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id="toc-Native_iron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_smelting_and_the_Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_smelting_and_the_Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Iron smelting and the Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Iron_smelting_and_the_Iron_Age-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Iron smelting and the Iron Age subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Iron_smelting_and_the_Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Near_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Near_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ancient Near East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Near_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theories_on_the_origin_of_iron_smelting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_on_the_origin_of_iron_smelting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Theories on the origin of iron smelting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_on_the_origin_of_iron_smelting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Indian subcontinent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Age_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Iron Age Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Sub-Saharan Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Medieval Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_and_early_modern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Medieval and early modern Europe</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval and early modern Europe subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_and_early_modern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Powered_bloomeries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Powered_bloomeries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Powered bloomeries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Powered_bloomeries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blast_furnace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blast_furnace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Blast furnace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blast_furnace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finery_forge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finery_forge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Finery forge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finery_forge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cementation_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cementation_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Cementation process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cementation_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crucible_steel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crucible_steel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Crucible steel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crucible_steel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_to_coke_in_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_to_coke_in_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Transition to coke in England</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Transition_to_coke_in_England-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Transition to coke in England subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Transition_to_coke_in_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beginnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Beginnings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abraham_Darby_and_his_successors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abraham_Darby_and_his_successors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Abraham Darby and his successors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abraham_Darby_and_his_successors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_forge_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_forge_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>New forge processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_forge_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hot_blast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hot_blast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Hot blast</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hot_blast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_steelmaking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_steelmaking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Industrial steelmaking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_steelmaking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_steel_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_steel_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Modern steel industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_steel_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ferrous metallurgy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="تعدين الحديد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعدين الحديد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderurxa" title="Siderurxa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Siderurxa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_metallurgiya" title="Qara metallurgiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qara metallurgiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%98%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="লৌহঘটিত ধাতুবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লৌহঘটিত ধাতুবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ҡара металлургия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡара металлургия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Чорная металургія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Чорная металургія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Чорная мэталюргія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Чорная мэталюргія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sider%C3%BArgia" title="Siderúrgia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Siderúrgia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jernfremstilling" title="Jernfremstilling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jernfremstilling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stahlindustrie" title="Stahlindustrie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Stahlindustrie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderurgia" title="Siderurgia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Siderurgia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderurgio" title="Siderurgio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Siderurgio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burdingintza" title="Burdingintza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Burdingintza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%87%D9%86%DB%8C" title="متالورژی آهنی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="متالورژی آهنی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid%C3%A9rurgie" title="Sidérurgie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sidérurgie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderurxia" title="Siderurxia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Siderurxia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%EC%B2%A0" title="제철 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제철" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgi_besi" title="Metalurgi besi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Metalurgi besi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1rnsm%C3%AD%C3%B0i" title="Járnsmíði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Járnsmíði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderurgia" title="Siderurgia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Siderurgia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="შავი მეტალურგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შავი მეტალურგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Қара металлургия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қара металлургия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Кара металлургия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кара металлургия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_ferraria" title="Ars ferraria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars ferraria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderurgie" title="Siderurgie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Siderurgie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staalindustrie" title="Staalindustrie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Staalindustrie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" 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vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Metallurgy of iron and its alloys</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas_fourneau.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/170px-Bas_fourneau.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/255px-Bas_fourneau.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Bas_fourneau.png/340px-Bas_fourneau.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Ferrous metallurgy</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. The earliest surviving <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> iron artifacts, from the 4th millennium BC in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were made from <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteoritic</a> <a href="/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93nickel_alloy" title="Iron–nickel alloy">iron-nickel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not known when or where the <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> of iron from <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a> began, but by the end of the 2nd millennium BC iron was being produced from <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ores</a> in the region from Greece to India,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UCP_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCP-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-miller_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stuiver_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stuiver-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> (worked iron) was known by the 1st millennium BC, and its spread defined the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>. During the medieval period, smiths in Europe found a way of producing wrought iron from <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, in this context known as <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forges</a>. All these processes required <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> as <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a>. </p><p>By the 4th century BC southern India had started exporting <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">wootz steel</a>, with a carbon content between <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> and wrought iron, to ancient China, Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Archaeological evidence of <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a> appears in 5th-century BC China.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New methods of producing it by <a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">carburizing</a> bars of iron in the <a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">cementation process</a> were devised in the 17th century. During the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, new methods of producing <a href="/wiki/Bar_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar iron">bar iron</a> by substituting <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a> for charcoal emerged, and these were later applied to produce <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, ushering in a new era of greatly increased use of iron and steel that some contemporaries described as a new "Iron Age".<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1850s <a href="/wiki/Henry_Bessemer" title="Henry Bessemer">Henry Bessemer</a> invented a <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">new steelmaking process</a> which involved blowing air through molten pig-iron to burn off carbon, and so producing mild steel. This and other 19th-century and later steel-making processes have displaced <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>. Today, wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale, having been displaced by the functionally equivalent mild or low-carbon steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 145">: 145 </span></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meteoric_iron">Meteoric iron</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Meteoric iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_iron" title="Meteoric iron">Meteoric iron</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Willamette_Meteorite_AMNH.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Willamette_Meteorite_AMNH.jpg/170px-Willamette_Meteorite_AMNH.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Willamette_Meteorite_AMNH.jpg/255px-Willamette_Meteorite_AMNH.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Willamette_Meteorite_AMNH.jpg/340px-Willamette_Meteorite_AMNH.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Willamette_Meteorite" title="Willamette Meteorite">Willamette Meteorite</a>, the sixth largest in the world, is an <a href="/wiki/Iron-nickel_meteorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron-nickel meteorite">iron-nickel meteorite</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Widmanstatten_IronMet.