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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Developing image of Celtic Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developing_image_of_Celtic_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Wales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cornwall_and_West_Devon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cornwall_and_West_Devon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Cornwall and West Devon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cornwall_and_West_Devon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universal_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universal_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Universal practice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universal_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pan-Celtic_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pan-Celtic_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Pan-Celtic traditions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pan-Celtic_traditions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pan-Celtic traditions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pan-Celtic_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Easter_calculation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Easter_calculation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Easter calculation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Easter_calculation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monastic_tonsure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monastic_tonsure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Monastic tonsure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monastic_tonsure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penitentials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penitentials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Penitentials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penitentials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peregrinatio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peregrinatio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Peregrinatio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peregrinatio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_British_and_Irish_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_British_and_Irish_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other British and Irish traditions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_British_and_Irish_traditions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other British and Irish traditions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_British_and_Irish_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monasticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Monasticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wales_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wales_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Wales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wales_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_of_Columbanus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_of_Columbanus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Rule of Columbanus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_of_Columbanus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baptism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baptism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Baptism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baptism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accusations_of_Judaizing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accusations_of_Judaizing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Accusations of Judaizing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accusations_of_Judaizing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_Christianity_in_the_British_Isles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_Christianity_in_the_British_Isles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Influence on Christianity in the British Isles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_Christianity_in_the_British_Isles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celtic_Christian_revivalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic_Christian_revivalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Celtic Christian revivalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic_Christian_revivalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Celtic Christianity</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%83%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مسيحية كلتية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مسيحية كلتية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Кельцкая царква – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кельцкая царква" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianisme_c%C3%A8ltic" title="Cristianisme cèltic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cristianisme cèltic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Eglwys_Geltaidd" title="Yr Eglwys Geltaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Eglwys Geltaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroschottische_Kirche" title="Iroschottische Kirche – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Iroschottische Kirche" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianismo_celta" title="Cristianismo celta – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cristianismo celta" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="مسیحیت سلتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مسیحیت سلتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianisme_celtique" title="Christianisme celtique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Christianisme celtique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianismo_celta" title="Cristianismo celta – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cristianismo celta" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BC%88%ED%8A%B8_%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90" title="켈트 기독교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="켈트 기독교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltsko_kr%C5%A1%C4%87anstvo" title="Keltsko kršćanstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Keltsko kršćanstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekristenan_Kelt" title="Kekristenan Kelt – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekristenan Kelt" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianesimo_celtico" title="Cristianesimo celtico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cristianesimo celtico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makanisa_ya_Kikelti" title="Makanisa ya Kikelti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Makanisa ya Kikelti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianisme_celta" title="Cristianisme celta – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cristianisme celta" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltisch_christendom" title="Keltisch christendom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Keltisch christendom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88%E7%B3%BB%E3%82%AD%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E6%95%99" title="ケルト系キリスト教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ケルト系キリスト教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltisk_kristendom" title="Keltisk kristendom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Keltisk kristendom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bci%C3%B3%C5%82_iroszkocki" title="Kościół iroszkocki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kościół iroszkocki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianismo_c%C3%A9ltico" title="Cristianismo céltico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cristianismo céltico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_Celtic%C4%83" title="Biserica Celtică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Biserica Celtică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C" title="Кельтская церковь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кельтская церковь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Celtic Christianity" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltsko_kr%C5%A1%C4%87anstvo" title="Keltsko kršćanstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Keltsko kršćanstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelttil%C3%A4inen_kristillisyys" title="Kelttiläinen kristillisyys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kelttiläinen kristillisyys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keltisk_kristendom" title="Keltisk kristendom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Keltisk kristendom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Christianity in the Celtic language–speaking world during the early Middle Ages</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg/220px-Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg/330px-Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg/440px-Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Cross">Celtic Cross</a> in <a href="/wiki/Knock,_County_Mayo" title="Knock, County Mayo">Knock</a>, Ireland</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Celtic Christianity</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> that was common, or held to be common, across the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic-speaking</a> world during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch431_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch431-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some writers have described a distinct Celtic Church uniting the <a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Celtic peoples</a> and distinguishing them from adherents of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Roman</a> Church, while others classify Celtic Christianity as a set of distinctive practices occurring in those areas.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Varying scholars reject the former notion, but note that there were certain traditions and practices present in both the Irish and British churches that were not seen in the wider <a href="/wiki/Christian_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian world">Christian world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Corning18_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning18-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such practices include: a distinctive system for determining the <a href="/wiki/Easter_controversy" title="Easter controversy">dating of Easter</a>, a style of monastic <a href="/wiki/Tonsure" title="Tonsure">tonsure</a>, a unique system of <a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">penance</a>, and the popularity of going into "exile for Christ".<sup id="cite_ref-Corning18_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning18-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, there were other practices that developed in certain parts of Great Britain and Ireland that were not known to have spread beyond particular regions. The term typically denotes the regional practices among the insular churches and their associates rather than actual theological differences. </p><p>The term <b>Celtic Church</b> is deprecated by many historians as it implies a unified and identifiable entity entirely separate from that of mainstream Western <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, many prefer the term <b>Insular Christianity</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wormald" title="Patrick Wormald">Patrick Wormald</a> explained, "One of the common misconceptions is that there was a <i>Roman</i> Church to which the <i>Celtic</i> Church was nationally opposed."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Popularized by German historian <a href="/wiki/Lutz_von_Padberg" title="Lutz von Padberg">Lutz von Padberg</a>, the term "<i>Iroschottisch</i>" is used to describe this supposed dichotomy between <i>Irish-Scottish</i> and <i>Roman</i> Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a whole, Celtic-speaking areas were part of Latin Christendom at a time when there was significant <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Liturgical_Rites" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Liturgical Rites">regional variation of liturgy and structure</a>. But a general collective veneration of the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Papacy</a> was no less intense in Celtic-speaking areas.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, distinctive traditions developed and spread to both <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, especially in the 6th and 7th centuries. Some elements may have been introduced to Ireland by the Romano-British <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Saint Patrick</a>, and later, others from Ireland to Great Britain through the <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Irish mission system</a> of Saint <a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a>. However, the histories of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton people">Breton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a> Churches diverge significantly after the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interest in the subject has led to a series of <b>Celtic Christian Revival</b> movements, which have shaped popular perceptions of the Celts and their Christian religious practices. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="color: black; background-color: #008050; border: 1px solid #008050"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Celtic_Christianity" title="Category:Celtic Christianity"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFF0"><i>a series</i></span></a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FFFFF0">Celtic Christianity</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cruz_Celta_con_Trisquetas.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Celtic cross"><img alt="Celtic cross" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cruz_Celta_con_Trisquetas.svg/100px-Cruz_Celta_con_Trisquetas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cruz_Celta_con_Trisquetas.svg/150px-Cruz_Celta_con_Trisquetas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cruz_Celta_con_Trisquetas.svg/200px-Cruz_Celta_con_Trisquetas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #E0F0D0; border: 2px solid #E0F0D0;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #E0F0D0; border: 2px solid #E0F0D0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Roman_Britain" title="Christianity in Roman Britain">Christianity in Roman Britain</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ireland" title="Christianity in Ireland">Christianity in Ireland</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Ireland" title="Catholic Church in Ireland">Catholic Church in Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">Early Christian Ireland</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland#Christianity" title="Religion in Scotland">Christianity in Scotland</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Medieval_Scotland" title="Christianity in Medieval Scotland">Christianity in Medieval Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Hiberno-Scottish mission</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Christianity in Wales</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">"Age of Saints"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Brefi" title="Synod of Brefi">Synod of Brefi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Chester" title="Synod of Chester">Synod of Chester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Victory" title="Synod of Victory">Synod of Victory</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cornwall" title="Christianity in Cornwall">Christianity in Cornwall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Celtic_Christianity" title="Neo-Celtic Christianity">Neo-Celtic Christianity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #E0F0D0; border: 2px solid #E0F0D0;color: var(--color-base)">Features</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #E0F0D0; border: 2px solid #E0F0D0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_shrine" title="Bell shrine">Bell shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_chant" title="Celtic chant">Celtic chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Cross">Celtic Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_mass" title="Celtic mass">Celtic mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Rite" title="Celtic Rite">Celtic Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clas_(ecclesiastical_settlement)" title="Clas (ecclesiastical settlement)">Clas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culdees" title="Culdees">Culdees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_illumination" title="Insular illumination">Insular illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_monasticism" title="Insular monasticism">Insular monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papar" title="Papar">Papar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plygain" title="Plygain">Plygain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculptured_stones" title="Sculptured stones">Sculptured stones</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color: #E0F0D0; border: 2px solid #E0F0D0;color: var(--color-base)">Saints and leaders</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #E0F0D0; border: 2px solid #E0F0D0"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cornish_saints" title="List of Cornish saints">Cornish saints</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_saints" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Irish saints">Irish saints</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_saints" title="List of Welsh saints">Welsh saints</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Apostles_of_Ireland" title="Twelve Apostles of Ireland">Twelve Apostles of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brittany#Religion" title="Brittany">Seven Founder Saints of Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Alban" title="Saint Alban">Alban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brendan_the_Navigator" title="Brendan the Navigator">Brendan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigit_of_Kildare" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigit of Kildare">Brigit of Kildare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadoc" title="Cadoc">Cadoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbanus" title="Columbanus">Columbanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuthbert" title="Cuthbert">Cuthbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubricius" title="Dubricius">Dubricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnian_of_Movilla" title="Finnian of Movilla">Finnian of Movilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwynllyw" title="Gwynllyw">Gwynllyw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illtud" title="Illtud">Illtud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Aaron" title="Julius and Aaron">Julius and Aaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Mungo" title="Saint Mungo">Kentigern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malo_(saint)" title="Malo (saint)">Malo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Ninian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Ninian">Ninian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oudoceus" title="Oudoceus">Oudoceus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson_of_Dol" title="Samson of Dol">Samson of Dol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Teilo">Teilo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tewdrig" title="Tewdrig">Tewdrig</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background-color: #E0F0D0; border: 2px solid #E0F0D0"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Portal Christianity</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Celtic_Christianity" title="Template:Celtic Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Celtic_Christianity" title="Template talk:Celtic Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>People have conceived of "Celtic Christianity" in different ways at different times. Writings on the topic frequently say more about the time in which they originate than about the historical state of Christianity in the early medieval <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic-speaking world</a>, and many notions are now discredited in modern academic discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One particularly prominent feature ascribed to Celtic Christianity is that it is supposedly inherently distinct from – and generally opposed to – the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Corning1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other common claims include that Celtic Christianity denied the <a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy" title="Papal supremacy">authority of the Pope</a>, was less authoritarian than the Catholic Church, more <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a>, friendlier to women, more connected with <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, and more comfortable dealing with <a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic polytheism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Corning1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One view, which gained substantial scholarly traction in the 19th century, was that there was a "Celtic Church", a significant organised Christian body or denomination uniting the Celtic peoples and separating them from the "Roman" church of continental Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch432_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch432-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this appears in <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Toynbee</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_Study_of_History" title="A Study of History"><i>Study of History</i></a> (1934–1961), which identified Celtic Christianity with an "Abortive Far Western Civilization" – the nucleus of a new society, which was prevented from taking root by the Roman Church, Vikings, and Normans.