>978-0765612830</bdi></a>. <q>It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">conquest</a> of the Iranian Sassanid Empire.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+Russia%3A+The+Politics+of+Identity+and+Security&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0765612830&rft.aulast=Hunter&rft.aufirst=Shireen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, Hugh (1995). "The Muslims in Europe". In McKitterick, Rosamund, <i>The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500 – c. 700</i>, pp. 249–272. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052136292X" title="Special:BookSources/052136292X">052136292X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cini Castagnoli, G.C., Bonino, G., Taricco, C. and Bernasconi, S.M. 2002. "Solar radiation variability in the last 1400 years recorded in the carbon isotope ratio of a Mediterranean sea core", <i>Advances in Space Research</i> 29: 1989–1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_102-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_102_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_102_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKitterick1995" class="citation book cs1">McKitterick, Rosamond (1995). <i>The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 2, c. 700–c. 900</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">87–</span>90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521362924" title="Special:BookSources/9780521362924"><bdi>9780521362924</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History%3A+Volume+2%2C+c.+700%E2%80%93c.+900&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E87-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780521362924&rft.aulast=McKitterick&rft.aufirst=Rosamond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_147-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_147_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_147_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_165-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_165_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_165_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_165_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_189-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_189_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_189_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 189</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_170-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_170_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p. 170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLienhard" class="citation web cs1">Lienhard, John H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1318.htm">"No. 1318: Three-Field Rotation"</a>. <i>Engines of Our Ingenuity</i>. University of Houston.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Engines+of+Our+Ingenuity&rft.atitle=No.+1318%3A+Three-Field+Rotation&rft.aulast=Lienhard&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uh.edu%2Fengines%2Fepi1318.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timemaps.com/encyclopedia/medieval-europe-economy-history/">"The Economy of Medieval Europe: Expanding Trade and Cities"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Economy+of+Medieval+Europe%3A+Expanding+Trade+and+Cities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timemaps.com%2Fencyclopedia%2Fmedieval-europe-economy-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_52-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_52_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p 52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierre Riché, <i>Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Jeremy Marcelino II</i>, (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Pr., 1976), pp. 100-129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pierre Riché, <i>Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century</i>, (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Pr., 1976), pp. 307-323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.iii.vii.html">"Philip Schaff: ANF03. Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian – Christian Classics Ethereal Library"</a>. <i>ccel.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ccel.org&rft.atitle=Philip+Schaff%3A+ANF03.+Latin+Christianity%3A+Its+Founder%2C+Tertullian+%E2%80%93+Christian+Classics+Ethereal+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fanf03.v.iii.vii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Stahl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Stahl (page does not exist)">William Stahl</a>, <i>Roman Science</i>, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr.) 1962, see esp. pp. 120-133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons", <i>Isis</i>, 70(1979):250-268; reprinted in M. H. Shank, ed., <i>The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages</i>, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen C. McCluskey, "Gregory of Tours, Monastic Timekeeping, and Early Christian Attitudes to Astronomy", <i>Isis</i>, 81(1990):9-22; reprinted in M. H. Shank, ed., <i>The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages</i>, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen C. McCluskey, <i>Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe,</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1998), pp. 149-57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Faith Wallis, "'Number Mystique' in Early Medieval Computus Texts", pp. 179-99 in T. Koetsier and L. Bergmans, eds. <i>Mathematics and the Divine: A Historical Study</i>, (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons2011" class="citation book cs1">Lyons, Martyn (2011). <i>Books A Living History</i>. United States: Getty Publications. pp. 15, <span class="nowrap">38–</span>40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781606060834" title="Special:BookSources/9781606060834"><bdi>9781606060834</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Books+A+Living+History&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=15%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781606060834&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor,_Norman_p_153-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor,_Norman_p_153_50-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman. "The Civilization of the Middle Ages". p 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 1993 <i>Europe in 1050</i> p 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasciutiChase-Dunn2002" class="citation web cs1">Pasciuti, Daniel; Chase-Dunn, Christopher (21 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110521163735/http://www.irows.ucr.edu/research/citemp/estcit/estcit.htm">"Estimating The Population Sizes of Cities"</a>. <i>Urbanization and Empire Formation Project</i>. University of California, Riverside. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irows.ucr.edu/research/citemp/estcit/estcit.htm">the original</a> on 21 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Urbanization+and+Empire+Formation+Project&rft.atitle=Estimating+The+Population+Sizes+of+Cities&rft.date=2002-05-21&rft.aulast=Pasciuti&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Chase-Dunn%2C+Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irows.ucr.edu%2Fresearch%2Fcitemp%2Festcit%2Festcit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060919085046/http://sumbur.n-t.org/sg/ua/ddk.htm">"Сумбур. Страны и города. Демография древнего Киева"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumbur.n-t.org/sg/ua/ddk.htm">the original</a> on 19 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80.+%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%B8+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0.+%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsumbur.n-t.org%2Fsg%2Fua%2Fddk.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowling1903" class="citation journal cs1">Dowling, Francis (9 May 1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MqZXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA478">"Heredity with Especial Reference to Certain Eye Affections"</a>. <i>The Cincinnati Lancet-Clinic</i>. <b>89</b>: 478.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cincinnati+Lancet-Clinic&rft.atitle=Heredity+with+Especial+Reference+to+Certain+Eye+Affections&rft.volume=89&rft.pages=478&rft.date=1903-05-09&rft.aulast=Dowling&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMqZXAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA478&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andreas Lawaty, Hubert Orłowski, Deutsche und Polen: Geschichte, Kultur, Politik, 2003, p.24, ISBN 3-406-49436-6, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-49436-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-49436-9">978-3-406-49436-9</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Cambridge Economic History of Europe</i>, vol. I 1966. Michael M. Postan, et al., editors.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Cantor" title="Norman Cantor">Norman F. Cantor</a>, 1963. <i>The Medieval World 300 to 1300</i>, (New York: MacMillen Co.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_L._Colish" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcia L. Colish">Marcia L. Colish</a>, 1997. <i>Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition: 400–1400.</i> (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Duby" title="Georges Duby">Georges Duby</a>, 1974. <i>The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth Century</i> (New York: Cornell University Press) Howard B. Clark, translator.</li> <li>Georges Duby, editor, 1988. <i>A History of Private Life II: Revelations of the Medieval World</i> (Harvard University Press)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Fichtenau" title="Heinrich Fichtenau">Heinrich Fichtenau</a>, (1957) 1978. <i>The Carolingian Empire</i> (University of Toronto) Peter Munz, translator.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Freeman_(historian)" title="Charles Freeman (historian)">Charles Freeman</a>, 2003. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_Western_Mind" title="The Closing of the Western Mind">The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason</a></i> (London: William Heinemann)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hodges_(archaeologist)" title="Richard Hodges (archaeologist)">Richard Hodges</a>, 1982. <i>Dark Age Economics: The Origins of Towns and Trade AD 600–1000</i> (New York: St Martin's Press)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Knowles_(scholar)" title="David Knowles (scholar)">David Knowles</a>, (1962) 1988. <i>The Evolution of Medieval Thought</i> (Random House)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Krautheimer" title="Richard Krautheimer">Richard Krautheimer</a>, 1980. <i>Rome: Profile of a City 312–1308</i> (Princeton University Press)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Lane_Fox" title="Robin Lane Fox">Robin Lane Fox</a>, 1986. <i>Pagans and Christians</i> (New York: Knopf)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David C. Lindberg</a>, 1992. <i>The Beginnings of Western Science: 600 BC–1450 AD</i> (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press)</li> <li>John Marenbon (1983) 1988.<i>Early Medieval Philosophy (480–1150): An Introduction</i> (London: Routledge)</li> <li>Rosamond McKittrick, 1983 <i>The Frankish Church Under the Carolingians</i> (London: Longmans, Green)</li> <li>Karl Frederick Morrison, 1969. <i>Tradition and Authority in the Western Church, 300–1140</i> (Princeton University Press)</li> <li>Pierre Riché, (1978) 1988. <i>Daily Life in the Age of Charlemagne</i> (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press)</li> <li>Laury Sarti, "Perceiving War and the Military in Early Christian Gaul (ca. 400–700 A.D.)" (= Brill's Series on the Early Middle Ages, 22), Leiden/Boston 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004-25618-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004-25618-7">978-9004-25618-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Southern" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Southern">Richard Southern</a>, 1953. <i>The Making of the Middle Ages</i> (Yale University Press)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Wickham" title="Chris Wickham">Chris Wickham</a>, 2005. <i><a href="/wiki/Framing_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Framing the Early Middle Ages">Framing the Early Middle Ages</a>: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800</i>, Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/Late+Antiquity+to+Early+Medieval">Early Medieval History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110902235436/http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/Late+Antiquity+to+Early+Medieval">Archived</a> 2 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> page, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/">Clio History Journal</a>, Dickson College, Australian Capital Territory.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XvQXAAAAMAAJ">Glimpses of the dark ages</a>: Or, Sketches of the social condition of Europe, from the fifth to the twelfth century. (1846). New-York: Leavitt, Trow & company</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe117" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe117" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture240" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture240" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and 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