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Widmanstatten_IronMet.JPG/220px-Widmanstatten_IronMet.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Widmanstatten_IronMet.JPG/330px-Widmanstatten_IronMet.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Widmanstatten_IronMet.JPG 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>Iron meteorites consist overwhelmingly of nickel-iron alloys. The metal taken from these meteorites is known as meteoric iron and was one of the earliest sources of usable iron available to humans.</figcaption></figure> <p>Iron was extracted from <a href="/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93nickel_alloy" title="Iron–nickel alloy">iron–nickel alloys</a>, which comprise about 6% of all <a href="/wiki/Meteorite_fall" title="Meteorite fall">meteorites that fall</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. That source can often be identified with certainty because of the unique <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> features (<a href="/wiki/Widmanst%C3%A4tten_pattern" title="Widmanstätten pattern">Widmanstätten patterns</a>) of that material, which are preserved when the metal is worked cold or at low temperature. Those artifacts include, for example, a <a href="/wiki/Bead" title="Bead">bead</a> from the 5th millennium BC found in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a><sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and spear tips and ornaments from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a> around 4000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These early uses appear to have been largely ceremonial or decorative. Meteoric iron is very rare, and the metal was probably very expensive, perhaps more expensive than <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>. The early <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> are known to have <a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">bartered</a> iron (meteoric or smelted) for <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, at a rate of 40 times the iron's weight, with <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> in the first centuries of the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC" title="2nd millennium BC">second millennium BC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Veenhof_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veenhof-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meteoric iron was also fashioned into tools in the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> began making <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoons</a>, knives, <a href="/wiki/Ulu" title="Ulu">ulus</a> and other edged tools from pieces of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_York_meteorite" title="Cape York meteorite">Cape York meteorite</a>. Typically pea-size bits of metal were cold-hammered into disks and fitted to a bone handle.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These artifacts were also used as trade goods with other Arctic peoples: tools made from the Cape York meteorite have been found in archaeological sites more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) distant. When the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> polar explorer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peary" title="Robert Peary">Robert Peary</a> shipped the largest piece of the meteorite to the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">American Museum of Natural History</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> in 1897, it still weighed over 33 <a href="/wiki/Ton" title="Ton">tons</a>. Another example of a late use of meteoric iron is an <a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">adze</a> from around 1000 AD found in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_iron">Native iron</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Native iron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Telluric_iron" title="Telluric iron">Telluric iron</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Native_metal" title="Native metal">Native</a> iron in the metallic state occurs rarely as small inclusions in certain <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> rocks. Besides meteoritic iron, Thule people of Greenland have used native iron from the <a href="/wiki/Disko_Island" title="Disko Island">Disko</a> region.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iron_smelting_and_the_Iron_Age">Iron smelting and the Iron Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Iron smelting and the Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Iron_Age" title="Category:Iron Age">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> ↑ <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align:left"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East#Iron_Age" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> (1200–550 BC)</b> <ul><li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age collapse">Bronze Age collapse</a> (1200–1150 BC)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Levant">Levant</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Europe</a></b> <ul><li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Aegean_civilizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegean civilizations">Aegean</a> (1200–700 BC)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Italy</a> (1100–700 BC)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Southeastern Europe">Balkans</a> (1100 BC – 150 AD)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Novocherkassk_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Novocherkassk culture">Eastern Europe</a> (900 – 650 BC)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe#Central_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Central Europe</a> (800 – 50 BC)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Great Britain</a> (800 BC – 100 AD)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Scandinavia" title="Iron Age Scandinavia">Northern Europe</a> (500 BC – 800 AD)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Western Europe</a> (800 BC – 1 AD)</span></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age in South Asia">South Asia</a> (1200–200 BC)</b></li> <li><b>Southeast Asia (1000–200 BC)</b> <ul><li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Vietnam</a> (1000 BC – 200 AD)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Ban_Chiang" title="Ban Chiang">Thailand</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 – 100 BC</span>)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Bujang_Valley" title="Bujang Valley">Malaysia</a> (500 BC – 200 AD)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Buni_culture" title="Buni culture">Indonesia</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 400 BC – 100 AD</span>)</span></li> <li><span style="margin-left: 1em"><a href="/wiki/Maitum_anthropomorphic_pottery" title="Maitum anthropomorphic pottery">Philippines</a> (5 BC – 500 AD)</span></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age#East_Asia" title="Iron Age">East Asia</a> (500 BC – 300 AD)</b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">Africa</a> (2600 BC – 500 AD)</b></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="text-align:left"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Iron_smelting_and_the_Iron_Age">Iron Age metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeometallurgical_slag" title="Archaeometallurgical slag">Archaeometallurgical slag</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> ↓ <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iron_Age" title="Template:Iron Age"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iron_Age" title="Template talk:Iron Age"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iron_Age" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iron Age"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Iron smelting—the extraction of usable metal from <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidized</a> iron ores—is more difficult than <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> smelting. While these metals and their alloys can be cold-worked or melted in relatively simple furnaces (such as the kilns used for <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>) and cast into molds, smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. Iron is a common impurity in copper ores and iron ore was sometimes used as a <a href="/wiki/Flux_(metallurgy)" title="Flux (metallurgy)">flux</a>, thus it is not surprising that humans mastered the technology of smelted iron only after several millennia of <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze metallurgy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The archaeological evidence seems to point to the Middle East area, during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> in the 3rd millennium BC. However, <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a> artifacts remained a rarity until the 12th century BC. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> is conventionally defined by the widespread replacement of <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> weapons and tools with those of iron and steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Waldbaum56_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waldbaum56-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That transition happened at different times in different places, as the technology spread. Mesopotamia was fully into the Iron Age by 900 BC. Although Egypt produced iron artifacts, bronze remained dominant until its conquest by Assyria in 663 BC. The Iron Age began in India about 1200 BC, in Central Europe about 800 BC, and in China about 300 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceccarelli_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceccarelli-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 500 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubians</a>, who had learned from the Assyrians the use of iron and were expelled from Egypt, became major manufacturers and exporters of iron.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Near_East">Ancient Near East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient Near East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/360px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/540px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg/720px-Metal_production_in_Ancient_Middle_East.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1249" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>Mining areas of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. Boxes colors: <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> in brown, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> in red (the important mines of the <a href="/wiki/Arabah" title="Arabah">Arabah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timna_Valley#Copper_mining" title="Timna Valley">Timna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Feynan" title="Wadi Feynan">Feynan</a>, are missing from the map), <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> in black. The yellow area stands for <a href="/wiki/Arsenical_bronze" title="Arsenical bronze">arsenic bronze</a>, while grey area stands for tin <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts, a dagger with an iron blade found in a <a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattic</a> tomb in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, dated from 2500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-cowen_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cowen-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 1500 BC, increasing numbers of non-meteoritic, smelted iron objects appeared in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, Anatolia and Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-ephotos_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nineteen meteoric iron objects were found in the <a href="/wiki/Tomb" title="Tomb">tomb</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a>, who died in 1323 BC, including an iron dagger with a golden hilt, an <a href="/wiki/Eye_of_Horus" title="Eye of Horus">Eye of Horus</a>, the mummy's head-stand and sixteen models of an artisan's tools.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Ancient Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> as well as a <a href="/wiki/Battle_axe" title="Battle axe">battle axe</a> with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cowen_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cowen-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although iron objects dating from the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> have been found across the Eastern Mediterranean, bronzework appears to have greatly predominated during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-Waldbaum23_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waldbaum23-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the technology spread, iron came to replace bronze as the dominant metal used for tools and weapons across the Eastern Mediterranean (the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, Anatolia and Egypt).