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have been content to speak of "Celtic Christianity" as consisting of certain traditions and beliefs intrinsic to the Celts.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch432434_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch432434-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, modern scholars have identified problems with all of these claims, and find the term "Celtic Christianity" problematic in and of itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch431_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch431-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern scholarship roundly rejects the idea of a "Celtic Church" due to the lack of substantiating evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch432434_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch432434-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, distinct Irish and British church traditions existed, each with their own practices, and there was significant local variation even within the individual Irish and British spheres.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Irish and British churches had some traditions in common, these were relatively few. Even these commonalities did not exist due to the <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">"Celticity"</a> of the regions, but due to other historical and geographical factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch432_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch432-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the Christians of Ireland and Britain were not "anti-Roman"; Celtic areas respected the authority of Rome and the papacy as strongly as any other region of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caitlin Corning further notes that the "Irish and British were no more pro-women, pro-environment, or even more spiritual than the rest of the Church."<sup id="cite_ref-Corning1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developing_image_of_Celtic_Christianity">Developing image of Celtic Christianity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Developing image of Celtic Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Corning writes that scholars have identified three major strands of thought that have influenced the popular conceptions of Celtic Christianity: </p> <ul><li>The first arose in the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> declared itself separate from papal authority. <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> writers of this time popularised the idea of an indigenous British Christianity that opposed the foreign "Roman" church and was purer (and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Protestant">proto-Protestant</a>) in thought. The English church, they claimed, was not forming a new institution, but casting off the shackles of Rome and returning to its true roots as the indigenous national church of Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic movement</a> of the 18th century, in particular Romantic notions of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a> and the intrinsic qualities of the "Celtic race", further influenced ideas about Celtic Christianity. Romantics idealised the Celts as a primitive, bucolic people who were far more poetic, spiritual, and freer of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> than their neighbours. The Celts were seen as having an inner spiritual nature that shone through even after their form of Christianity had been destroyed by the authoritarian and rational Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the 20th and 21st centuries, ideas about "Celtic Christians" combined with appeals by certain modern churches, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Paganism">modern pagan</a> groups, and <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> groups seeking to recover something of ancient spirituality that they believe is missing from the modern world. For these groups, Celtic Christianity becomes a cipher for whatever is lost in the modern religious experience. Corning notes that these notions say more about modern desires than about the reality of Christianity in the Early Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Some associate the early Christians of Celtic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a> (purportedly recipients of <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatians" title="Epistle to the Galatians">Epistle to the Galatians</a>) with later Christians of north-western Europe's <a href="/wiki/Celtic_fringe" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic fringe">Celtic fringe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Celtic_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Celtic Christianity">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St._Aristobulus_of_Britain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/St._Aristobulus_of_Britain.jpg/150px-St._Aristobulus_of_Britain.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/St._Aristobulus_of_Britain.jpg/225px-St._Aristobulus_of_Britain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/St._Aristobulus_of_Britain.jpg/300px-St._Aristobulus_of_Britain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="419" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Modern <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Britannia" title="Aristobulus of Britannia">Aristobulus of Britannia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>According to medieval traditions, Christianity arrived in Britain in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st century</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>'s 6th-century <a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">account</a> dated its arrival to the latter part of the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an account of the <a href="/wiki/Seventy_disciples" title="Seventy disciples">seventy disciples</a> discovered at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a> in 1854 lists <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Britannia" title="Aristobulus of Britannia">Aristobulus</a> as "bishop of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval accounts of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_of_Britain" title="Lucius of Britain">King Lucius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fagan_(saint)" title="Fagan (saint)">Fagan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deruvian" title="Deruvian">Deruvian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_of_Arimathea" title="Joseph of Arimathea">Joseph of Arimathea</a>, however, are now usually accounted as <a href="/wiki/Pious_fraud" title="Pious fraud">pious frauds</a>. </p><p>The earliest certain historical evidence of Christianity among the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a> is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> in the first years of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">3rd century</a>, although the first Christian communities probably were established at least some decades earlier. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amphibalus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Amphibalus.jpg/220px-Amphibalus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Amphibalus.jpg/330px-Amphibalus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Amphibalus.jpg/440px-Amphibalus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="306" /></a><figcaption><i>Amphibalus baptizing converts</i>, from <i>The Life of St. Alban</i>, written and illustrated by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Paris" title="Matthew Paris">Matthew Paris</a> († 1259)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Line_illustration_of_a_Saint%27s_bones_unearthed._Wellcome_M0007956.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Line_illustration_of_a_Saint%27s_bones_unearthed._Wellcome_M0007956.jpg/220px-Line_illustration_of_a_Saint%27s_bones_unearthed._Wellcome_M0007956.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Line_illustration_of_a_Saint%27s_bones_unearthed._Wellcome_M0007956.jpg/330px-Line_illustration_of_a_Saint%27s_bones_unearthed._Wellcome_M0007956.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Line_illustration_of_a_Saint%27s_bones_unearthed._Wellcome_M0007956.jpg/440px-Line_illustration_of_a_Saint%27s_bones_unearthed._Wellcome_M0007956.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4028" data-file-height="2629" /></a><figcaption><i>The discovery of St. Alban's bones</i>, illustrated in <i>The Life of St. Alban</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Initially, Christianity was but one of a number of religions: in addition to the native and syncretic local forms of paganism, <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legionaries</a> and immigrants introduced other cults such as <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a>. At various times, the Christians risked <a href="/wiki/Roman_persecutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman persecutions">persecution</a>, although the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian martyrs">Christian martyrs</a> in Britain – <a href="/wiki/Saint_Alban" title="Saint Alban">Saint Alban</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Amphibalus" title="Amphibalus">Amphibalus</a>" – probably lived in the early 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Aaron" title="Julius and Aaron">Julius and Aaron</a>, citizens of <a href="/wiki/Caerleon" title="Caerleon">Caerleon</a>, were said to have been martyred during the <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">Diocletianic Persecution</a>, although there is no textual or archaeological evidence to support the <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">folk etymology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lichfield" title="Lichfield">Lichfield</a> as deriving from another thousand martyrs during the same years.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> intensified with the legalisation of the Christian religion under <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> in the early 4th century and its promotion by subsequent Christian emperors. Three <a href="/wiki/Romano-British_culture" title="Romano-British culture">Romano-British</a> bishops, including <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">Archbishop</a> <a href="/wiki/Restitutus" title="Restitutus">Restitutus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_London" title="Bishop of London">London</a>, are known to have been present at the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Arles_(314)" class="mw-redirect" title="Synod of Arles (314)">Synod of Arles in 314</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others attended the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Serdica" title="Council of Serdica">Council of Serdica</a> in 347 and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ariminum" title="Council of Ariminum">Council of Ariminum</a> in 360. A number of references to the church in Roman Britain are also found in the writings of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th-century</a> Christian fathers. Britain was the home of <a href="/wiki/Pelagius" title="Pelagius">Pelagius</a>, who opposed <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>'s doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Germanus_of_Auxerre" title="Germanus of Auxerre">St Germanus</a> was said to have visited the island in part to oppose the bishops who advocated <a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">his heresy</a>. </p><p>Around 367, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Conspiracy" title="Great Conspiracy">Great Conspiracy</a> saw the troops along <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> mutiny, allowing the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> to overrun the northern areas of Roman Britain (in some cases joining in), in concert with <a href="/wiki/Irish_invasions_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish invasions of Wales">Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Saxon</a> attacks on the coast. The Roman provinces seem to have been retaken by <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosius the Elder">Theodosius the Elder</a> the next year, but many <a href="/wiki/Romano-Britons" class="mw-redirect" title="Romano-Britons">Romano-Britons</a> had already been killed or taken as slaves. In 407, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_Emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)">Constantine III</a> declared himself "emperor of the West" and <a href="/wiki/Roman_withdrawal_from_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman withdrawal from Britain">withdrew his legions</a> to <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>) stated that Constantine's neglect of the area's defence against Irish and <a href="/wiki/Saxon_invasion_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon invasion of Britain">Saxon raids and invasions</a> caused the Britons and <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> to fully revolt from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, rejecting <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> and reverting to <a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">their native customs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In any case, Roman authority was greatly weakened following the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>' <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sack of Rome</a> in 410. Medieval legend attributed widespread <a href="/wiki/Saxon_invasions_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon invasions of Britain">Saxon immigration</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hengist_and_Horsa" title="Hengist and Horsa">mercenaries</a> hired by the British king <a href="/wiki/Vortigern" title="Vortigern">Vortigern</a>. The Saxon communities followed <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">a form of Germanic paganism</a>, driving Christian Britons back to <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> or subjugating them under kingdoms with no formal church presence. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Columba_at_Bridei%27s_fort.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Columba_at_Bridei%27s_fort.jpg/180px-Columba_at_Bridei%27s_fort.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Columba_at_Bridei%27s_fort.jpg/270px-Columba_at_Bridei%27s_fort.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Columba_at_Bridei%27s_fort.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a> at the gate of <a href="/wiki/Bridei_I" title="Bridei I">Bridei I</a>'s fortress</i>, book illustration by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ratcliffe_Skelton" title="Joseph Ratcliffe Skelton">Joseph Ratcliffe Skelton</a> (1906)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Fifth and sixth century Britain</a>, although poorly attested, saw the "Age of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_saints" title="List of Welsh saints">Saints</a>" among the Welsh. <a href="/wiki/Saint_Dubric" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Dubric">Saint Dubric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Illtud" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Illtud">Saint Illtud</a>, and others first completed the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Christianization of Wales</a>. Unwilling or unable to <a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christianity)">missionize</a> among the Saxons in England, Briton refugees and missionaries such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Saint Patrick</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Finnian_of_Clonard" title="Finnian of Clonard">Finnian of Clonard</a> were then responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ireland" title="Christianity in Ireland">Christianization of Ireland</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and made up the <a href="/wiki/Seven_founder_saints_of_Brittany" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven founder saints of Brittany">Seven Founder Saints of Brittany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Irish in turn made Christians of the Picts and English. <a href="/wiki/Saint_Columba" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Columba">Saint Columba</a> then began the conversion of the <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata#Religion_and_art" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a> and the other peoples of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Scotland" title="History of Christianity in Scotland">Scotland</a>, although native saints such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_Mungo" title="Saint Mungo">Mungo</a> also arose. The history of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Cornwall" title="Christianity in Cornwall">Christianity in Cornwall</a> is more obscure, but the native church seems to have been greatly strengthened by Welsh and Irish missionaries such as Saints <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petroc" title="Saint Petroc">Petroc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Piran" title="Saint Piran">Piran</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Breaca" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Breaca">Breaca</a>. Extreme weather (as <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather_events_of_535%E2%80%93536" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme weather events of 535–536">around 535</a>) and the attendant famines and disease, particularly the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian" title="Plague of Justinian">Plague of Justinian</a> in Wales around 547 and Ireland around 548, may have contributed to these missionary efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="saints"></span>The title of "<a href="/wiki/Christian_Saint" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Saint">saint</a>" was used quite broadly by British, Irish, and English Christians. Extreme cases are Irish accounts of <a href="/wiki/Gerald_of_Mayo" title="Gerald of Mayo">Gerald of Mayo</a>'s presiding over 3,300 saints and Welsh claims that <a href="/wiki/Bardsey_Island" title="Bardsey Island">Bardsey Island</a> held the remains of 20,000.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More often, the title was given to the founder of any ecclesiastical settlement, which would thenceforth be known as their <i><a href="/wiki/Llan_(placename)" title="Llan (placename)">llan</a></i>. Such communities were organized on tribal models: founding saints were almost invariably lesser members of local dynasties, they were not infrequently married, and their successors were often chosen from among their kin.<sup id="cite_ref-sabi_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sabi-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 6th century, the "<a href="/wiki/Welsh_Triads" title="Welsh Triads">Three Saintly Families of Wales</a>" – those of the invading Irish Brychan and <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cunedda_Wledig" class="mw-redirect" title="Cunedda Wledig">Cunedda Wledig</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caw_of_Strathclyde" title="Caw of Strathclyde">Caw of Strathclyde</a> – displaced many of the local <a href="/wiki/Siluria" class="mw-redirect" title="Siluria">Silurian</a> rulers in favor of their own families and clans.<sup id="cite_ref-sabi_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sabi-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By some estimates,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these traditions produced over 800 <a href="/wiki/Pre-congregational_saint" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-congregational saint">pre-congregational saints</a> that were venerated locally in Wales, but invasions by <a href="/wiki/Saxon_invasions_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon invasions of Wales">Saxons</a>, Irishmen, <a href="/wiki/Viking_invasions_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking invasions of Wales">Vikings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Normans</a>, and others destroyed many ecclesiastical records. Similarly, the distance from Rome, hostility to native practices and cults, and relative unimportance of the local sees has left only two local Welsh saints in the <a href="/wiki/General_Roman_Calendar" title="General Roman Calendar">General Roman Calendar</a>: Saints <a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Winifred" title="Saint Winifred">Winifred</a>. </p><p>Insular Christianity developed distinct traditions and practices, most pointedly concerning the <i><a href="/wiki/Computus" class="mw-redirect" title="Computus">computus</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Easter_controversy" title="Easter controversy">Easter</a>, as it produced the most obvious signs of disunity:<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd175176_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd175176-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the old and new methods did not usually agree, causing Christians following one system to begin celebrating the feast of the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a> while others continued to solemnly observe <a href="/wiki/Lent" title="Lent">Lent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a> spread widely; the <a href="/wiki/Llandaff_Charters" class="mw-redirect" title="Llandaff Charters">Llandaff Charters</a> record over fifty religious foundations in southeast Wales alone. Although the <i><a href="/wiki/Clasau" class="mw-redirect" title="Clasau">clasau</a></i> were rather modest affairs, great <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">monasteries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monastic_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Monastic schools">monastic schools</a> also developed at <a href="/wiki/Llantwit_Major" title="Llantwit Major">Llantwit Major</a> (<i><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Llanilltud Fawr</i></span></i>), <a href="/wiki/Bangor_Cathedral#History" title="Bangor Cathedral">Bangor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iona#History" title="Iona">Iona</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tonsure" title="Tonsure">tonsure</a> differed from that elsewhere and also became a point of contention. A distinction that became increasingly important was the nature of church organisation: some monasteries were led by married clergy, inheritance of religious offices was common (in Wales, as late as the 12th century),<sup id="cite_ref-powys_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-powys-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and illegitimacy was treated much more leniently with fathers simply needing to acknowledge the child for him to inherit an equal share with his brothers. Prior to their conquest by England, most churches have records of bishops and priests but not an established <a href="/wiki/Parish" title="Parish">parish</a> system. Pre-conquest, most Christians would not attend regular services but relied on members of the monastic communities who would occasionally make preaching tours through the area.<sup id="cite_ref-powys_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-powys-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wales">Wales</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_saints" title="List of Welsh saints">List of Welsh saints</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LeningradBedeHiRes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/LeningradBedeHiRes.jpg/180px-LeningradBedeHiRes.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/LeningradBedeHiRes.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="230" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury" title="Augustine of Canterbury">Augustine of Canterbury</a> from an 8th-century manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a> dispatched a <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_mission" title="Gregorian mission">mission</a> under <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury" title="Augustine of Canterbury">Augustine of Canterbury</a> to convert the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>, establish new sees and churches throughout their territories, and reassert papal authority over the native church. Gregory intended for Augustine to become the metropolitan bishop over all of southern Britain, including the existing dioceses under Welsh and Cornish control. Augustine met with British bishops in a series of conferences – known as the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Chester" title="Synod of Chester">Synod of Chester</a> – that attempted to assert his authority and to compel them to abandon aspects of their service that had fallen out of line with Roman practice. The <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbrian</a> cleric <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People" title="Ecclesiastical History of the English People">Ecclesiastical History of the English People</a></i> is the only surviving account of these meetings: according to it, some of the clerics of the nearest British province met Augustine at a site that was known thereafter as Augustine's Oak. Augustine focused on seeking assistance for his work among the Saxons and reforming the Britons' obsolete method for calculating Easter; the clerics responded that they would need to confer with their people and await a larger assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd174175_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd174175-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bede relates that the bishops particularly consulted a hermit on how to respond. He told them to respond based on Augustine's conduct: were he to rise to greet them, they would know him for a humble servant of Christ and should submit to his authority but, were he to remain seated, they would know him to be arrogant and prideful and should reject him. As it happened, Augustine did keep his seat, provoking mistrust. In the negotiations that followed, he offered to allow the Britons to maintain all their native customs but three: they should adopt Rome's more advanced method of calculating the date of Easter, reform their baptismal ritual, and join the missionary efforts among the Saxons. The British clerics rejected all of these, as well as Augustine's authority over them.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd174175_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd174175-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">John Edward Lloyd</a> argues that the primary reason for the British bishops' rejection of Augustine – and especially his call for them to join his missionary effort – was his claim to sovereignty over them, given that his see would be so deeply entwined with the Anglo-Saxon <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kingdom of Kent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd177_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd177-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelfrith" title="Æthelfrith">Æthelfrith</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Kingdom of Northumbria</a> around 616 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chester" title="Battle of Chester">Battle of Chester</a> was taken by Bede as fulfillment of the prophecy made by Augustine of Canterbury following the Synod of Chester.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prophecy stated that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons if they refused to proselytise.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt the Roman and Saxon <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">computus</i></span> until induced to do so around 768 by "<a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Bangor" title="Bishop of Bangor">Archbishop</a>" <a href="/wiki/Elfodd" title="Elfodd">Elfodd</a> of "Gwynedd". The Norman invasion of Wales finally brought Welsh dioceses under <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a>'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Apostle" title="Philip the Apostle">Philip the Apostle</a>'s dispatch of Joseph of Arimathea in part aimed to preserve the priority and authority of the native establishments at <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_St_David%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of St David's">St David's</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Llandaff" title="Diocese of Llandaff">Llandaff</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey" title="Glastonbury Abbey">Glastonbury</a>. It was not until the death of <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_St_Davids" title="Bishop of St Davids">Bishop</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_(bishop_of_St_Davids)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard (bishop of St Davids)">Bernard</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1147</span>) that St Davids finally abandoned its claims to metropolitan status and submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Canterbury" title="Province of Canterbury">Province of Canterbury</a>, by which point the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a>'s pseudohistorical <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Regum_Britanniae" title="Historia Regum Britanniae">Historia Regum Britanniae</a></i> had begun spreading these inventions further afield. Such ideas were used by mediaeval anti-Roman movements such as the <a href="/wiki/Lollardy" title="Lollardy">Lollards</a> and followers of <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as by English Catholics during the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>. The legend that Jesus himself visited Britain is referred to in <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>'s 1804 poem "<a href="/wiki/And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time" title="And did those feet in ancient time">And did those feet in ancient time</a>". The words of Blake's poem were set to music in 1916 by <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Parry" title="Hubert Parry">Hubert Parry</a> as the well-known song "Jerusalem". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scotland">Scotland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Scotland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Hiberno-Scottish mission</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ninian_of_Whithorn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ninian_of_Whithorn.jpg/220px-Ninian_of_Whithorn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ninian_of_Whithorn.jpg/330px-Ninian_of_Whithorn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ninian_of_Whithorn.jpg/440px-Ninian_of_Whithorn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Ninian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Ninian">Saint Ninian</a> as intercessor from <i>Book of Hours of the Virgin and Saint Ninian</i> (15th century)</figcaption></figure> <p>According to Bede, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Ninian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Ninian">Saint Ninian</a> was born about 360 in what is present day Galloway, the son of a chief of the Novantae, apparently a Christian. He studied under <a href="/wiki/Martin_of_Tours" title="Martin of Tours">Martin of Tours</a> before returning to his own land about 397. He established himself at <a href="/wiki/Whithorn" title="Whithorn">Whithorn</a> where he built a church of stone, "Candida Casa". Tradition holds that Ninian established an episcopal see at the Candida Casa in Whithorn, and named the see for Saint Martin of Tours. He converted the southern Picts to Christianity,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and died around 432. Many Irish saints trained at the "Candida Casa", such as <a href="/wiki/Tigernach_of_Clones" title="Tigernach of Clones">Tigernach of Clones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ciar%C3%A1n_of_Clonmacnoise" title="Ciarán of Clonmacnoise">Ciarán of Clonmacnoise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Finnian_of_Movilla" title="Finnian of Movilla">Finnian of Movilla</a>. Ninian's work was carried on by Palladius, who left Ireland to work among the Picts. The mission to the southern Picts apparently met with some setbacks, as Patrick charged Coroticus and the "apostate Picts" with conducting raids on the Irish coast and seizing Christians as slaves. <a href="/wiki/Ternan" title="Ternan">Ternan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Serf" title="Saint Serf">Saint Serf</a> followed Palladius. Serf was the teacher of Saint Mungo,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the apostle of Strathclyde, and patron saint of Glasgow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cornwall_and_West_Devon">Cornwall and West Devon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cornwall and West Devon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Cornish_saints" title="List of Cornish saints">List of Cornish saints</a></div> <p>A Welshman of noble birth, Saint Petroc was educated in Ireland. He set out in a small boat with a few followers. In a type of <i>peregrinatio</i>, they let God determine their course. The winds and tides brought them to the Padstow estuary.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kevin_of_Glendalough" title="Kevin of Glendalough">Kevin of Glendalough</a> was a student of Petroc. <a href="/wiki/Saint_Endelienta" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Endelienta">Saint Endelienta</a> was the daughter of the Welsh king <a href="/wiki/Brychan" title="Brychan">Brychan</a>. She also travelled to Cornwall – that is ancient <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a> – to evangelize the locals as did <a href="/wiki/St_Nonna" class="mw-redirect" title="St Nonna">St Nonna</a> mother of <a href="/wiki/St_David" class="mw-redirect" title="St David">St David</a> who travelled on to Brittany. Her brother <a href="/wiki/Nectan_of_Hartland" title="Nectan of Hartland">Nectan of Hartland</a> worked in Devon. Saint Piran is the patron saint of tin miners. An Irishman, <a href="/wiki/Ciaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciaran">Ciaran</a>, he is said to have 'floated' across to Cornwall after being thrown into the sea tied to a millstone. He has been identified on occasion with <a href="/wiki/Ciar%C3%A1n_of_Saigir" title="Ciarán of Saigir">Ciarán of Saigir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-schaff_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schaff-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stpatrick_hilloftara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Stpatrick_hilloftara.jpg/220px-Stpatrick_hilloftara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Stpatrick_hilloftara.jpg/330px-Stpatrick_hilloftara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Stpatrick_hilloftara.jpg/440px-Stpatrick_hilloftara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>St. Patrick</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_saints" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Irish saints">List of Irish saints</a></div> <p>By the early fifth century, the religion had spread to Ireland, which had never been part of the Roman Empire. There were Christians in Ireland before <a href="/wiki/Palladius_(bishop_of_Ireland)" title="Palladius (bishop of Ireland)">Palladius</a> arrived in 431 as the first missionary bishop sent by Rome. His mission does not seem to have been entirely successful. The subsequent mission of Saint Patrick, traditionally starting in 432,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> established churches in conjunction with <i>civitates</i> like his own in <a href="/wiki/Armagh" title="Armagh">Armagh</a>; small enclosures in which groups of Christians, often of both sexes and including the married, lived together, served in various roles and ministered to the local population.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2017)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Patrick set up diocesan structures with a hierarchy of bishops, priests, and deacons. During the late 5th and 6th centuries true monasteries became the most important centres: in Patrick's own see of Armagh the change seems to have happened before the end of the 5th century, thereafter the bishop was the abbot also.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a few generations of the arrival of the first missionaries the monastic and clerical class of the isle had become fully integrated with the culture of Latin letters. Besides Latin, Irish ecclesiastics developed a written form of <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Irish language">Old Irish</a>. Others who influenced the development of Christianity in Ireland include <a href="/wiki/Saint_Brigid" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Brigid">Brigid</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 451 – 525), Saint <a href="/wiki/Moluag" title="Moluag">Moluag</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 510 – 592, who evangelised in the area of present-day Scotland) and Saint <a href="/wiki/Caill%C3%ADn" title="Caillín">Caillín</a> (fl. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Universal_practice">Universal practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Universal practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Connections with the greater <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Latin West</a> brought the nations of Britain and Ireland into closer contact with the orthodoxy of the councils. The customs and traditions particular to Insular Christianity became a matter of dispute, especially the matter of the proper calculation of Easter. In addition to Easter dating, Irish scholars and cleric-scholars in continental Europe found themselves implicated in theological controversies but it is not always possible to distinguish when a controversy was based on matters of substance or on political grounds or xenophobic sentiments.<sup id="cite_ref-flech_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flech-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Synods were held in Ireland, Gaul, and England (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby" title="Synod of Whitby">Synod of Whitby</a>) at which Irish and British religious rites were rejected but a degree of variation continued in Britain after the Ionan church accepted the Roman date. </p><p>The Easter question was settled at various times in different places. The following dates are derived from Haddan and Stubbs: southern Ireland, 626–628; northern Ireland, 692; Northumbria (converted by Irish missions), 664; East Devon and Somerset, the Britons under Wessex, 705; the Picts, 710; Iona, 716–718; Strathclyde, 721; North Wales, 768; South Wales, 777. Cornwall held out the longest of any, perhaps even, in parts, to the time of Bishop Aedwulf of Crediton (909).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A uniquely Irish <a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">penitential system</a> was eventually adopted as a universal practice of the Church by the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Lateran_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Lateran Council">Fourth Lateran Council</a> of 1215. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pan-Celtic_traditions">Pan-Celtic traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pan-Celtic traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Caitlin Corning identifies four customs that were common to both the Irish and British churches but not used elsewhere in the Christian world.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Easter_calculation">Easter calculation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Easter calculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Easter_controversy" title="Easter controversy">Easter controversy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computus" class="mw-redirect" title="Computus">computus</a></div><p><span class="anchor" id="Computus"></span> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> was originally dated according to <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew calendar</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar#New_year" title="Hebrew calendar">tried to place Passover</a> on the first full moon following the <a href="/wiki/Spring_equinox_(Northern_Hemisphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring equinox (Northern Hemisphere)">Spring equinox</a> but did not always succeed. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Constantine" title="Life of Constantine">Life of Constantine</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> records that the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (325) decided that all Christians should observe a common date for Easter separate from the Jewish calculations, according to the practice of the <a href="/wiki/Bishops_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishops of Rome">bishops of Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Alexandria">Alexandria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-conlet_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conlet-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calculating the proper date of Easter (<i>computus</i>) then became a complicated process involving a <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar calendar</a>, finding the first Sunday after an idealized Passover on the first full moon after the equinox. </p><p>Various tables were drawn up, aiming to produce the necessary alignment between the <a href="/wiki/Solar_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar year">solar year</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moon_phases" class="mw-redirect" title="Moon phases">phases</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_full_moon" title="Ecclesiastical full moon">calendrical moon</a>. The less exact <a href="/wiki/Octaeteris" title="Octaeteris">8-year cycle</a> was replaced by (or by the time of) <a href="/wiki/Augustalis_(bishop)" title="Augustalis (bishop)">Augustalis</a>'s treatise "<a href="/w/index.php?title=De_ratione_Paschae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De ratione Paschae (page does not exist)">On the measurement of Easter</a>", which includes an 84-year cycle based on <a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Meton</a>. This was introduced to Britain, whose clerics at some point modified it to use the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a>'s original equinox on 25 March instead of the Nicaean equinox, which had already drifted to 21 March. This calendar was conserved by the Britons and Irish<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the Romans and French began to use the <a href="/wiki/Victorius_of_Aquitaine" title="Victorius of Aquitaine">Victorian</a> cycle of 532 years. The Romans (but not the French) then adopted the still-better work of <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_Exiguus" title="Dionysius Exiguus">Dionysius</a> in 525, which brought them into harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Alexandria" title="Church of Alexandria">Church of Alexandria</a>. </p><p>In the early 600s Christians in Ireland and Britain became aware of the divergence in dating between them and those in Europe. The first clash came in 602 when a synod of French bishops opposed the practices of the monasteries established by <a href="/wiki/Columbanus" title="Columbanus">St Columbanus</a>; Columbanus appealed to Pope Gregory I but received no answer and finally moved from their jurisdiction. It was a primary concern for St Augustine and his mission, although <a href="/wiki/Oswald_of_Northumbria" title="Oswald of Northumbria">Oswald</a>'s flight to <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a> and eventual restoration to his throne meant that Celtic practice was introduced to <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> until the 664 <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby" title="Synod of Whitby">synod in Whitby</a>. The groups furthest away from the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_mission" title="Gregorian mission">Gregorian mission</a> were generally the readiest to acknowledge the superiority of the new tables: the bishops of southern Ireland adopted the continental system at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Synod_of_Mag_L%C3%A9ne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Synod of Mag Léne (page does not exist)">Synod of Mag Léne</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 630</span>); the <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 697</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Council_of_Birr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Council of Birr (page does not exist)">Council of Birr</a> saw the northern Irish bishops follow suit. The <a href="/wiki/Iona_Abbey" title="Iona Abbey">abbey at Iona</a> and its satellites held out until 716,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the Welsh did not adopt the Roman and Saxon <i>computus</i> until induced to do so around 768 by Elfodd, "archbishop" of Bangor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monastic_tonsure">Monastic tonsure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Monastic tonsure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fra_Angelico_052.