<sup id="cite_ref-Waldbaum56_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waldbaum56-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Iron was originally smelted in <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomeries</a>, furnaces where <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> were used to force air through a pile of iron ore and burning <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> produced by the charcoal reduced the <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxide</a> from the ore to metallic iron. The bloomery, however, was not hot enough to melt the iron, so the metal collected in the bottom of the furnace as a spongy mass, or <i>bloom</i>. Workers then repeatedly beat and folded it to force out the molten <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a>. This laborious, time-consuming process produced <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>, a malleable but fairly soft alloy.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Carburization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carburization">carburization</a>, the process of adding carbon to wrought iron. While the iron bloom contained some carbon, the subsequent hot-working <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidized</a> most of it. Smiths in the Middle East discovered that wrought iron could be turned into a much harder product by heating the finished piece in a bed of charcoal, and then <a href="/wiki/Quench" class="mw-redirect" title="Quench">quenching</a> it in water or oil. This procedure turned the outer layers of the piece into <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, an alloy of iron and <a href="/wiki/Iron_carbide" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron carbide">iron carbides</a>, with an inner core of less brittle iron. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theories_on_the_origin_of_iron_smelting">Theories on the origin of iron smelting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theories on the origin of iron smelting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of iron smelting was traditionally attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> of Anatolia of the Late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mulhy_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulhy-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was believed that they maintained a monopoly on iron working, and that their empire had been based on that advantage. According to that theory, the ancient <a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>, who invaded the Eastern Mediterranean and destroyed the Hittite empire at the end of the Late Bronze Age, were responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. This theory is no longer held in the mainstream of scholarship,<sup id="cite_ref-mulhy_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulhy-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since there is no archaeological evidence of the alleged Hittite monopoly. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period, and only a small number of those objects were weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-Waldbaum23_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waldbaum23-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more recent theory claims that the development of iron technology was driven by the disruption of the <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> trade routes, due to the collapse of the empires at the end of the Late Bronze Age.<sup id="cite_ref-mulhy_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mulhy-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These metals, especially tin, were not widely available and metal workers had to transport them over long distances, whereas iron ores were widely available. However, no known archaeological evidence suggests a shortage of bronze or tin in the Early Iron Age.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bronze objects remained abundant, and these objects have the same percentage of tin as those from the Late Bronze Age. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Indian subcontinent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:QtubIronPillar.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/170px-QtubIronPillar.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/255px-QtubIronPillar.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QtubIronPillar.JPG/340px-QtubIronPillar.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1347" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Iron_pillar_of_Delhi" title="Iron pillar of Delhi">iron pillar of Delhi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The history of ferrous metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began in the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in the <a href="/wiki/Gangetic_plains" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangetic plains">Gangetic plains</a> have yielded iron implements dated between 1800 and 1200 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Tewari_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tewari-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a large scale in India.<sup id="cite_ref-Tewari_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tewari-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">Southern India</a> (present day <a href="/wiki/Mysore" title="Mysore">Mysore</a>) iron was in use 12th to 11th centuries BC.<sup id="cite_ref-UCP_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCP-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technology of iron metallurgy advanced in the politically stable <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a> period<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and during a period of peaceful settlements in the 1st millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-UCP_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCP-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Iron artifacts such as <a href="/wiki/Nail_(fastener)" title="Nail (fastener)">spikes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">knives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagger" title="Dagger">daggers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">arrow</a>-heads, <a href="/wiki/Bowl_(vessel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowl (vessel)">bowls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spoon" title="Spoon">spoons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saucepan" title="Saucepan">saucepans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tongs" title="Tongs">tongs</a>, door fittings, etc., dated from 600 to 200 BC, have been discovered at several archaeological sites of India.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceccarelli_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceccarelli-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> wrote the first <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">western</a> account of the use of iron in India.<sup id="cite_ref-Ceccarelli_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ceccarelli-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian mythological texts, the <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a>, have mentions of weaving, pottery and metallurgy, as well.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> had high regard for the excellence of steel from India in the time of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-durant_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-durant-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dagger_India_Louvre_MR13434.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Dagger_India_Louvre_MR13434.jpg/170px-Dagger_India_Louvre_MR13434.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Dagger_India_Louvre_MR13434.jpg/255px-Dagger_India_Louvre_MR13434.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Dagger_India_Louvre_MR13434.jpg/340px-Dagger_India_Louvre_MR13434.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption>Dagger and its scabbard, India, 17th–18th century. Blade: <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a> inlaid with gold; hilt: jade; scabbard: steel with engraved, chased and gilded decoration.</figcaption></figure> <p>Perhaps as early as 500 BC, although certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel was produced in southern India by the <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible technique</a>. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.<sup id="cite_ref-Juleff_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juleff-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron chain was used in Indian <a href="/wiki/Suspension_bridge" title="Suspension bridge">suspension bridges</a> as early as the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a> was produced in India and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> from around 300 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Juleff_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juleff-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wootz steel is famous from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a> for its durability and ability to hold an edge. When asked by <a href="/wiki/King_Porus" class="mw-redirect" title="King Porus">King Porus</a> to select a gift, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a> is said to have chosen, over <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> or <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, thirty pounds of steel.<sup id="cite_ref-durant_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-durant-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wootz steel was originally a complex alloy with iron as its main component together with various <a href="/wiki/Trace_element" title="Trace element">trace elements</a>. Recent studies have suggested that its qualities may have been due to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon nanotubes">carbon nanotubes</a> in the metal.<sup id="cite_ref-sword_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sword-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a>, the technology passed to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a> and from them to <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a> who spread it through the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-durant_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-durant-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch</a> carried the technology from South India to Europe, where it was mass-produced.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steel was produced in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> from 300 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Juleff_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juleff-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by furnaces blown by the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon_of_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Monsoon of Indian subcontinent">monsoon winds</a>. The furnaces were dug into the crests of hills, and the wind was diverted into the <a href="/wiki/Air_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Air vents">air vents</a> by long trenches. This arrangement created a zone of high pressure at the entrance, and a zone of low pressure at the top of the furnace. The flow is believed to have allowed higher temperatures than bellows-driven furnaces could produce, resulting in better-quality iron.<sup id="cite_ref-Juleff1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juleff1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steel made in Sri Lanka was traded extensively within the region and in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Steel#Wootz_and_Damascus" title="Steel">Steel § Wootz and Damascus</a></div> <p>One of the world's foremost metallurgical curiosities is an <a href="/wiki/Iron_pillar_of_Delhi" title="Iron pillar of Delhi">iron pillar</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Qutb_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Qutb complex">Qutb complex</a> in <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>. The pillar is made of wrought iron (98% <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a>), is almost seven meters high and weighs more than six tonnes.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pillar was erected by <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_II" title="Chandragupta II">Chandragupta II</a> Vikramaditya and has withstood 1,600 years of exposure to heavy rains with relatively little <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/250px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/375px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg/500px-Chinese_Fining_and_Blast_Furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Fining</a> iron <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> to make wrought iron from pig iron. The righthand illustration shows men working a <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Song_Yingxing" title="Song Yingxing">Tiangong Kaiwu</a></i> encyclopedia, 1637).