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fra_Angelico_052.jpg/220px-Fra_Angelico_052.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fra_Angelico_052.jpg/330px-Fra_Angelico_052.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Fra_Angelico_052.jpg/440px-Fra_Angelico_052.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2536" data-file-height="2898" /></a><figcaption>The Roman <a href="/wiki/Tonsure" title="Tonsure">tonsure</a>, in the shape of a crown, differing from the Irish tradition, which is unclear but involved shaving the hair from ear to ear in some fashion</figcaption></figure> <p>All monks of the period, and apparently most or all clergy, kept a distinct <a href="/wiki/Tonsure" title="Tonsure">tonsure</a>, or method of cutting one's hair, to distinguish their social identity as men of the cloth. In Ireland men otherwise wore longish hair, and a shaved head was worn by <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Early Middle Ages">slaves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prevailing Roman custom was to shave a circle at the top of the head, leaving a halo of hair or <i>corona</i>; this was eventually associated with the imagery of Christ's <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_thorns" title="Crown of thorns">crown of thorns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early material referring to the Celtic tonsure emphasizes its distinctiveness from the Roman alternative and invariably connects its use to the Celtic dating of Easter.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those preferring the Roman tonsure considered the Celtic custom extremely unorthodox, and associated it with the form of tonsure worn by the <a href="/wiki/Heresiarch" title="Heresiarch">heresiarch</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Magus" title="Simon Magus">Simon Magus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This association appears in a 672 letter from Saint <a href="/wiki/Aldhelm" title="Aldhelm">Aldhelm</a> to King <a href="/wiki/Geraint_of_Dumnonia" title="Geraint of Dumnonia">Geraint of Dumnonia</a>, but it may have been circulating since the Synod of Whitby.<sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy141_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy141-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tonsure is also mentioned in a passage, probably of the 7th century but attributed wrongly to Gildas: "<i>Britones toti mundo contrarii, moribus Romanis inimici, non solum in missa sed in tonsura etiam</i>" ("Britons are contrary to the whole world, enemies of Roman customs, not only in the Mass but also in regard to the tonsure").<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The exact shape of the Irish tonsure is unclear from the early sources, although they agree that the hair was in some way shorn over the head from ear to ear.<sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1639 <a href="/wiki/James_Ussher" title="James Ussher">James Ussher</a> suggested a semi-circular shape, rounded in the front and culminating at a line between the ears.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggestion was accepted by many subsequent writers, but in 1703 <a href="/wiki/Jean_Mabillon" title="Jean Mabillon">Jean Mabillon</a> put forth a new hypothesis, claiming that the entire forehead was shaven back to the ears. Mabillon's version was widely accepted, but contradicts the early sources.<sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy149_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy149-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2003 Daniel McCarthy suggested a triangular shape, with one side between the ears and a vertex towards the front of the head.<sup id="cite_ref-McCarthy_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthy-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Collectio_canonum_Hibernensis" title="Collectio canonum Hibernensis">Collectio canonum Hibernensis</a></i> cites the authority of Saint Patrick as indicating that the custom originated with the swineherd of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%B3egaire_mac_N%C3%A9ill" title="Lóegaire mac Néill">Lóegaire mac Néill</a>, the king who opposed Patrick.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penitentials">Penitentials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Penitentials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Penitential" title="Penitential">Penitential</a></div> <p>In Christian Ireland – as well as Pictish and English peoples they Christianised – a distinctive form of <a href="/wiki/Sacrament_of_Penance_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)">penance</a> developed, where confession was made privately to a priest, under the seal of secrecy, and where penance was given privately and ordinarily performed privately as well.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain handbooks were made, called "penitentials", designed as a guide for confessors and as a means of regularising the penance given for each particular sin. </p><p>In antiquity, penance had been a public ritual. Penitents were divided into a separate part of the church during liturgical worship, and they came to Mass wearing <a href="/wiki/Sackcloth" title="Sackcloth">sackcloth</a> and ashes in a process known as <i>exomologesis</i> that often involved some form of general confession.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is evidence that this public penance was preceded by a private confession to a bishop or priest (<i>sacerdos</i>), and it seems that, for some sins, private penance was allowed instead.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, penance and reconciliation was prevailingly a public rite (sometimes unrepeatable), which included <a href="/wiki/Absolution" title="Absolution">absolution</a> at its conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Irish penitential practice spread throughout the continent, where the form of public penance had fallen into disuse. Saint Columbanus was credited with introducing the <i>medicamenta paentitentiae</i>, the "medicines of penance", to Gaul at a time when they had come to be neglected.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the process met some resistance, by 1215 the practice had become established as the norm, with the Fourth Lateran Council establishing a canonical statute requiring confession at a minimum of once per year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peregrinatio">Peregrinatio</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Peregrinatio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A final distinctive tradition common across Britain and Ireland was the popularity of <i>peregrinatio pro Christo</i> ("exile for Christ"). The term <i>peregrinatio</i> is <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, and referred to the state of living or sojourning away from one's homeland in Roman law. It was later used by the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>, in particular Saint <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, who wrote that Christians should live a life of <i>peregrinatio</i> in the present world while awaiting the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">Kingdom of God</a>. Augustine's version of <i>peregrinatio</i> spread widely throughout the Christian church, but it took two additional unique meanings in Celtic countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Corningperegrinatio_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corningperegrinatio-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first sense, the penitentials prescribed permanent or temporary <i>peregrinatio</i> as penance for certain infractions. Additionally, there was a tradition of undertaking a voluntary <i>peregrinatio pro Christo</i>, in which individuals permanently left their homes and put themselves entirely in God's hands. In the Irish tradition there were two types of such <i>peregrinatio</i>, the "lesser" peregrinatio, involving leaving one's home area but not the island, and the "superior" peregrinatio, which meant leaving Ireland for good. This voluntary exile to spend one's life in a foreign land far from friends and family came to be termed the "white martyrdom".<sup id="cite_ref-woods_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woods-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most <i>peregrini</i> or exiles of this type were seeking personal spiritual fulfilment, but many became involved in missionary endeavours. The Briton Saint Patrick became the evangelist of Ireland during what he called his <i>peregrinatio</i> there, while <a href="/wiki/Samson_of_Dol" title="Samson of Dol">Saint Samson</a> left his home to ultimately become bishop in Brittany. The Irishmen <a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a> and Columbanus similarly founded highly important religious communities after leaving their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Corningperegrinatio_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corningperegrinatio-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Irish-educated English Christians such as Gerald of Mayo, the <a href="/wiki/Two_Ewalds" title="Two Ewalds">Two Ewalds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willehad" title="Willehad">Willehad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willibrord" title="Willibrord">Willibrord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid" title="Wilfrid">Wilfrid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceolfrith" title="Ceolfrith">Ceolfrith</a>, and other English all followed these Irish traditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_British_and_Irish_traditions">Other British and Irish traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other British and Irish traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of other distinctive traditions and practices existed (or are taken to have existed) in Britain or Ireland, but are not known to have been in use across the entire region. Different writers and commenters have identified different traditions as representative of so-called Celtic Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monasticism">Monasticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Monasticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Library_of_Ireland_MS_G10_p24.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/National_Library_of_Ireland_MS_G10_p24.jpg/220px-National_Library_of_Ireland_MS_G10_p24.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/National_Library_of_Ireland_MS_G10_p24.jpg/330px-National_Library_of_Ireland_MS_G10_p24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/National_Library_of_Ireland_MS_G10_p24.jpg/440px-National_Library_of_Ireland_MS_G10_p24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="1084" /></a><figcaption>Excerpt from the <a href="/wiki/Martyrology_of_Oengus" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrology of Oengus">Martyrology of Oengus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Desert_Fathers" title="Desert Fathers">Desert Fathers</a>. According to Richard Woods, the familial, democratic, and decentralized aspects of Egyptian Christianity were better suited to structures and values of Celtic culture than was a legalistic diocesan form.<sup id="cite_ref-woods_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woods-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom".<sup id="cite_ref-woods_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-woods-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this would be Kevin of Glendalough and <a href="/wiki/Cuthbert" title="Cuthbert">Cuthbert</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" title="Lindisfarne">Lindisfarne</a>. </p><p>One controversial belief is that the true ecclesiastical power in the Celtic world lay in the hands of <a href="/wiki/Abbots" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbots">abbots</a> of monasteries, rather than bishops of <a href="/wiki/Dioceses" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioceses">dioceses</a>. While this may have been the case for centuries in most of Ireland, it was never the rule throughout the Celtic world at large.<sup id="cite_ref-Corning1_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koch433_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch433-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is certain that the ideal of monasticism was universally esteemed in Celtic Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-Herren13_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herren13-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was especially true in Ireland and areas evangelised by Irish missionaries, where monasteries and their abbots came to be vested with a great deal of ecclesiastical and secular power. Following the growth of the monastic movement in the 6th century, abbots controlled not only individual monasteries, but also expansive estates and the secular communities that tended them.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes311312_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes311312-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As monastics, abbots were not necessarily <a href="/wiki/Holy_Orders_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Orders (Catholic Church)">ordained</a> (i.e. they were not necessarily <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Priesthood (Catholic Church)">priests</a> or bishops). They were usually descended from one of the many Irish royal families, and the founding regulations of the abbey sometimes specified that the abbacy should if possible be kept within one family lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This focus on the monastery has led some scholars, most notably <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Hughes_(historian)" title="Kathleen Hughes (historian)">Kathleen Hughes</a>, to argue that the monastic system came to be the dominant ecclesiastical structure in the Irish church, essentially replacing the earlier <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_polity" title="Episcopal polity">episcopal structure</a> of the type found in most of the rest of the Christian world.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes311_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes311-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hughes argued that the <i>paruchia</i>, or network of monasteries attached to an <a href="/wiki/Abbey" title="Abbey">abbey</a>, replaced the diocese as the chief administrative unit of the church, and the position of Abbot largely replaced that of bishop in authority and prominence.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this model, bishops were still needed, since certain <a href="/wiki/Sacraments_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacraments (Catholic Church)">sacramental</a> functions were reserved only for the ordained, but they had little authority in the ecclesiastical structure.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, more recent scholarship, particularly the work of <a href="/wiki/Donnchadh_%C3%93_Corr%C3%A1in" title="Donnchadh Ó Corráin">Donnchadh Ó Corráin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Sharpe_(historian)" title="Richard Sharpe (historian)">Richard Sharpe</a>, has offered a more nuanced view of the interrelationships between the monastic system and the traditional Church structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes311_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes311-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sharpe argues that there is no evidence that the <i>paruchia</i> overrode the diocese, or that the abbot replaced the Bishop;<sup id="cite_ref-Herren13_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herren13-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bishops still exercised ultimate spiritual authority and remained in charge of the diocesan clergy.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes311_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes311-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But either way, the monastic ideal was regarded as the utmost expression of the Christian life.<sup id="cite_ref-Herren13_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herren13-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The focus on powerful abbots and monasteries was limited to the Irish Church, however, and not in Britain. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.<sup id="cite_ref-Corning1_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koch433_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch433-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Irish monasticism was notable for its permeability. In permeable monasticism, people were able to move freely in and out of the monastic system at different points of life. Young boys and girls would enter the system to pursue Latin scholarship. Students would sometimes travel from faraway lands to enter the Irish monasteries. When these students became adults, they would leave the monastery to live out their lives. Eventually, these people would retire back to secure community provided by the monastery and stay until their death. However, some would stay within the monastery and become leaders. Since most of the clergy were Irish, native traditions were well-respected. Permeable monasticism popularised the use of vernacular and helped mesh the norms of secular and monastic element in Ireland, unlike other parts of Europe where monasteries were more isolated. Examples of these intertwining motifs can be seen in the hagiographies of <a href="/wiki/St._Brigid" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Brigid">St. Brigid</a> and <a href="/wiki/St._Columba" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Columba">St. Columba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-de_Paor_1958_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Paor_1958-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>This willingness to learn, and also to teach, was a hallmark of the "permeable monasticism" that so characterised the Irish monastery. While a hermitage was still the highest form of dedication, the monasteries were very open to allowing students and children within the walls for an education, without requiring them to become monks. These students were then allowed to leave and live within the community, and were welcomed back in their old age to retire in peace. This style of monasticism allowed for the monastery to connect with, and become a part of, the community at large. The availability of the monks to the people was instrumental in converting Ireland from paganism to Christianity, allowing a blend of the two cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-de_Paor_1958_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Paor_1958-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wales_2">Wales</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clas_(ecclesiastical_settlement)" title="Clas (ecclesiastical settlement)">Clas (ecclesiastical settlement)</a></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographies</a> written some centuries later, <a href="/wiki/Illtud" title="Illtud">Illtud</a> and his pupils Saint David, Gildas, and <a href="/wiki/Deiniol" title="Deiniol">Deiniol</a> were leading figures in 6th-century Britain. </p><p>Not far from Llantwit Fawr stood <a href="/wiki/Cadoc" title="Cadoc">Cadoc</a>'s foundation of <a href="/wiki/Llancarfan" title="Llancarfan">Llancarfan</a>, founded in the latter part of the fifth century. The son of <a href="/wiki/Gwynllyw" title="Gwynllyw">Gwynllyw</a>, a prince of South Wales, who before his death renounced the world to lead an eremitical life, Cadoc followed his father's example and received the religious habit from St. Tathai, an Irish monk, superior of a small community at Swent near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags". Here he established a monastery, college and hospital. The spot at first seemed an impossible one, and an almost inaccessible marsh, but he and his monks drained and cultivated it, transforming it into one of the most famous religious houses in South Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandlery_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandlery-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common.<sup id="cite_ref-newell_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newell-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Illtud, said to have been an <a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorican</a> by descent, spent the first period of his religious life as a disciple of St. Cadoc at Llancarvan. He founded the monastery at Llantwit Major. The monastery stressed learning as well as devotion. One of his fellow students was <a href="/wiki/Paul_Aurelian" title="Paul Aurelian">Paul Aurelian</a>, a key figure in Cornish monasticism.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gildas the Wise was invited by Cadoc to deliver lectures in the monastery and spent a year there, during which he made a copy of a book of the Gospels, long treasured in the church of St. Cadoc.<sup id="cite_ref-Chandlery_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chandlery-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most notable pupils of Illtyd was St. <a href="/wiki/Samson_of_Dol" title="Samson of Dol">Samson of Dol</a>, who lived for a time the life of a hermit in a cave near the river Severn before founding a monastery in <a href="/wiki/Brittany#Religion" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>. </p><p>St David established <a href="/wiki/St_David%27s_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="St David's Cathedral">his monastery</a> on a promontory on the western sea. It was well placed to be a centre of Insular Christianity. When <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> sought a scholar for his court, he summoned <a href="/wiki/Asser" title="Asser">Asser</a> of Saint David's. Contemporary with David were <a href="/wiki/Saint_Teilo" title="Saint Teilo">Saint Teilo</a>, Cadoc, <a href="/wiki/Padarn" title="Padarn">Padarn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beuno" title="Beuno">Beuno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tysilio" title="Tysilio">Tysilio</a> among them. It was from Illtud and his successors that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline. Finnian of Clonard studied under Cadoc at Llancarfan in <a href="/wiki/Glamorgan" title="Glamorgan">Glamorgan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ireland_2">Ireland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Termonn" title="Termonn">Termonn</a></div> <p>Finnian of Clonard is said to have trained the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Apostles_of_Ireland" title="Twelve Apostles of Ireland">Twelve Apostles of Ireland</a> at <a href="/wiki/Clonard_Abbey" title="Clonard Abbey">Clonard Abbey</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg/220px-BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg/330px-BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg/440px-BookMullingFol193StJohnPortrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_the_Evangelist" title="John the Evangelist">Saint John</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evangelist_portrait" title="Evangelist portrait">evangelist portrait</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Mulling" title="Book of Mulling">Book of Mulling</a>, Irish, late 8th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The achievements of <a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">insular art</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_cross" title="High cross">high crosses</a>, and metalwork like the <a href="/wiki/Ardagh_Chalice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ardagh Chalice">Ardagh Chalice</a> remain very well known, and in the case of manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manuscripts were certainly produced by and for monasteries, and the evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops, perhaps as well as secular commercial ones.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 6th and 7th centuries, Irish monks established monastic institutions in parts of modern-day Scotland (especially Columba, also known as <i>Colmcille</i> or, in <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a>, <i>Colum Cille</i>), and on the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continent</a>, particularly in Gaul (especially Columbanus). Monks from Iona Abbey under <a href="/wiki/Aidan_of_Lindisfarne" title="Aidan of Lindisfarne">St. Aidan</a> founded the See of Lindisfarne in Anglo-Saxon Northumbria in 635, whence Gaelic-Irish practice heavily influenced northern England. </p><p>Irish monks also founded monasteries across the continent, exerting influence greater than many more ancient continental centres.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first issuance of a papal privilege granting a monastery freedom from episcopal oversight was that of Pope Honorius I to <a href="/wiki/Bobbio_Abbey" title="Bobbio Abbey">Bobbio Abbey</a>, one of Columbanus's institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At least in Ireland, the monastic system became increasingly secularised from the 8th century, as close ties between ruling families and monasteries became apparent. The major monasteries were now wealthy in land and had political importance. On occasion they made war either upon each other or took part in secular wars – a battle in 764 is supposed to have killed 200 from <a href="/wiki/Durrow_Abbey" title="Durrow Abbey">Durrow Abbey</a> when they were defeated by <a href="/wiki/Clonmacnoise" title="Clonmacnoise">Clonmacnoise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From early periods the kin nature of many monasteries had meant that some married men were part of the community, supplying labour and with some rights, including in the election of abbots (but obliged to abstain from sex during fasting periods). Some abbacies passed from father to son, and then even grandsons.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A revival of the <a href="/wiki/Ascetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascetic">ascetic</a> tradition came in the second half of the century<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2022)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup>, with the <a href="/wiki/Culdee" class="mw-redirect" title="Culdee">culdee</a> or "clients (<a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>) of God" movement founding new monasteries detached from family groupings.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_of_Columbanus">Rule of Columbanus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Rule of Columbanus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The monasteries of the Irish missions, and many at home, adopted the Rule of Saint Columbanus, which was stricter than the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Rule of Saint Benedict</a>, the main alternative in the West. In particular there was more <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasting</a> and an emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">corporal punishment</a>. For some generations monks trained by Irish missionaries continued to use the Rule and to found new monasteries using it, but most converted to the Benedictine Rule over the 8th and 9th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baptism">Baptism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Baptism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bede implies that in the time of Augustine of Canterbury, British churches used a baptismal rite that was in some way at variance with the Roman practice. According to Bede, the British Christians' failure to "complete" the sacrament of baptism was one of the three specific issues with British practice that Augustine could not overlook.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no indication as to how the baptism was "incomplete" according to the Roman custom. It may be that there was some difference in the <a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">confirmation</a> rite, or that there was no confirmation at all.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd177_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd177-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At any rate, it is unlikely to have caused as much discord as the Easter controversy or the tonsure, as no other source mentions it.<sup id="cite_ref-Lloyd177_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lloyd177-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such there is no evidence that heterodox baptism figured in the practice of the Irish church.<sup id="cite_ref-Corning1_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corning1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koch433_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch433-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Celtic Christians may have used triple immersion in Baptism, and may have been slow to adopt infant baptism.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accusations_of_Judaizing">Accusations of Judaizing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Accusations of Judaizing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A recurrent accusation levelled against the Irish throughout the Middle Ages is that they were <a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a>, which is to say that they observed certain religious rites after the manner of the Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-flech_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flech-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The belief that Irish Christians were Judaizers can be observed in three main areas: the Easter Controversy, the notion that the Irish practised obsolete laws from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> and (not unrelated to this) the view that they adhered too closely to the Old Testament. Quite apart from the intricate theological concerns that underpinned the debate over Easter in early 7th-century Gaul, Columbanus also found himself accused of <a href="/wiki/Quartodecimanism" title="Quartodecimanism">Quartodecimanism</a>, a heresy whose central tenet was observing Easter on the same date as the eve of the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a>, namely the fourteenth day of the Jewish lunar month of <a href="/wiki/Nisan" title="Nisan">Nisan</a>. Although this accusation was raised at a time of heightened political tensions between Columbanus and the Gallic bishops, some historians have cautioned that it ought not be dismissed as a mere ruse because the Gauls may have been genuinely worried about blurring the boundaries between Gallic Christians and their Jewish neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That the Irish practised obsolete Old Testament laws is another accusation that repeats itself a number of times in the early Middle Ages, most famously in the case of the 8th-century Irish charismatic preacher, <a href="/wiki/Clement_Scotus_I" title="Clement Scotus I">Clement Scotus I</a> (fl. 745), who was condemned as a heretic, in part for urging followers to follow Old Testament law in such controversial matters as obliging a man to marry his widowed sister-in-law upon his brother's death.<sup id="cite_ref-Meeder_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meeder-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example for the Irish tendency to adhere closely to the Old Testament is the <i>Collectio canonum Hibernensis</i>, a late 7th- or early 8th-century Irish canon law collection which was the first text of church law to draw heavily on the Bible, and in particular the Old Testament. In Scotland similar accusations surround the supposed <a href="/wiki/Scottish_pork_taboo" title="Scottish pork taboo">cultural taboo concerning pork</a>. The Celtic Church is also thought to have observed the <a href="/wiki/Sabbatarianism" title="Sabbatarianism">seventh day as the Sabbath</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_Christianity_in_the_British_Isles">Influence on Christianity in the British Isles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Influence on Christianity in the British Isles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/John_Bowden_(theologian)" title="John Bowden (theologian)">John Bowden</a>, "the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes" is a feature that remains a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship".<sup id="cite_ref-Bowden2005_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowden2005-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Celtic_Christian_revivalism">Celtic Christian revivalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Celtic Christian revivalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Celtic_Christianity" title="Neo-Celtic Christianity">Neo-Celtic Christianity</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ian_Bradley" title="Ian Bradley">Ian Bradley</a> notes that the recurrent interest in medieval insular Christianity has led to successive <a href="/wiki/Revival_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Revival movement">revival movements</a> he terms "Celtic Christian revivalism".<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_1999_viii–ix_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley_1999_viii–ix-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He notes the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Orthodox_Church" title="Celtic Orthodox Church">Celtic Orthodox Church</a>, which maintains a relationship with the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a>, as an effort to maintain the "distinctive tenets of Celtic Christianity" in an autocephalous Christian denomination.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley2020_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley2020-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Bradley, most, though not all, revivalists are non-Celts for whom Celtic Christianity has an "exotic and peripheral" appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_1999_viii–ix_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley_1999_viii–ix-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adherents typically claim their revivals restore authentic practices and traits, though Bradley notes they reflect contemporary concerns and prejudices much more closely, and most are "at least partially inspired and driven by denominational and national rivalries, ecclesiastical and secular power politics, and an anti-Roman Catholic agenda." Though often inaccurate or distorted, the beliefs of these movements have greatly influenced popular conceptions of historical Celtic Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bradley traces the origins of Celtic Christian revivalism to the Middle Ages. In the 8th and 9th century, authors wrote idealised hagiographies of earlier saints, whose "golden age" of extraordinary holiness contrasted with the perceived corruption of later times. Similarly, the 12th- and 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">literary revival</a> popularised and romanticised older Celtic traditions such as the <a href="/wiki/Arthurian_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthurian legend">Arthurian legend</a>. These ideas were expanded during the English Reformation, as Protestant authors appropriated the concept of a "Celtic Church" as a native, anti-Roman predecessor to their own movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradleyviii_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradleyviii-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, despite his scholarly deconstruction of much of the popular view of "Celtic Christianity", in work such as his <i>Celtic Christian Communities: Live The Tradition</i> Bradley argues that historically well-founded insights can be applied to re-imagine life and ministry in contemporary churches.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 18th and 19th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarianism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> movement, and growing nationalism influenced ideas about what was becoming known as "Celtic Christianity". Beginning in the early 20th century, a full-fledged revival movement began, centred on the island of <a href="/wiki/Iona" title="Iona">Iona</a> and influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Literary_Revival" title="Irish Literary Revival">Irish Literary Revival</a> and more general Christian revivals. By the end of the 20th century, another wave of enthusiasm began, this time influenced by <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradleyviii_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradleyviii-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, a self-identification with and use of "Celtic Christianity" is common in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, both among participants in established churches and independent groups.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/48px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/64px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Cornwall.svg/32px-Flag_of_Cornwall.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Cornwall.svg/48px-Flag_of_Cornwall.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Cornwall.svg/64px-Flag_of_Cornwall.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Cornwall" title="Portal:Cornwall">Cornwall portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Ancient Celtic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">History of Ireland (400–800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Ireland" title="History of Christianity in Ireland">History of Christianity in Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papar" title="Papar">Papar</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Translations into languages of Celtic heritage: <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>: <i lang="kw">Kristoneth</i>; <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">Cristnogaeth Geltaidd</i>; <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Gaelic language">Scottish Gaelic</a>: <i lang="gd">Crìosdaidheachd</i>; <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a>: <i lang="gv">Credjue Creestee/Creestiaght</i>; <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">Críostaíocht/Críostúlacht</i>; <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>: <i lang="br">Kristeniezh</i>; <a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a>: <i lang="gl">Cristianismo celta</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The date of Alban's execution has been a subject of discussion among historians with <a href="/wiki/John_Morris_(historian)" title="John Morris (historian)">John Morris</a> proposing that it took place during the persecutions of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> as early as 209.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i> lists the year 283,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Venerable_Bede" class="mw-redirect" title="Venerable Bede">Bede</a> places it in 305. Still others argue that sometime during the persecutors <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> or <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (251–259) is more likely.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note, however, that many events of Patrick's hagiographies may have originally intended the earlier <a href="/wiki/Palladius_(bishop_of_Ireland)" title="Palladius (bishop of Ireland)">Saint Palladius</a>, a Gaul dispatched to Ireland by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Celestine_I" title="Pope Celestine I">Pope Celestine I</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Bollandists" class="mw-redirect" title="Bollandists">Bollandists</a> compiling the <i><a href="/wiki/Acta_Sanctorum" title="Acta Sanctorum">Acta Sanctorum</a></i> were even driven to complain of the Irish "canonising dead men in troops whenever they seemed to be somewhat better than usual".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Indeed, this is noted as occurring in the household of King <a href="/wiki/Oswiu_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Oswiu of Northumbria">Oswiu of Northumbria</a>, whose kingdom had been evangelised by both Irish and Roman missionaries.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the <i><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></i> says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The main source for Columbanus's life or vita is recorded by <a href="/wiki/Jonas_of_Bobbio" title="Jonas of Bobbio">Jonas of Bobbio</a>, an Italian monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in 618, three years after the Saint's death; Jonas wrote the life c. 643. This author lived during the abbacy of Attala, Columbanus's immediate successor, and his informants had been companions of the saint. Mabillon in the second volume of his "Acta Sanctorum O.S.B." gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Koch431-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch431_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch431_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2006">Koch 2006</a>, p. 431</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2006">Koch 2006</a>, pp. 431–432</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corning18-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Corning18_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corning18_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFÓ_Cróinín1995">Ó Cróinín 1995</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; <a href="#CITEREFCharles-Edwards2000">Charles-Edwards 2000</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; <a href="#CITEREFDavies1992">Davies 1992</a>, pp. 12–21; <a href="#CITEREFHughes1981">Hughes 1981</a>, pp. 1–20; Kathleen Hughes, <i>The Church in Early English Society</i> (London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, <i>The Celtic Church</i> (Audio Learning Tapes, 1980).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2003">Brown 2003</a>, pp. 16, 51, 129, 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWormald2006">Wormald 2006</a>, p. 207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPadberg1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lutz_von_Padberg" title="Lutz von Padberg">Padberg, Lutz von</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s0HFQAAACAAJ"><i>Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter</i></a>. Reclam. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783150170151" title="Special:BookSources/9783150170151"><bdi>9783150170151</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Christianisierung+Europas+im+Mittelalter&rft.pub=Reclam&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9783150170151&rft.aulast=Padberg&rft.aufirst=Lutz+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds0HFQAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharpe1984">Sharpe 1984</a>, pp. 230–270; <a href="#CITEREFWormald2006">Wormald 2006</a>, pp. 207–208, 220 n. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWormald2006">Wormald 2006</a>, pp. 223–224 n. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, p. xii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1999">Bradley 1999</a>, pp. vii–ix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corning1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Corning1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corning1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corning1_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corning1_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corning1_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corning1_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch432-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch432_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch432_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2006">Koch 2006</a>, p. 432</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToynbeeSomervell1987" class="citation book cs1">Toynbee, Arnold; Somervell, David (1987). <i>A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1–6</i>. New York: Oxford U Press. pp. 154–156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195050806" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195050806"><bdi>978-0195050806</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+History%3A+Abridgment+of%2C+Volumes+1%E2%80%936&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=154-156&rft.pub=Oxford+U+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0195050806&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft.au=Somervell%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AUCHMUTY, J. J. “IRELAND AND THE CELTIC PEOPLES IN TOYNBEE'S ‘STUDY OF HISTORY.’” Hermathena, no. 70, 1947, pp. 45–53. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23037506. Accessed 2 Aug. 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch432434-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch432434_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch432434_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2006">Koch 2006</a>, pp. 432–434</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, pp. 1, 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, pp. 2–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle2017" class="citation book cs1">Boyle, Elizabeth (2017). "Writing Medieval Irish History in the Nineteenth Century". In Hill, Jacqueline; Lyons, Mary Ann (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a5XlDQAAQBAJ"><i>Representing Irish Religious Histories: Historiography, Ideology and Practice</i></a>. Histories of the Sacred and Secular, 1700–2000. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319415314" title="Special:BookSources/9783319415314"><bdi>9783319415314</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2018</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'[...] a Celtic Christianity, with its peculiar national faults and characteristics, finds place even in the New Testament. The Galatians, whose apostasy from pure Christianity has endowed the Church with St Paul's masterly defence of Christian freedom, were Celts [...]' There was a Celtic-speaking population in Galatia in the late centuries BC and perhaps into the early centuries AD, of which only fragmentary traces of the language survive in attested personal and place name evidence. However, the idea that the early Christian communities in Galatia shared certain 'national faults and characteristics' with the population of early medieval Ireland is entirely without foundation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing+Medieval+Irish+History+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.btitle=Representing+Irish+Religious+Histories%3A+Historiography%2C+Ideology+and+Practice&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.series=Histories+of+the+Sacred+and+Secular%2C+1700%E2%80%932000&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319415314&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da5XlDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a></i>. 6th century. <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span> Translated by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Habington" title="Thomas Habington">Thomas Habington</a>. <i>The Epistle of Gildas the most ancient British Author: who flourished in the yeere of our Lord, 546. And who by his great erudition, sanctitie, and wisdome, acquired the name of </i>Sapiens<i>. Faithfully translated out of the originall Latine</i> (8 vols). T. Cotes for William Cooke (London), 1638. Edited and reprinted by <a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Giles" title="John Allen Giles">John Allen Giles</a>. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Ruin_of_Britain#8" class="extiw" title="s:The Ruin of Britain">"The Works of Gildas, Surnamed 'Sapiens,' or the Wise", §8</a> in <i>Six Old English Chronicles of Which Two Are Now First Translated from the Monkish Latin Originals: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester</i>. Henry G. Bohn (London), 1848. Hosted at <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page" class="extiw" title="s:Main Page">Wikisource</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPseudo-Hippolytus1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Hippolytus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Hippolytus">Pseudo-Hippolytus</a> (1999). "On the Seventy Apostles of Christ". <i>Ante-Nicean Fathers</i>. Vol. 5. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers. pp. 254–256.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Seventy+Apostles+of+Christ&rft.btitle=Ante-Nicean+Fathers&rft.place=Peabody%2C+MA&rft.pages=254-256&rft.pub=Hendrickson+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Pseudo-Hippolytus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091115145749/http://www.roca.org/OA/35/35e.htm#">"St. Alban the Martyr"</a>, <i>Orthodoxy's Western Heritage</i>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roca.org/OA/35/35e.htm">the original</a> on 15 November 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orthodoxy%27s+Western+Heritage&rft.atitle=St.+Alban+the+Martyr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.roca.org%2FOA%2F35%2F35e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngramGiles1847" class="citation book cs1">Ingram, James; Giles, J.A., eds. (1847). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt"><i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicles</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Saxon+Chronicles&rft.pub=Project+Gutenberg&rft.date=1847&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F657%2F657.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=42340">"Explaining the origin of the 'field of the dead' legend"</a>. British History Online<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Explaining+the+origin+of+the+%27field+of+the+dead%27+legend&rft.pub=British+History+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-history.ac.uk%2Freport.aspx%3Fcompid%3D42340&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2004" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rowan_Williams" title="Rowan Williams">Williams, Rowan</a> (22 May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rowanwilliams.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/1640/1400th-anniversary-of-the-re-organisation-of-the-diocese-of-london">"1400th anniversary of the re-organisation of the Diocese of London"</a>. <i>Dr Rowan Williams: 104th Archbishop of Canterbury</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dr+Rowan+Williams%3A+104th+Archbishop+of+Canterbury&rft.atitle=1400th+anniversary+of+the+re-organisation+of+the+Diocese+of+London&rft.date=2004-05-22&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Rowan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frowanwilliams.archbishopofcanterbury.org%2Farticles.php%2F1640%2F1400th-anniversary-of-the-re-organisation-of-the-diocese-of-london&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Snyder_(historian)" title="Christopher Snyder (historian)">Snyder, Christopher A.</a> (1998). <i>An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600</i>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01780-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01780-5"><bdi>0-271-01780-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Age+of+Tyrants%3A+Britain+and+the+Britons+A.D.+400%E2%80%93600&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-271-01780-5&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaring-Gould1898">Baring-Gould 1898</a>, p. 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaring-Gould1898">Baring-Gould 1898</a>, p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, pp. 310–311</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted translated from the Latin in <a href="#CITEREFBaring-Gould1898">Baring-Gould 1898</a>, p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sabi-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sabi_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sabi_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaring-Gould1898">Baring-Gould 1898</a>, pp. 30–40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Rowan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.walesbooks.com/reviews1.php">"Reviews and comments on <i>The Book of Welsh Saints</i>"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reviews+and+comments+on+The+Book+of+Welsh+Saints&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Rowan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.walesbooks.com%2Freviews1.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lloyd175176-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd175176_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1912">Lloyd 1912</a>, pp. 175–177</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1912">Lloyd 1912</a>, p. 176 and note.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-powys-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-powys_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-powys_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.powys.org.uk/history/common/early1.html">"Early Christianity in Wales"</a>. <i>Powys Digital History Project</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Powys+Digital+History+Project&rft.atitle=Early+Christianity+in+Wales&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.powys.org.uk%2Fhistory%2Fcommon%2Fearly1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lloyd174175-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd174175_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd174175_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1912">Lloyd 1912</a>, pp. 174–175</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lloyd177-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd177_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd177_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lloyd177_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1912">Lloyd 1912</a>, p. 177</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBede1999">Bede 1999</a>, pp. 106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1912">Lloyd 1912</a>, p. 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYorke2006">Yorke 2006</a>, pp. 118–119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBede1910" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (1910). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation (Jane)/Book 1#32"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_Nation_(Jane)/Book_1#32"><i>Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation. Book 1 Chapter XXII</i> </a></span>. London: J.M. Dent; E.P. Dutton – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecclesiastical+History+of+the+English+Nation.+Book+1+Chapter+XXII&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.M.+Dent%3B+E.P.+Dutton&rft.date=1910&rft.au=Bede&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuchman1978" class="citation book cs1">Tuchman, B. (1978). <i>A Distant Mirror</i>. New York: Ballantine Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-34957-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-34957-1"><bdi>0-345-34957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Distant+Mirror&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-345-34957-1&rft.aulast=Tuchman&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718042945/http://www.whithorn.com/saint-ninian.htm">"Saint Ninian"</a>. <i>The Whithorn Trust</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whithorn.com/saint-ninian.htm">the original</a> on 18 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Whithorn+Trust&rft.atitle=Saint+Ninian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whithorn.com%2Fsaint-ninian.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/210/7/061.html">"Butler, Alban. "The Lives of the Saints", Vol. VII, 1866"</a>. <i>Bartleby</i>. 12 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bartleby&rft.atitle=Butler%2C+Alban.+%22The+Lives+of+the+Saints%22%2C+Vol.+VII%2C+1866&rft.date=2023-01-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F210%2F7%2F061.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130820051815/http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm">"The Story of St. Petroc"</a>. <i>St. Petroc's, Padstow</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm">the original</a> on 20 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St.+Petroc%27s%2C+Padstow&rft.atitle=The+Story+of+St.+Petroc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.padstowparishchurch.org.uk%2Fpadstowchurch.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schaff-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schaff_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03/Page_117.html">"Saint Ciaran of Saigir"</a>. <i>New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</i>. p. 117.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saint+Ciaran+of+Saigir&rft.btitle=New+Schaff-Herzog+Encyclopedia+of+Religious+Knowledge&rft.pages=117&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fencyc03%2FPage_117.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">Bury, J. B.</a> (December 2008) [1905]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ow_tOVnda_8C"><i>Life of St. Patrick and His Place in History</i></a>. Cosimo classics biography. New York: Cosimo, Inc. (published 2008). p. 331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781605204024" title="Special:BookSources/9781605204024"><bdi>9781605204024</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2022</span>. <q>[...] the year of [Patrick's] coming to Ireland, which rests upon clear and unvarying tradition, A.D. 432 [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+St.+Patrick+and+His+Place+in+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Cosimo+classics+biography&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=Cosimo%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008-12&rft.isbn=9781605204024&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOw_tOVnda_8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, pp. 306 & 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Riley, 82–93, 95–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyan1931">Ryan 1931</a>, pp. 100–102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-flech-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-flech_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-flech_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlechnerMeeder2016">Flechner & Meeder 2016</a>, pp. 231–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (ed.), <i>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland</i>, 3 vols (Oxford, 1869–78), I, 112-3, Quoted in "The Catholic Encyclopedia".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, pp. 1–19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-conlet-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-conlet_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantine325" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> (325), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.x.html">"Letter on the Keeping of Easter to those not present at Nicaea"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesaria">Eusebius of Caesaria</a> (ed.), <i>The Life of Constantine</i>, vol. III, Signature Books (published 1996), §18–20, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56085-072-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-56085-072-8"><bdi>1-56085-072-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Letter+on+the+Keeping+of+Easter+to+those+not+present+at+Nicaea&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Constantine&rft.pages=%C2%A718-20&rft.pub=Signature+Books&rft.date=325&rft.isbn=1-56085-072-8&rft.au=Constantine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf214.vii.x.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWormald2006">Wormald 2006</a>, p. 224 n. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohn2000">John 2000</a>, p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyan1931">Ryan 1931</a>, p. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, p. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, p. 140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, pp. 141–143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy141-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy141_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, p. 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs (ed.), <i>Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland</i>, 3 vols (Oxford, 1869–78), I, 112-3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, pp. 140–167</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, pp. 147–148</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCarthy149-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McCarthy149_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, p. 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCarthy2003">McCarthy 2003</a>, pp. 142–143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNeillGamer1938">McNeill & Gamer 1938</a>, p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNeillGamer1938">McNeill & Gamer 1938</a>, pp. 7–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNeillGamer1938">McNeill & Gamer 1938</a>, pp. 9–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNeillGamer1938">McNeill & Gamer 1938</a>, pp. 13–17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2003">Brown 2003</a>, p. 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corningperegrinatio-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Corningperegrinatio_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corningperegrinatio_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCorning2006">Corning 2006</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-woods-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-woods_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-woods_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-woods_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods1985" class="citation journal cs1">Woods, Richard (Fall 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103040938/http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/853735woods.html#3">"The Spirituality of the Celtic Church"</a>. <i>Spirituality Today</i>. <b>37</b> (3): 243–255. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/853735woods.html#3">the original</a> on 3 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spirituality+Today&rft.atitle=The+Spirituality+of+the+Celtic+Church&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=243-255&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiritualitytoday.org%2Fspir2day%2F853735woods.html%233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This list includes information from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlummer1975" class="citation book cs1">Plummer, Charles (1975) [1892]. "Excursus on the Paschal Controversy and Tonsure". In Plummer, Charles (ed.). <i>Venerablilis Baedae, Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 348–354.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Excursus+on+the+Paschal+Controversy+and+Tonsure&rft.btitle=Venerablilis+Baedae%2C+Historiam+Ecclesiasticam+Gentis+Anglorum&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=348-354&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Plummer&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch433-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Koch433_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch433_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Koch433_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2006">Koch 2006</a>, p. 433</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herren13-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Herren13_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herren13_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Herren13_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerrenBrown2002">Herren & Brown 2002</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes311312-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hughes311312_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, pp. 311–312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1ibh%C3%AD_%C3%93_Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn" title="Dáibhí Ó Cróinín">Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí</a> in <a href="#CITEREFYoungs1989">Youngs 1989</a>, pp. 13–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes311-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hughes311_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hughes311_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hughes311_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, p. 311 and note</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, p. 312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohn2000">John 2000</a>, pp. 32–34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_Paor_1958-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-de_Paor_1958_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-de_Paor_1958_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Paorde_Paor1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1ire_de_Paor" title="Máire de Paor">de Paor, Máire</a>; de Paor, Liam (1958). <i>Early Christian Ireland: Ancient Peoples and Places</i>. Frederick A. Praeger.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Christian+Ireland%3A+Ancient+Peoples+and+Places&rft.pub=Frederick+A.+Praeger&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=de+Paor&rft.aufirst=M%C3%A1ire&rft.au=de+Paor%2C+Liam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandlery-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chandlery_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chandlery_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandlery1912" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Chandlery, Peter (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15585a.htm">"Welsh Monastic Foundations"</a>. <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Welsh+Monastic+Foundations&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Chandlery&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F15585a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newell-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-newell_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewell1895" class="citation book cs1">Newell, E.J. (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historywelsh00neweuoft">"Chapter III"</a>. <i>A History of the Welsh Church to the Dissolution of the Monasteries</i>. London: Elliot Stock. p. 72 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+III&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Welsh+Church+to+the+Dissolution+of+the+Monasteries&rft.place=London&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Elliot+Stock&rft.date=1895&rft.aulast=Newell&rft.aufirst=E.