</figcaption></figure> <p>Historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. One theory suggests that metallurgy was introduced through Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-pigott_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pigott-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at the <a href="/wiki/Qijia_culture#Mogou_site" title="Qijia culture">Mogou site</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>. They have been dated to the 14th century BC, belonging to the period of <a href="/wiki/Siwa_culture" title="Siwa culture">Siwa culture</a>, suggesting an independent Chinese origin. One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest iron artifacts made from bloomeries in China date to end of the 9th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Lam_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lam-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cast iron was used in <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">ancient China</a> for warfare, agriculture and architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern <a href="/wiki/State_of_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Wu">state of Wu</a> achieved a temperature of 1130 °C. At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be <a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">cast</a> into <a href="/wiki/Molding_(process)" title="Molding (process)">molds</a>, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom. </p><p>Cast iron is rather brittle and unsuitable for striking implements. It can be <i>decarburized</i> to steel or wrought iron by heating it in air for several days. In China, these iron working methods spread northward, and by 300 BC, iron was the material of choice throughout China for most tools and weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A mass grave in <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a> province, dated to the early 3rd century BC, contains several soldiers buried with their weapons and other equipment. The artifacts recovered from this grave are variously made of wrought iron, cast iron, malleabilized cast iron, and quench-hardened steel, with only a few, probably ornamental, bronze weapons. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/260px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/390px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png/520px-Yuan_Dynasty_-_waterwheels_and_smelting.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from the <i>Nong Shu</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhen (official)">Wang Zhen</a>, 1313 AD, during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in China</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC–220 AD), the government established ironworking as a state monopoly, <a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Salt_and_Iron" title="Discourses on Salt and Iron">repealed during the latter half of the dynasty and returned to private entrepreneurship</a>, and built a series of large blast furnaces in <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> province, each capable of producing several tons of iron per day. By this time, Chinese metallurgists had discovered how to fine molten pig iron, stirring it in the open air until it lost its carbon and could be hammered (wrought). In modern Mandarin-<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, this process is now called <i>chao</i>, literally <a href="/wiki/Stir_frying" title="Stir frying">stir frying</a>. Pig iron is known as 'raw iron', while wrought iron is known as 'cooked iron'. By the 1st century BC, Chinese metallurgists had found that wrought iron and cast iron could be melted together to yield an alloy of intermediate carbon content, that is, steel.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to legend, the sword of <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Bang">Liu Bang</a>, the first Han emperor, was made in this fashion. Some texts of the era mention "harmonizing the hard and the soft" in the context of ironworking; the phrase may refer to this process. The ancient city of Wan (<a href="/wiki/Nanyang,_Henan" title="Nanyang, Henan">Nanyang</a>) from the Han period forward was a major center of the iron and steel industry.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported from India to China by the 5th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Han dynasty, the Chinese were also the first to apply <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic">hydraulic</a> power (i.e. a <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheel</a>) in working the bellows of the blast furnace. This was recorded in the year 31 AD, as an innovation by the Chinese mechanical engineer and politician <a href="/wiki/Du_Shi" title="Du Shi">Du Shi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prefect" title="Prefect">Prefect</a> of Nanyang.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Du Shi was the first to apply water power to bellows in metallurgy, the first drawn and printed illustration of its operation with water power appeared in 1313 AD, in the Yuan dynasty era text called the <i>Nong Shu</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song China</a> using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, heterogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 11th century, there was a large amount of deforestation in China due to the iron industry's demands for charcoal.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey158_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey158-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this time however, the Chinese had learned to use <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">bituminous coke</a> to replace charcoal, and with this switch in resources many acres of prime timberland in China were spared.<sup id="cite_ref-ebrey158_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebrey158-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_Japanese_iron-working_techniques" title="Early Japanese iron-working techniques">Early Japanese Ironworking</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_Age_Europe">Iron Age Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Iron Age Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age,_found_at_Gotland,_Sweden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg/128px-Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg/192px-Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg/256px-Axe_of_iron_from_Swedish_Iron_Age%2C_found_at_Gotland%2C_Sweden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axe</a> made of iron, dating from the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Scandinavia" title="Iron Age Scandinavia">Swedish Iron Age</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest iron objects found in Europe date from the 3rd millennium BC, and are assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eastern Europe, especially the Cis-Ural region, shows the highest concentration of early and middle Bronze Age iron objects in western Eurasia.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A knife blade from the Catacomb culture dated to c. 2500 BC is thought to have been made from smelted iron.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some archaeologists have suggested that Eastern Europe was an independent centre for the development of iron metallurgy.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During most of the Middle and Late Bronze Age in Central Europe, iron was present, though scarce. It was used for personal ornaments and small knives, for repairs on bronzes, and for bimetallic items.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early smelted iron finds from central Europe include an iron knife or sickle from Ganovce in Slovakia, possibly dating from the 18th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an iron ring from Vorwohlde in Germany dating from circa the 15th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an iron chisel from Heegermühle in Germany dating from circa 1000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Iron metallurgy began to be practised in <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Scandinavia" title="Iron Age Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> during the later <a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> from at least the 9th century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with evidence for steel production from 800–700 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 11th century BC iron swords replaced bronze swords in Southern Europe, especially in Greece, and in the 10th century BC iron became the prevailing metal in use.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Basin" title="Pannonian Basin">Carpathian Basin</a> there is a significant increase in iron finds dating from the 10th century BC onwards, with some finds possibly dating as early as the 12th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron swords have been found in central Europe dating from the 10th century BC; however, the Iron Age began in earnest with the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a> from 800 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-carbon steel tools were produced in Iberia (Portugal) from c. 900 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 500 BC the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a> saw a significant increase in iron production, with iron metallurgy also becoming common in southern Scandinavia. The spread of ironworking in Central and Western Europe is associated with <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> expansion. Celtic smiths produced steel from circa 800 BC as part of the production of swords.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence for the production of high-carbon steel is found in Britain after circa 490 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in central Europe in the pre-Roman period.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Noric_steel" title="Noric steel">Noric steel</a> was famous for its quality and sought-after by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_military" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman military">Roman military</a>. </p><p>Iron and steel artefacts, including high-carbon steel, were manufactured in northern Sweden, Finland and Norway (in the <a href="/wiki/Cap_of_the_North" title="Cap of the North">Cap of the North</a>) from c. 200–50 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The production of ultrahigh carbon steel is attested at the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> site of <a href="/wiki/Heeten" class="mw-redirect" title="Heeten">Heeten</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> from the 2nd to 4th/5th centuries AD, in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Late Roman Iron Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The annual output of iron in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> is estimated at 84,750 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">t</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa" title="Iron metallurgy in Africa">Iron metallurgy in Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_bloomery_furnace_types.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/African_bloomery_furnace_types.png/220px-African_bloomery_furnace_types.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/African_bloomery_furnace_types.png/330px-African_bloomery_furnace_types.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/African_bloomery_furnace_types.png/440px-African_bloomery_furnace_types.png 2x" data-file-width="1578" data-file-height="2251" /></a><figcaption>Examples of African bloomery furnace types</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Archaeometallurgical" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeometallurgical">Archaeometallurgical</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">scientific knowledge and technological development</a> originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-Bandama_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bandama-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631 BCE – 2458 BCE at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136 BCE – 1921 BCE at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895 BCE – 1370 BCE at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297 BCE – 1051 BCE at Dekpassanware, in Togo.<sup id="cite_ref-Bandama_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bandama-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa (possibly in West Africa).<sup id="cite_ref-Eggert51_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert51-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holl2009_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl2009-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inhabitants of Termit, in eastern <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, smelted iron around 1500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the region of the <a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFr_Mountains" title="Aïr Mountains">Aïr Mountains</a> in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> there are also signs of independent copper smelting between 2500 and 1500 BC. The process was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in the <a href="/wiki/Nsukka" title="Nsukka">Nsukka</a> region of southeast <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igboland</a>: dating to 2000 BC at the site of <a href="/wiki/Lejja" title="Lejja">Lejja</a> (Eze-Uzomaka 2009)<sup id="cite_ref-Eze-Uzomaka_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eze-Uzomaka-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holl2009_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl2009-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to 750 BC and at the site of <a href="/wiki/Opi_(archaeological_site)" title="Opi (archaeological site)">Opi</a> (Holl 2009).<sup id="cite_ref-Holl2009_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl2009-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Eggert53_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert53-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in the <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a> of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-miller_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stuiver_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stuiver-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (February 2022)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Ferrous_metallurgy#This_seems_to_be_a_1975_(1st?)_ed.,_never_mentioned_elsewhere." title="Talk:Ferrous metallurgy">discuss</a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eggert51_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert51-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eggert53_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eggert53-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is also evidence that <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">carbon steel</a> was made in Western <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> by the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Haya_people" title="Haya people">Haya people</a> as early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-SchmidtCS_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SchmidtCS-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt1983_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt1983-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SchmidtHA_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SchmidtHA-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Iron and copper working spread southward through the continent, reaching the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape</a> around AD 200.<sup id="cite_ref-miller_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stuiver_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stuiver-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The widespread use of iron revolutionized the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a>-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the rock tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a>. The technologically superior Bantu-speakers spread across southern Africa and became wealthy and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-miller_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stuiver_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stuiver-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> that date back between the 7th and 6th centuries BC,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Humphris_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Humphris-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly in <a href="/wiki/Meroe" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroe">Meroe</a> where there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced surplus for their economy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Typical_bloomery_iron_production_operational_sequence.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Typical_bloomery_iron_production_operational_sequence.webp/220px-Typical_bloomery_iron_production_operational_sequence.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Typical_bloomery_iron_production_operational_sequence.webp/330px-Typical_bloomery_iron_production_operational_sequence.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Typical_bloomery_iron_production_operational_sequence.webp/440px-Typical_bloomery_iron_production_operational_sequence.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1865" data-file-height="1656" /></a><figcaption>Typical bloomery iron production operational sequence starting with acquiring raw materials through smelting and smithing</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Islamic_world">Medieval Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Medieval Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Iron technology was further advanced by several <a href="/wiki/Inventions_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions in medieval Islam">inventions in medieval Islam</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. By the 11th century, every province throughout the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> had these industrial mills in operation, from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELucas200510–11,_27_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELucas200510–11,_27-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also 10th-century references to <a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">cast iron</a>, as well as archeological evidence of <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> being used in the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid">Ayyubid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a> empires from the 11th century, thus suggesting a diffusion of Chinese metal technology to the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most famous steels produced in the medieval Near East was <a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Swordmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Swordmaking">swordmaking</a>, and mostly produced in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, in the period from 900 to 1750. This was produced using the <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a> method, based on the earlier Indian <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">wootz steel</a>. This process was adopted in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The exact process remains unknown, but it allowed <a href="/wiki/Carbide" title="Carbide">carbides</a> to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. Carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, so swordsmiths could produce an edge that cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel let the sword as a whole remain tough and flexible. A team of researchers based at the <a href="/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Dresden" class="mw-redirect" title="Technische Universität Dresden">Technical University</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> that uses <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a> to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanowires" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanowires">nanowires</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties<sup id="cite_ref-jmrefs_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jmrefs-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are a result of the <a href="/wiki/Forging" title="Forging">forging</a> process.<sup id="cite_ref-jmrefs_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jmrefs-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sword_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sword-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_and_early_modern_Europe">Medieval and early modern Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Medieval and early modern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There was no fundamental change in the technology of iron production in Europe for many centuries. European metal workers continued to produce iron in bloomeries. However, the <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> period brought two developments—the use of water power in the bloomery process in various places (outlined above), and the first European production in cast iron. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Powered_bloomeries">Powered bloomeries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Powered bloomeries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a></div> <p>Sometime in the medieval period, water power was applied to the bloomery process. It is possible that this was at the <a href="/wiki/Cistercian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cistercian">Cistercian</a> Abbey of <a href="/wiki/Clairvaux_Abbey" title="Clairvaux Abbey">Clairvaux</a> as early as 1135, but it was certainly in use in early 13th century <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELucas200519_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELucas200519-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, the first clear documentary evidence for this is the accounts of a forge of the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Durham" title="Bishop of Durham">Bishop of Durham</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Bedburn" title="Bedburn">Bedburn</a> in 1408,<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but that was certainly not the first such ironworks. In the <a href="/wiki/Furness" title="Furness">Furness</a> district of England, powered bloomeries were in use into the beginning of the 18th century, and near <a href="/wiki/Garstang" title="Garstang">Garstang</a> until about 1770. </p><p>The Catalan Forge was a variety of powered bloomery. Bloomeries with <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast</a> were used in upstate <a href="/wiki/New_York_State" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State">New York</a> in the mid-19th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blast_furnace">Blast furnace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Blast furnace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron-Making.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Iron-Making.jpg/330px-Iron-Making.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Iron-Making.jpg/495px-Iron-Making.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Iron-Making.jpg/660px-Iron-Making.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2524" data-file-height="1914" /></a><figcaption>Ironmaking described in "<a href="/wiki/The_Popular_Encyclopedia;_or,_Conversations_Lexicon" class="mw-redirect" title="The Popular Encyclopedia; or, Conversations Lexicon">The Popular Encyclopedia</a>" vol. VII, published 1894</figcaption></figure> <p>The preferred method of iron production in Europe until the development of the <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddling process</a> in 1783–84. Cast iron development lagged in Europe because wrought iron was the desired product and the intermediate step of producing cast iron involved an expensive blast furnace and further refining of pig iron to cast iron, which then required a labor and capital intensive conversion to wrought iron.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe, iron was still being made by the working of iron blooms into wrought iron. Some of the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in Sweden, in two sites, <a href="/wiki/Lapphyttan" title="Lapphyttan">Lapphyttan</a> and Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350. Some scholars have speculated the practice followed the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongols</a> across <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> to these sites, but there is no clear proof of this hypothesis, and it would certainly not explain the pre-Mongol datings of many of these iron-production centres. In any event, by the late 14th century, a market for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finery_forge">Finery forge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Finery forge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a></div> <p>An alternative method of <a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">decarburising</a> <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">finery forge</a>, which seems to have been devised in the region around <a href="/wiki/Namur_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Namur (city)">Namur</a> in the 15th century. By the end of that century, this <a href="/wiki/Walloon_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Walloon process">Walloon process</a> spread to the <i>Pay de Bray</i> on the eastern boundary of <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, and then to England, where it became the main method of making wrought iron by 1600. It was introduced to Sweden by <a href="/wiki/Louis_De_Geer_(1587%E2%80%931652)" title="Louis De Geer (1587–1652)">Louis de Geer</a> in the early 17th century and was used to make the <a href="/wiki/Oregrounds_iron" title="Oregrounds iron">oregrounds iron</a> favoured by English steelmakers. </p><p>A variation on this was the <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge#German_forge" title="Finery forge">German forge</a>. This became the main method of producing <a href="/wiki/Bar_iron" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar iron">bar iron</a> in Sweden. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cementation_process">Cementation process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cementation process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></div> <p>In the early 17th century, ironworkers in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> had developed the <a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">cementation process</a> for <a href="/wiki/Carburization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carburization">carburizing</a> <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">wrought iron</a>. Wrought iron bars and charcoal were packed into stone boxes, then sealed with clay to be held at a red heat continually tended in an oxygen-free state immersed in nearly pure carbon (charcoal) for up to a week. During this time, carbon diffused into the surface layers of the iron, producing <i>cement steel</i> or <i>blister steel</i>—also known as case hardened, where the portions wrapped in iron (the pick or axe blade) became harder, than say an axe hammer-head or shaft socket which might be insulated by clay to keep them from the carbon source. The earliest place where this process was used in England was at <a href="/wiki/Coalbrookdale" title="Coalbrookdale">Coalbrookdale</a> from 1619, where Sir Basil Brooke had two cementation furnaces (recently excavated in 2001–2005<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). For a time in the 1610s, he owned a patent on the process, but had to surrender this in 1619. He probably used <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Dean" title="Forest of Dean">Forest of Dean</a> iron as his raw material, but it was soon found that oregrounds iron was more suitable. The quality of the steel could be improved by <a href="/wiki/Faggoting_(metalworking)" title="Faggoting (metalworking)">faggoting</a>, producing the so-called shear steel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crucible_steel">Crucible steel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Crucible steel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1740s, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Huntsman" title="Benjamin Huntsman">Benjamin Huntsman</a> found a means of melting blister steel, made by the cementation process, in crucibles. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">crucible steel</a>, usually cast in ingots, was more homogeneous than blister steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Tylecote_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tylecote-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 145">: 145 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transition_to_coke_in_England">Transition to coke in England</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Transition to coke in England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#Iron_industry" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution § Iron industry</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings">Beginnings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Beginnings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early iron smelting used charcoal as both the heat source and the reducing agent. By the 18th century, the availability of wood for making charcoal was limiting the expansion of iron production, so that England became increasingly dependent for a considerable part of the iron required by its industry, on Sweden (from the mid-17th century) and then from about 1725 also on Russia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Smelting with coal (or its derivative <a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">coke</a>) was a long sought objective. The production of pig iron with coke was probably achieved by <a href="/wiki/Dud_Dudley" title="Dud Dudley">Dud Dudley</a> around 1619,<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with a mixed fuel made from coal and wood again in the 1670s. However this was probably only a technological rather than a commercial success. <a href="/wiki/Shadrach_Fox" title="Shadrach Fox">Shadrach Fox</a> may have smelted iron with coke at Coalbrookdale in <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a> in the 1690s, but only to make cannonballs and other cast iron products such as shells. However, in the peace after the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Nine Years War">Nine Years War</a>, there was no demand for these.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abraham_Darby_and_his_successors">Abraham Darby and his successors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Abraham Darby and his successors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby I</a></div> <p>In 1707, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_I" title="Abraham Darby I">Abraham Darby I</a> patented a method of making cast iron pots. His pots were thinner and hence cheaper than those of his rivals. Needing a larger supply of pig iron he leased the blast furnace at Coalbrookdale in 1709. There, he made iron using coke, thus establishing the first successful business in Europe to do so. His products were all of cast iron, though his immediate successors attempted (with little commercial success) to fine this to bar iron.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Bar iron</a> thus continued normally to be made with charcoal pig iron until the mid-1750s. In 1755 <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Darby_II" title="Abraham Darby II">Abraham Darby II</a> (with partners) opened a new coke-using furnace at <a href="/wiki/Horsehay" title="Horsehay">Horsehay</a> in Shropshire, and this was followed by others. These supplied coke pig iron to finery forges of the traditional kind for the production of <a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">bar iron</a>. The reason for the delay remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_forge_processes">New forge processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: New forge processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puddling_furnace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Puddling_furnace.jpg/220px-Puddling_furnace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Puddling_furnace.jpg/330px-Puddling_furnace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Puddling_furnace.jpg/440px-Puddling_furnace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace</figcaption></figure> <p>It was only after this that economically viable means of converting pig iron to bar iron began to be devised. A process known as <a href="/wiki/Potting_and_stamping" title="Potting and stamping">potting and stamping</a> was devised in the 1760s and improved in the 1770s, and seems to have been widely adopted in the <a href="/wiki/West_Midlands_(region)" title="West Midlands (region)">West Midlands</a> from about 1785. However, this was largely replaced by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cort" title="Henry Cort">Henry Cort</a>'s puddling process, patented in 1784, but probably only made to work with grey pig iron in about 1790. These processes permitted the great expansion in the production of iron that constitutes the Industrial Revolution for the iron industry.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 19th century, Hall discovered that the addition of iron oxide to the charge of the puddling furnace caused a violent reaction, in which the pig iron was <a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">decarburised</a>, this became known as 'wet puddling'. It was also found possible to produce steel by stopping the <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">puddling process</a> before decarburisation was complete. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hot_blast">Hot blast</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Hot blast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></div> <p>The efficiency of the blast furnace was improved by the change to <a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">hot blast</a>, patented by <a href="/wiki/James_Beaumont_Neilson" title="James Beaumont Neilson">James Beaumont Neilson</a> in Scotland in 1828.<sup id="cite_ref-EB1911_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB1911-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This further reduced production costs. Within a few decades, the practice was to have a 'stove' as large as the furnace next to it into which the waste gas (containing CO) from the furnace was directed and burnt. The resultant heat was used to preheat the air blown into the furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industrial_steelmaking">Industrial steelmaking</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Industrial steelmaking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bessemer_converter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Bessemer_converter.jpg/220px-Bessemer_converter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Bessemer_converter.jpg/330px-Bessemer_converter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Bessemer_converter.jpg/440px-Bessemer_converter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Schematic drawing of a Bessemer converter</figcaption></figure> <p>Apart from some production of <a href="/wiki/Puddled_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Puddled steel">puddled steel</a>, English steel continued to be made by the cementation process, sometimes followed by remelting to produce crucible steel. These were batch-based processes whose raw material was bar iron, particularly Swedish oregrounds iron. </p><p>The problem of mass-producing cheap steel was solved in 1855 by Henry Bessemer, with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer converter</a> at his steelworks in <a href="/wiki/Sheffield" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a>, England. (An early converter can still be seen at the city's <a href="/wiki/Kelham_Island_Museum" title="Kelham Island Museum">Kelham Island Museum</a>). In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace was charged into a large crucible, and then air was blown through the molten iron from below, igniting the dissolved carbon from the coke. As the carbon burned off, the melting point of the mixture increased, but the heat from the burning carbon provided the extra energy needed to keep the mixture molten. After the carbon content in the melt had dropped to the desired level, the air draft was cut off: a typical Bessemer converter could convert a 25-ton batch of pig iron to steel in half an hour. </p><p>In the 1860s development of regenerative furnaces and higher temperature refractory lining allowed to melt steel in an <a href="/wiki/Open_hearth" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth">open hearth</a>. That was slow and energy intensive, but allowed to better control the chemical makeup of the product and recycle iron scrap. </p><p>The acidic refractory lining of Bessemer converters and early open hearths didn't allow to remove phosphorus from steel with lime, which prolonged the life of puddling furnaces in order to utilize phosphorous iron ores abundant in Continental Europe. However, in the 1870s <a href="/wiki/Gilchrist%E2%80%93Thomas_process" title="Gilchrist–Thomas process">Gilchrist–Thomas process</a> was developed, and later basic lining was adopted for the open hearths as well. </p><p>Finally, the <a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">basic oxygen process</a> was introduced at the Voest-Alpine works in 1952; a modification of the basic Bessemer process, it lances oxygen from above the steel (instead of bubbling air from below), reducing the amount of nitrogen uptake into the steel. The basic oxygen process is used in all modern steelworks; the last Bessemer converter in the U.S. was retired in 1968. Furthermore, the last three decades have seen a massive increase in the mini-mill business, where scrap steel only is melted with an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnace</a>. These mills only produced bar products at first, but have since expanded into flat and heavy products, once the exclusive domain of the integrated steelworks. </p><p>Until these 19th-century developments, steel was an expensive commodity and only used for a limited number of purposes where a particularly hard or flexible metal was needed, as in the cutting edges of tools and springs. The widespread availability of inexpensive steel powered the <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> and modern society as we know it. Mild steel ultimately replaced wrought iron for almost all purposes, and wrought iron is no longer commercially produced. With minor exceptions, alloy steels only began to be made in the late 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">Stainless steel</a> was developed on the eve of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and was not widely used until the 1920s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_steel_industry">Modern steel industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Modern steel industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_steel_industry_(1850%E2%80%931970)" title="History of the steel industry (1850–1970)">History of the steel industry (1850–1970)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_steel_industry_(1970%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the steel industry (1970–present)">History of the steel industry (1970–present)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_steel_industry_trends" class="mw-redirect" title="Global steel industry trends">Global steel industry trends</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel_production_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel production by country">Steel production by country</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steel_production_by_country_map_2023.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Steel_production_by_country_map_2023.png/510px-Steel_production_by_country_map_2023.png" decoding="async" width="510" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Steel_production_by_country_map_2023.png/765px-Steel_production_by_country_map_2023.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Steel_production_by_country_map_2023.png/1020px-Steel_production_by_country_map_2023.png 2x" data-file-width="1445" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>Steel production (in million tons) by country in 2023</figcaption></figure> <p>The steel industry is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Boom_and_bust" class="mw-redirect" title="Boom and bust">economic boom</a> in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (October 2016)">according to whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Tata_Steel" title="Tata Steel">Tata Steel</a> (which bought <a href="/wiki/Corus_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Corus Group">Corus Group</a> in 2007), <a href="/wiki/Baosteel_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Baosteel Group">Baosteel Group</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shagang_Group" title="Shagang Group">Shagang Group</a>. As of 2017<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, though, <a href="/wiki/ArcelorMittal" title="ArcelorMittal">ArcelorMittal</a> is the world's <a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">largest steel producer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2005, the <a href="/wiki/British_Geological_Survey" title="British Geological Survey">British Geological Survey</a> stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The large production capacity of steel results in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to the main production route. In 2019, it was estimated that 7 to 9% of the global carbon dioxide emissions resulted from the steel industry.