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorywelsh00neweuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston1912" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thurston, Herbert (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15582b.htm">"Welsh Church"</a>. <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Welsh+Church&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F15582b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNordenfalk1977">Nordenfalk 1977</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup>; <a href="#CITEREFPächt1986">Pächt 1986</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2010)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoungs1989">Youngs 1989</a>, pp. 15–16, 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohn2000">John 2000</a>, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohn2000">John 2000</a>, p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, p. 317</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, pp. 313, 316, 319</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHughes2005">Hughes 2005</a>, pp. 319–320</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1912">Lloyd 1912</a>, p. 175</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash2011" class="citation book cs1">Nash, John F. (9 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TL1MAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Sacramental Church: The Story of Anglo-Catholicism</i></a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60899-789-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60899-789-3"><bdi>978-1-60899-789-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sacramental+Church%3A+The+Story+of+Anglo-Catholicism&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2011-02-09&rft.isbn=978-1-60899-789-3&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTL1MAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStancliffe1992">Stancliffe 1992</a>, pp. 211–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meeder-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Meeder_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeeder2011">Meeder 2011</a>, pp. 251–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlick1909" class="citation book cs1">Flick, A. C. (1909). <i>The Rise of the Medieval Church</i>. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons. p. 237.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Medieval+Church&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=G.+P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Flick&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bowden2005-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bowden2005_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowden2005" class="citation book cs1">Bowden, John Stephen (2005). <i>Encyclopedia of Christianity</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195223934" title="Special:BookSources/9780195223934"><bdi>9780195223934</bdi></a>. <q>A distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship is the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes. These verse psalms have been exported to Africa, North America and other parts of the world where Presbyterian Scots missionaries or Emigres have been influential.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Christianity&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780195223934&rft.aulast=Bowden&rft.aufirst=John+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradley_1999_viii–ix-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_1999_viii–ix_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_1999_viii–ix_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1999">Bradley 1999</a>, pp. viii–ix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradley2020-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bradley2020_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2020" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Ian (2020). <i>Following the Celtic Way: A New Assessment of Celtic Christianity</i>. Augsburg Books. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5064-6743-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5064-6743-6"><bdi>978-1-5064-6743-6</bdi></a>. <q>There has been little attempt to create a new denomination based on the supposed distinctive tenets of Celtic Christianity although there is a tiny Celtic Orthodox Church which has bases in Brittany, England and Wales and links with the Syrian Orthodox Church.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Following+the+Celtic+Way%3A+A+New+Assessment+of+Celtic+Christianity&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Augsburg+Books&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-5064-6743-6&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1999">Bradley 1999</a>, p. ix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradleyviii-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bradleyviii_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradleyviii_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBradley1999">Bradley 1999</a>, p. viii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2000" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Ian (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44620654"><i>Celtic Christian communities : live the tradition</i></a>. Kelowna, B.C.: Northstone Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-896836-43-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-896836-43-7"><bdi>1-896836-43-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44620654">44620654</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Christian+communities+%3A+live+the+tradition&rft.place=Kelowna%2C+B.C.&rft.pub=Northstone+Pub&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44620654&rft.isbn=1-896836-43-7&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F44620654&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGierek2011" class="citation book cs1">Gierek, Bozena (2011). "Celtic spirituality in contemporary Ireland". In Cosgrove, Olivia; Cox, Laurence; Kuhling, Carmen; Mulholland, Peter (eds.). <i>Ireland's new religious movements: Alternative Spiritualities, Migrant Religions, the New Age and New Religious Movements</i>. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. pp. 300–317. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-2588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-2588-7"><bdi>978-1-4438-2588-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/758707463">758707463</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Celtic+spirituality+in+contemporary+Ireland&rft.btitle=Ireland%27s+new+religious+movements%3A+Alternative+Spiritualities%2C+Migrant+Religions%2C+the+New+Age+and+New+Religious+Movements&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pages=300-317&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F758707463&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-2588-7&rft.aulast=Gierek&rft.aufirst=Bozena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdomnan1991" class="citation book cs1">Adomnan (1991). Anderson, A.O.; Anderson, M.O. (eds.). <i>Life of Columba</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford Medieval Texts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Columba&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+Medieval+Texts&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Adomnan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1860" class="citation book cs1">Williams, John, ed. (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annalescambriae00willgoog"><i>Annales Cambriae</i></a>. London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annales+Cambriae&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Green%2C+Longman+and+Roberts&rft.date=1860&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannalescambriae00willgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBede1896" class="citation book cs1">Bede (1896). Plummer, Charles (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historiamecclesi02bedeuoft"><i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum</i></a>. Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica. Oxonii: E Typographeo Clarendoniano – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Ecclesiastica+Gentis+Angelorum&rft.place=Oxonii&rft.series=Venerabilis+Baedae+Opera+Historica&rft.pub=E+Typographeo+Clarendoniano&rft.date=1896&rft.au=Bede&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoriamecclesi02bedeuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBede1999" class="citation book cs1">Bede (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ecclesiasticalhi00bede_1/page/106/mode/2up"><i>Ecclesiastical History of the English People</i></a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecclesiastical+History+of+the+English+People&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Bede&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fecclesiasticalhi00bede_1%2Fpage%2F106%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCummian1988" class="citation book cs1">Cummian (1988). Walsh, Maura; <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1ibh%C3%AD_%C3%93_Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn" title="Dáibhí Ó Cróinín">Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí</a> (eds.). <i>De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi</i>. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. pp. 93–5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+controversia+paschali+and+De+ratione+conputandi&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=93-5&rft.pub=Pontifical+Institute+of+Mediaeval+Studies&rft.date=1988&rft.au=Cummian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGildas1848" class="citation book cs1">Gildas (1848). <a href="/wiki/J._A._Giles" class="mw-redirect" title="J. A. Giles">Giles, J.A.</a> (ed.). <i>De Excidio Britanniae</i>. Six Old English Chronicles. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Excidio+Britanniae&rft.place=London&rft.series=Six+Old+English+Chronicles&rft.date=1848&rft.au=Gildas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles1848" class="citation book cs1">Giles, J.A., ed. (1848). <i>Historia Brittonum</i>. Six Old English Chronicles. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+Brittonum&rft.place=London&rft.series=Six+Old+English+Chronicles&rft.date=1848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeillGamer1938" class="citation book cs1">McNeill, John T.; Gamer, Helena M., eds. (1938). <i>Medieval Handbooks of Penance</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Handbooks+of+Penance&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1938&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_(Saint)1998" class="citation book cs1">Patrick (Saint) (1998). Skinner, John (ed.). <i>Confessio</i>. Translated by John Skinner. Image.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confessio&rft.pub=Image&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Patrick+%28Saint%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaring-Gould1907" class="citation book cs1">Baring-Gould, Sabine (1907). <i>The Lives of the British Saints</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lives+of+the+British+Saints&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Baring-Gould&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span> Scanned by Google; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.celticchristianity.infinitesoulutions.com/saints_alpha.html">alphabetized</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaring-Gould1898" class="citation book cs1">Baring-Gould, Sabine (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livesofsaints16bari">"The Celtic Church and its Saints"</a>. <i>The Lives of the Saints</i>. Vol. 16. New York: Longmans, Green, & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Celtic+Church+and+its+Saints&rft.btitle=The+Lives+of+the+Saints&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+%26+Co.&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Baring-Gould&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivesofsaints16bari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Bradley" title="Ian Bradley">Bradley, Ian</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x9pjqsKAG4AC"><i>Celtic Christianity: Making Myths and Chasing Dreams</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-1047-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-1047-2"><bdi>0-7486-1047-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Christianity%3A+Making+Myths+and+Chasing+Dreams&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-7486-1047-2&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx9pjqsKAG4AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown, Peter</a> (2003). <i>The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Western+Christendom%3A+Triumph+and+Diversity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-Edwards2000" class="citation book cs1">Charles-Edwards, T.M. (2000). <i>Early Christian Ireland</i>. Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Christian+Ireland&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Charles-Edwards&rft.aufirst=T.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorning2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caitlin_Corning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caitlin Corning (page does not exist)">Corning, Caitlin</a> (2006). <i>The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-7299-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-7299-0"><bdi>1-4039-7299-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+and+Roman+Traditions%3A+Conflict+and+Consensus+in+the+Early+Medieval+Church&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4039-7299-0&rft.aulast=Corning&rft.aufirst=Caitlin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Cróinín1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1ibh%C3%AD_%C3%93_Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn" title="Dáibhí Ó Cróinín">Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí</a> (1995). <i>Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200</i>. London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+Ireland%3A+400%E2%80%931200&rft.place=London&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=%C3%93+Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn&rft.aufirst=D%C3%A1ibh%C3%AD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1992" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Wendy (1992). "The Myth of the Celtic Church". In Edwards, Nancy; Lane, Alan (eds.). <i>The Early Church in Wales and the West</i>. Oxbow Monograph. Vol. 16. Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 12–21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+the+Celtic+Church&rft.btitle=The+Early+Church+in+Wales+and+the+West&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxbow+Monograph&rft.pages=12-21&rft.pub=Oxbow&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlechnerMeeder2016" class="citation book cs1">Flechner, Roy; Meeder, Sven, eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U5wmDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Irish in Early Medieval Europe: Identity, Culture and Religion</i></a>. London: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137430595" title="Special:BookSources/9781137430595"><bdi>9781137430595</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Irish+in+Early+Medieval+Europe%3A+Identity%2C+Culture+and+Religion&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781137430595&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU5wmDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrenBrown2002" class="citation book cs1">Herren, Michael W.; Brown, Shirley Ann (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFqNUMa8bfYC"><i>Christ in Celtic Christianity</i></a>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-889-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-889-7"><bdi>0-85115-889-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christ+in+Celtic+Christianity&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-85115-889-7&rft.aulast=Herren&rft.aufirst=Michael+W.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Shirley+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZFqNUMa8bfYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Hughes_(historian)" title="Kathleen Hughes (historian)">Hughes, Kathleen</a> (1981). "The Celtic Church: Is This a Valid Concept? O'Donnell lectures in Celtic Studies, University of Oxford 1975". <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Medieval_Celtic_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies">Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies</a></i>. <b>1</b>: 1–20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Medieval+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Celtic+Church%3A+Is+This+a+Valid+Concept%3F+O%27Donnell+lectures+in+Celtic+Studies%2C+University+of+Oxford+1975&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1966" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Kathleen (1966). <i>The Church in Early Irish Society</i>. London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59740-067-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-59740-067-X"><bdi>1-59740-067-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/711797907">711797907</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Church+in+Early+Irish+Society&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F711797907&rft.isbn=1-59740-067-X&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hughes, Kathleen (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DgqOOkVrofcC">"The Church in Early Irish Society: 400–800"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1ibh%C3%AD_%C3%93_Cr%C3%B3in%C3%ADn" title="Dáibhí Ó Cróinín">Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí</a> (ed.). <i>A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922665-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922665-8"><bdi>978-0-19-922665-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Church+in+Early+Irish+Society%3A+400%E2%80%93800&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Ireland%3A+Prehistoric+and+Early+Ireland&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-922665-8&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDgqOOkVrofcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SJSDj1dDvNUC&pg=PA301&dq=The+Church+in+Early+Irish+Society+Hughes&ei=JDdIStbSDImSyASz0Mld">Google Books link 2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_John" title="Eric John">John, Eric</a> (2000). "The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church". In Pelteret, David A. E. (ed.). <i>Anglo-Saxon History: Basic Readings</i>. New York: Garland Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Social+and+Political+Problems+of+the+Early+English+Church&rft.btitle=Anglo-Saxon+History%3A+Basic+Readings&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Garland+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John T. (2006). <i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. ABC-CLIO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1912" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYwNAAAAIAAJ&q=Lloyd+history+of+Wales"><i>A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest</i></a>. Longmans, Green, and Co<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Edwardian+Conquest&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNYwNAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DLloyd%2Bhistory%2Bof%2BWales&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewell2000" class="citation book cs1">Newell, J. Philip (2000). <i>Celtic Benediction: Morning and Night Prayer</i>. <a href="/wiki/Grand_Rapids,_Michigan" title="Grand Rapids, Michigan">Grand Rapids</a>, MI: Eerdmans.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Benediction%3A+Morning+and+Night+Prayer&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Newell&rft.aufirst=J.+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy2003" class="citation journal cs1">McCarthy, Daniel (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c24/c24-140-167.pdf">"On the Shape of the Insular Tonsure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Celtica</i>. <b>24</b>: 140–167<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Celtica&rft.atitle=On+the+Shape+of+the+Insular+Tonsure&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=140-167&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.celt.dias.ie%2Fpublications%2Fceltica%2Fc24%2Fc24-140-167.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeeder2011" class="citation journal cs1">Meeder, Sven (2011). "Boniface and the Irish Heresy of Clemens". <i>Church History</i>. <b>80</b> (2): 251–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0009640711000035">10.1017/s0009640711000035</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163075473">163075473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Church+History&rft.atitle=Boniface+and+the+Irish+Heresy+of+Clemens&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=251-80&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0009640711000035&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163075473%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Meeder&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNordenfalk1977" class="citation book cs1">Nordenfalk, Carl (1977). <i>Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800</i>. New York: George Braziller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+and+Anglo-Saxon+Painting%3A+Book+illumination+in+the+British+Isles+600%E2%80%93800&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=George+Braziller&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Nordenfalk&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPächt1986" class="citation book cs1">Pächt, Otto (1986). <i>Book Illumination in the Middle Ages</i>. London: Harvey Miller Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-921060-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-921060-8"><bdi>0-19-921060-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Book+Illumination+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Harvey+Miller+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-19-921060-8&rft.aulast=P%C3%A4cht&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span> (trans fr German)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan1931" class="citation book cs1">Ryan, John (1931). <i>Irish Monasticism, Origins and Early Development</i>. Dublin: Talbot Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Irish+Monasticism%2C+Origins+and+Early+Development&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=Talbot+Press&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharpe1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Sharpe_(historian)" title="Richard Sharpe (historian)">Sharpe, Richard</a> (1984). "Some problems concerning the organisation of the Church in early medieval Ireland". <i><a href="/wiki/Peritia" title="Peritia">Peritia</a></i>. <b>3</b>: 230–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2Fj.peri.3.68">10.1484/j.peri.3.68</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Peritia&rft.atitle=Some+problems+concerning+the+organisation+of+the+Church+in+early+medieval+Ireland&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=230-70&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2Fj.peri.3.68&rft.aulast=Sharpe&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStancliffe1992" class="citation book cs1">Stancliffe, Clare (1992). "Columbanus and the Gallic Bishops". In Constable, G.; Rouche, M. (eds.). <i>Mélanges offerts au Professeur Oliver Guillot</i>. Paris. pp. 205–14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Columbanus+and+the+Gallic+Bishops&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9langes+offerts+au+Professeur+Oliver+Guillot&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=205-14&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Stancliffe&rft.aufirst=Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWormald2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wormald" title="Patrick Wormald">Wormald, Patrick</a> (2006). "Bede and the 'Church of the English'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". In Baxter, Stephen (ed.). <i>The Times of Bede: Studies in Early English Christian Society and its Historian</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bede+and+the+%27Church+of+the+English%27&rft.btitle=The+Times+of+Bede%3A+Studies+in+Early+English+Christian+Society+and+its+Historian&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Wormald&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorke2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (2006). <i>The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800</i>. London: Pearson/Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-77292-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-77292-3"><bdi>0-582-77292-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conversion+of+Britain%3A+Religion%2C+Politics+and+Society+in+Britain+c.+600%E2%80%93800&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pearson%2FLongman&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-582-77292-3&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungs1989" class="citation book cs1">Youngs, Susan, ed. (1989). <i><span></span>'The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD</i>. London: British Museum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-0554-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7141-0554-6"><bdi>0-7141-0554-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%27The+Work+of+Angels%27%2C+Masterpieces+of+Celtic+Metalwork%2C+6th%E2%80%939th+centuries+AD&rft.place=London&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-7141-0554-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic_Christianity&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce2007" class="citation cs2">Bruce, James (2007), <i>Prophecy, Miracles, Angels & Heavenly Light? The Eschatology, Pneumatology and Missiology of Adomnan's Life of Columbia - Studies in Christian History and Thought</i>, Paternoster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597527316" title="Special:BookSources/9781597527316"><bdi>9781597527316</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prophecy%2C+Miracles%2C+Angels+%26+Heavenly+Light%3F+The+Eschatology%2C+Pneumatology+and+Missiology+of+Adomnan%27s+Life+of+Columbia+-+Studies+in+Christian+History+and+Thought&rft.pub=Paternoster&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781597527316&rft.aulast=Bruce&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahill1996" class="citation book cs1">Cahill, Thomas (1996). <i>How the Irish Saved Civilization</i>. Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-41849-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-41849-3"><bdi>0-385-41849-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Irish+Saved+Civilization&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-385-41849-3&rft.aulast=Cahill&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr-Harting1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Mayr-Harting" title="Henry Mayr-Harting">Mayr-Harting, Henry</a> (1991). <i>The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England</i> (3rd ed.). London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coming+of+Christianity+to+Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=B.T.+Batsford+Ltd&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Mayr-Harting&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACeltic+Christianity" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Celts" title="Template:Celts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Celts" title="Template talk:Celts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Celts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Celtic studies</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Celtic tribes</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Ancient Celtic ethnic groups</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Celts" title="Names of the Celts">Names</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Galatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontii" title="Lepontii">Lepontii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celtic ethnic groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic diaspora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_diaspora" title="Cornish diaspora">Cornish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_diaspora" title="Scottish diaspora">Scottish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh diaspora">Welsh diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Celtic" title="Anglo-Celtic">Anglo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_Americans" title="Breton Americans">Breton Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Americans" title="Cornish Americans">Cornish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_round_dogs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/100px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/150px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/200px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1400" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dálriata</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brigantia_(ancient_region)" title="Brigantia (ancient region)">Brigantia (ancient region)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Iron Age Gaul</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britonia" title="Britonia">Britonia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Domnon%C3%A9e" title="Domnonée">Domnonée</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts_in_Transylvania" title="Celts in Transylvania">Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_paganism" title="Proto-Celtic paganism">Proto-Celtic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_deities" title="Celtic deities">Celtic deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Animism" title="Celtic Animism">Celtic Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Celtic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Rite" title="Celtic Rite">Celtic Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_stone_idols" title="Celtic stone idols">Celtic stone idolss</a>* <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Monasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Celtic_pagan_practices" title="Template:Celtic pagan practices">Practices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">Bard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brehon" title="Brehon">Brehon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Celtic calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Celtic festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_women" title="Ancient Celtic women">Celtic women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celticisation" title="Celticisation">Celticisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Name" title="Chief of the Name">Chief of the Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derbfine" title="Derbfine">Derbfine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief" title="Scottish clan chief">Clan chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_astrology" title="Early Irish astrology">Gaelic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fili" class="mw-redirect" title="Fili">Fili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanistry" title="Tanistry">Tanistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seancha%C3%AD" title="Seanchaí">Seanchaí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sept" title="Sept">Sept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BAath" title="Túath">Túath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vates" title="Vates">Vates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic warfare">Warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_coinage" title="Celtic coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_union" title="Celtic union">Celtic union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_rock" title="Celtic rock">Rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Celtic_Christianity" title="Neo-Celtic Christianity">Neo-Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Wicca" title="Celtic Wicca">Celtic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Neo-Druidism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a> definition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> (<span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">Breizh</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> (<span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">Kernow</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> (<span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">Éire</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (<span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">Mannin</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> (<span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">Alba</i></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymru</i></span>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other claimants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Wladfa" title="Y Wladfa">Y Wladfa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Arthurian Legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_bardic_poetry" title="Irish bardic poetry">Bardic Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh-language literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_annals" title="Irish annals">Irish annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Brittany" title="Culture of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Cornwall" title="Culture of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland" title="Culture of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Culture of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_shrine" title="Bell shrine">Bell shrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_brooch" title="Celtic brooch">Brooches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dragonesque_brooch" title="Dragonesque brooch">Dragonesque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_cross" title="Celtic cross">Celtic cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_knot" title="Celtic knot">Knotwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_cross" title="High cross">High crosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlace_(art)" title="Interlace (art)">Interlace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_leaf-crown" title="Celtic leaf-crown">Leaf-crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_maze" title="Celtic maze">Mazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_stone" title="Pictish stone">Pictish stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">Torcs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triskelion" title="Triskelion">Triple spiral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clothing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Dress" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Dress">Celtic Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_clothing" title="Irish clothing">Gaelic clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_dress" title="Highland dress">Highland dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan" title="Tartan">Tartan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highland culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music" title="Ancient Celtic music">Ancient Celtic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Breton Folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_folk_music" title="Gaelic folk music">Gaelic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music" title="Irish traditional music">Irish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_folk_music" title="Scottish folk music">Scottish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_folk_music" title="Welsh folk music">Welsh folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_singing" title="Sean-nós singing">Sean-nós singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="National_music_scenes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National music scenes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Cornwall" title="Music of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_music_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk music of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Music of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Gaeaf" title="Calan Gaeaf">Calan Gaeaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imbolc" title="Imbolc">Imbolc</a>/<a href="/wiki/G%C5%B5yl_Fair_y_Canhwyllau" title="Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau">Gŵyl Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beltane" title="Beltane">Beltane</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Mai" title="Calan Mai">Calan Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lughnasadh" title="Lughnasadh">Lughnasadh</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gathering_Day" title="Gathering Day">Calan Awst</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_Interceltique_de_Lorient" title="Festival Interceltique de Lorient">Festival Interceltique de Lorient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Celtic_Festival" title="Pan Celtic Festival">Pan Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebridean_Celtic_Festival" title="Hebridean Celtic Festival">Hebridean Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Connections" title="Celtic Connections">Celtic Connections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Media_Festival" title="Celtic Media Festival">Celtic Media Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bando_(sport)" title="Bando (sport)">Bando</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bataireacht" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataireacht">Bataireacht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camogie" title="Camogie">Camogie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cammag" title="Cammag">Cammag</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cnapan" title="Cnapan">Cnapan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_hurling" title="Cornish hurling">Cornish hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_wrestling" title="Cornish wrestling">Cornish wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_football" title="Gaelic football">Gaelic football</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Gaelic_football" title="Ladies' Gaelic football">Ladies'</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_handball" title="Gaelic handball">Gaelic handball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouren" title="Gouren">Gouren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rounders" title="Rounders">Rounders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_games" title="Highland games">Highland games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurling" title="Hurling">Hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_road_bowling" title="Irish road bowling">Road bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinty" title="Shinty">Shinty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_handball" title="Welsh handball">Welsh handball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Politics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nationalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Breton_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Breton nationalism">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Brittany" title="Reunification of Brittany">reunification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_nationalism" title="Cornish nationalism">Cornish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Cornwall" title="Constitutional status of Cornwall">status</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx nationalism">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Orkney,_Shetland_and_the_Western_Isles" title="Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles">Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Scottish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Welsh nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_national_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Autonomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_devolution" title="Cornish devolution">Cornish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Scottish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Welsh devolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton independence">Breton independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Scottish independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Ireland" title="United Ireland">United Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Irish republicanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_society" title="Celtic society">Celtic society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic unity">Celtic unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columba_Project" title="Columba Project">Columba Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungi_dialect" title="Bungi dialect">Bungi Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beurla_Reagaird" title="Beurla Reagaird">Beurla Reagaird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Ancient Celtic languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Proto-Brittonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Proto-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Noric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languages" title="Hispano-Celtic languages">Hispano-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine Gaulish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arran_Gaelic" title="Arran Gaelic">Arran Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deeside_Gaelic" title="Deeside Gaelic">Deeside Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galwegian_Gaelic" title="Galwegian Gaelic">Galwegian Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law_and_Warfare" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Early Irish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Cyfraith Hywel</a> (Medieval Welsh law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scots_law" title="History of Scots law">Early Scots law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cateran" title="Cateran">Ceathairne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kern_(soldier)" title="Kern (soldier)">Ceithearn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianna" title="Fianna">Fianna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaesatae" title="Gaesatae">Gaesatae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallowglass" title="Gallowglass">Gallóglaigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobelar" title="Hobelar">Hobelar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshank_(soldier)" title="Redshank (soldier)">Redshanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimarcisia" title="Trimarcisia">Trimarcisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_deities" title="List of Celtic deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="Lists of English words of Celtic origin">Celtic words in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Spanish words of Celtic origin">– in Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Galician_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Galician words of Celtic origin">– in Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Gaulish_origin" title="List of French words of Gaulish origin">Gaulish words in French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Galicia" title="List of Celtic place names in Galicia">Celtic place names in Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Italy" title="List of Celtic place names in Italy">– in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Portugal" title="List of Celtic place names in Portugal">– in Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Celts" title="Portal:Celts">Celts portal</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/16px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png" 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