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage or carbon capture and utilization technology. </p><p>In 2008, steel began <a href="/wiki/Commodity_market" title="Commodity market">trading as a commodity</a> on the <a href="/wiki/London_Metal_Exchange" title="London Metal Exchange">London Metal Exchange</a>. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bintie" title="Bintie">Bintie</a>, a type of refined iron</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel#History_of_steelmaking" title="Steel">History of steelmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alloys" class="mw-redirect" title="List of alloys">List of alloys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-ferrous_extractive_metallurgy" title="Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy">Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Roman metallurgy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRehren2013" class="citation journal cs1">Rehren, T. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1430496/1/Rehren_et_al_2013_Petrie_iron_beads_JAS_40.pdf">"5,000 years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>40</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">4785–</span>4792. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013JArSc..40.4785R">2013JArSc..40.4785R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2013.06.002">10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=5%2C000+years+old+Egyptian+iron+beads+made+from+hammered+meteoritic+iron&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4785-%3C%2Fspan%3E4792&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2013.06.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013JArSc..40.4785R&rft.aulast=Rehren&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2F1430496%2F1%2FRehren_et_al_2013_Petrie_iron_beads_JAS_40.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ephotos-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ephotos_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhotos1989" class="citation journal cs1">Photos, E. (1989). "The Question of Meteoritic versus Smelted Nickel-Rich Iron: Archaeological Evidence and Experimental Results". <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>20</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">403–</span>421. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1989.9980081">10.1080/00438243.1989.9980081</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/124562">124562</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5908149">5908149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Question+of+Meteoritic+versus+Smelted+Nickel-Rich+Iron%3A+Archaeological+Evidence+and+Experimental+Results&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E403-%3C%2Fspan%3E421&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5908149%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F124562%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438243.1989.9980081&rft.aulast=Photos&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Riederer, Josef; Wartke, Ralf-B.: "Iron", Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.): <a href="/wiki/Brill%27s_New_Pauly" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill's New Pauly">Brill's New Pauly</a>, Brill 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UCP-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UCP_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UCP_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UCP_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Early Antiquity By I.M. Drakonoff. 1991. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-14465-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-14465-8">0-226-14465-8</a>. p. 372</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRao2018" class="citation book cs1">Rao, Kp (2018). "Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh". In Uesugi, Akinori (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332103484"><i>Iron Age in South Asia</i></a>. Research Group for South Asian Archaeology. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-9909150-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-9909150-1-8"><bdi>978-4-9909150-1-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iron+Age+in+South+India%3A+Telangana+and+Andhra+Pradesh&rft.btitle=Iron+Age+in+South+Asia&rft.pub=Research+Group+for+South+Asian+Archaeology&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-4-9909150-1-8&rft.aulast=Rao&rft.aufirst=Kp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F332103484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-miller-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-miller_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-miller_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-miller_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-miller_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillervan_der_Merwe1994" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Duncan E.; van der Merwe, N.J. (1994). "Early Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research". <i>Journal of African History</i>. <b>35</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700025949">10.1017/s0021853700025949</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162330270">162330270</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Early+Metal+Working+in+Sub-Saharan+Africa%3A+A+Review+of+Recent+Research&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0021853700025949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162330270%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Duncan+E.&rft.au=van+der+Merwe%2C+N.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuiver-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stuiver_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuiver_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuiver_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuiver_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuivervan_der_Merwe1968" class="citation journal cs1">Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, N.J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>9</b>: <span class="nowrap">54–</span>58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F200878">10.1086/200878</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145379030">145379030</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Radiocarbon+Chronology+of+the+Iron+Age+in+Sub-Saharan+Africa&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F200878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145379030%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stuiver&rft.aufirst=Minze&rft.au=van+der+Merwe%2C+N.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waldbaum (1978).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wagner-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wagner_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagner_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wagner_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_B._Wagner1993" class="citation book cs1">Donald B. Wagner (1993). <i>Iron and Steel in Ancient China</i>. Brill. p. 408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09632-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09632-5"><bdi>978-90-04-09632-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+and+Steel+in+Ancient+China&rft.pages=408&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09632-5&rft.au=Donald+B.+Wagner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1867" class="citation cs2">Williams, David (1867), "The Iron Age [weekly journal]", <i>Iron Age</i>, New York: David Williams, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1508">0021-1508</a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/sc82008005">sc82008005</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5257259">5257259</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iron+Age&rft.atitle=The+Iron+Age+%5Bweekly+journal%5D&rft.date=1867&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5257259&rft.issn=0021-1508&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Fsc82008005&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tylecote-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tylecote (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tylecote3-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote3_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tylecote3_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tylecote (1992). p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Veenhof-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Veenhof_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeenhofEidem2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Klaas_Veenhof" title="Klaas Veenhof">Veenhof, Klaas</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jesper_Eidem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jesper Eidem (page does not exist)">Eidem, Jesper</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vYMmrenUywQC&pg=PA84"><i>Mesopotamia : Annäherungen</i></a>. Saint-Paul. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-53452-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-53452-6"><bdi>978-3-525-53452-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia+%3A+Ann%C3%A4herungen&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Saint-Paul&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-525-53452-6&rft.aulast=Veenhof&rft.aufirst=Klaas&rft.au=Eidem%2C+Jesper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvYMmrenUywQC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Waldbaum56-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waldbaum56_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waldbaum56_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Waldbaum (1978). pp. 56–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ceccarelli-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ceccarelli_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ceccarelli_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ceccarelli_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Marco Ceccarelli (2000). <i>International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium</i>. Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-6372-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-6372-8">0-7923-6372-8</a>. p. 218</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White, W. C.: "Bronze Culture of Ancient China", p. 208. University of Toronto Press, 1956.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collins, Rober O. and Burns, James M. <i>The History of Sub-Saharan Africa</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 37. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68708-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68708-9">978-0-521-68708-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cowen-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cowen_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cowen_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Cowen, <i>The Age of Iron</i>, Chapter 5 in a series of essays on Geology, History, and People prepares for a course of the University of California at Davis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/115CH5.html">Online version</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100314155922/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/115CH5.html">Archived</a> 2010-03-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> accessed on 2010-02-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen: Discovered by the Late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter, Volume 3</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Waldbaum23-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waldbaum23_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waldbaum23_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Waldbaum (1978): 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmil2016" class="citation book cs1">Smil, Vaclav (2016). <i>Still the Iron Age</i>. 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'Metalworking/Mining in the Levant' pp. 174–183 in <i>Near Eastern Archaeology</i> ed. Suzanne Richard (2003), pp. 179–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Muhly 2003: 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tewari-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tewari_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tewari_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTewari2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rakesh_Tewari" title="Rakesh Tewari">Tewari, Rakesh</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf">"The origins of iron-working in India: new evidence from the Central Ganga Plain and the Eastern Vindhyas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>77</b> (297): <span class="nowrap">536–</span>544. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.403.4300">10.1.1.403.4300</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0003598x00092590">10.1017/s0003598x00092590</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14951163">14951163</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305222813/http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-03-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+iron-working+in+India%3A+new+evidence+from+the+Central+Ganga+Plain+and+the+Eastern+Vindhyas&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=297&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E536-%3C%2Fspan%3E544&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.403.4300%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14951163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0003598x00092590&rft.aulast=Tewari&rft.aufirst=Rakesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fantiquity.ac.uk%2Fprojgall%2Ftewari%2Ftewari.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/J._F._Richards" class="mw-redirect" title="J. 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"An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka". <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>379</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">60–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Natur.379...60J">1996Natur.379...60J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F379060a0">10.1038/379060a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205026185">205026185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=An+ancient+wind+powered+iron+smelting+technology+in+Sri+Lanka&rft.volume=379&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E60-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205026185%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F379060a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996Natur.379...60J&rft.au=Juleff%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fluent.com/about/news/newsletters/04v13i1/a27.htm">"ANSYS Fluent Software: CFD Simulation"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090221092502/http://fluent.com/about/news/newsletters/04v13i1/a27.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-02-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-01-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ANSYS+Fluent+Software%3A+CFD+Simulation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fluent.com%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Fnewsletters%2F04v13i1%2Fa27.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simulation of air flows through a Sri Lankan wind driven furnace, submitted to J. Arch. Sci, 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Balasubramaniam (2002), <i>Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights</i>. Aryan Books International, Delhi <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7305-223-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-7305-223-9">81-7305-223-9</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_rv/t_rv_agraw_delhi_frameset.htm">"Review: Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927224815/http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_rv/t_rv_agraw_delhi_frameset.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-09-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review%3A+Delhi+Iron+Pillar%3A+New+Insights&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infinityfoundation.com%2Fmandala%2Ft_rv%2Ft_rv_agraw_delhi_frameset.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.iitk.ac.in/~bala/journalpaper/journal/index.htm">"List of Publications on Indian Archaeometallurgy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070312111546/http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journal/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-03-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=List+of+Publications+on+Indian+Archaeometallurgy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.iitk.ac.in%2F~bala%2Fjournalpaper%2Fjournal%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pigott-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pigott_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pigott, Vincent C. (1999). <i>The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-924171-34-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-924171-34-0">0-924171-34-0</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chen, Jianli, Mao, Ruilin, Wang, Hui, Chen, Honghai, Xie, Yan, Qian, Yaopeng, 2012. <i>The iron objects unearthed from tombs of the Siwa culture in Mogou, Gansu, and the origin of iron-making technology in China.</i> Wenwu (Cult. Relics) 8, 45–53 (in Chinese)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff & I. Spence</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lam-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lam_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWengcheong_Lam2014" class="citation book cs1">Wengcheong Lam (2014). <i>Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the Transition to Cast Iron Production in the Central Plains of China</i>. Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 519.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everything+Old+is+New+Again%3F+Rethinking+the+Transition+to+Cast+Iron+Production+in+the+Central+Plains+of+China&rft.pages=519&rft.pub=Chinese+University+of+Hong+Kong&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Wengcheong+Lam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 563 g</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 3, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 1, p. 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 370.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham (1986). Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwell1966" class="citation journal cs1">Hartwell, Robert (1966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". <i>Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>26</b>: <span class="nowrap">53–</span>54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022050700061842">10.1017/S0022050700061842</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154556274">154556274</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Markets%2C+Technology+and+the+Structure+of+Enterprise+in+the+Development+of+the+Eleventh+Century+Chinese+Iron+and+Steel+Industry&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022050700061842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154556274%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hartwell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ebrey158-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey158_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebrey158_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">(2006). 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.topoi.org/project/a-5-6/">"Early Iron in Eastern Europe"</a>. <i>topoi.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=topoi.org&rft.atitle=Early+Iron+in+Eastern+Europe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.topoi.org%2Fproject%2Fa-5-6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation book cs1">Anthony, David (2007). <i>The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05887-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-05887-0"><bdi>978-0-691-05887-0</bdi></a>. <q>One unappreciated aspect of Early Bronze Age and Middle Bronze Age steppe metallurgy was its experimentation with iron. … A Catacomb-period grave at <a href="/wiki/Gerasimovka,_Belgorod_Oblast" title="Gerasimovka, Belgorod Oblast">Gerasimovka</a> on the Donets (western Russia/Ukraine), probably dated around 2500 BCE, contained a knife with a handle made of arsenical bronze and a blade made of iron. The iron did not contain magnetite or nickel, as would be expected in meteoric iron, so it is thought to have been forged. Iron objects were rare, but they were part of the experiments conducted by steppe metalsmiths during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Horse%2C+the+Wheel%2C+and+Language&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-05887-0&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.topoi.org/project/a-5-6/">"Early Iron in Eastern Europe"</a>. <i>topoi.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=topoi.org&rft.atitle=Early+Iron+in+Eastern+Europe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.topoi.org%2Fproject%2Fa-5-6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKašuba2019" class="citation journal cs1">Kašuba, Maja; et al. 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Die archäologischen Quellen und ihre Interpretation"</a>. <i>Praehistorische Zeitschrift</i>. <b>94</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">158–</span>209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpz-2019-0001">10.1515/pz-2019-0001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Praehistorische+Zeitschrift&rft.atitle=Eisenmetallurgie+in+der+Bronzezeit+Osteuropas.+Die+arch%C3%A4ologischen+Quellen+und+ihre+Interpretation&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E158-%3C%2Fspan%3E209&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fpz-2019-0001&rft.aulast=Ka%C5%A1uba&rft.aufirst=Maja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F71797205%2FEisenmetallurgie_in_der_Bronzezeit_Osteuropas_Die_arch%25C3%25A4ologischen_Quellen_und_ihre_Interpretation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Iron-Age">"The Iron Age"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=The+Iron+Age&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fhistory-of-Europe%2FThe-Iron-Age&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen2019" class="citation book cs1">Hansen, Svend (2019). 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(2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/76153774/Weaponry_of_the_Przeworsk_Culture_in_the_Light_of_Metallographic_Examinations_The_Case_of_the_Cemetery_in_Raczkowice">"Weaponry of the Przeworsk Culture in the light of metallographic examinations. The case of the cemetery in Raczkowice"</a>. <i>Praehistorische Zeitschrift</i>. <b>94</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpz-2019-0016">10.1515/pz-2019-0016</a>. <q>In Pre-Roman Period Europe one can see a strong diversification of sword blade technologies. There are many low quality blades made from iron or low-carbon steel; on the other hand, one also encounters artefacts made partially or entirely from high-carbon steel.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Praehistorische+Zeitschrift&rft.atitle=Weaponry+of+the+Przeworsk+Culture+in+the+light+of+metallographic+examinations.+The+case+of+the+cemetery+in+Raczkowice&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E45&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fpz-2019-0016&rft.aulast=Sk%C3%B3ra&rft.aufirst=Kalina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F76153774%2FWeaponry_of_the_Przeworsk_Culture_in_the_Light_of_Metallographic_Examinations_The_Case_of_the_Cemetery_in_Raczkowice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/norrbotten/gjordes-stal-i-norr-samtidigt-som-romarriket-nu-vantas-historien-skrivas-om--0nnus6">Gjordes stål i norr samtidigt som i romarriket – nu väntas historien skrivas om: SVT</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodfreyvan_Nie2004" class="citation journal cs1">Godfrey, Evelyne; van Nie, Matthijs (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440304000202">"A Germanic ultrahigh carbon steel punch of the Late Roman-Iron Age"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>31</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">1117–</span>1125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2004.02.002">10.1016/j.jas.2004.02.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=A+Germanic+ultrahigh+carbon+steel+punch+of+the+Late+Roman-Iron+Age&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1117-%3C%2Fspan%3E1125&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2004.02.002&rft.aulast=Godfrey&rft.aufirst=Evelyne&rft.au=van+Nie%2C+Matthijs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0305440304000202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: <a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">Oleson, John Peter</a> (ed.): <i>The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i>, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1">978-0-19-518731-1</a>, p. 108</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bandama-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bandama_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bandama_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBandamaBabalola2023" class="citation journal cs1">Bandama, Foreman; Babalola, Abidemi Babatunde (13 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10437-023-09545-6">"Science, Not Black Magic: Metal and Glass Production in Africa"</a>. <i>African Archaeological Review</i>. <b>40</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">531–</span>543. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10437-023-09545-6">10.1007/s10437-023-09545-6</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0263-0338">0263-0338</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10004759980">10004759980</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:261858183">261858183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=Science%2C+Not+Black+Magic%3A+Metal+and+Glass+Production+in+Africa&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E531-%3C%2Fspan%3E543&rft.date=2023-09-13&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10004759980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A261858183%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0263-0338&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10437-023-09545-6&rft.aulast=Bandama&rft.aufirst=Foreman&rft.au=Babalola%2C+Abidemi+Babatunde&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10437-023-09545-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eggert51-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eggert51_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eggert51_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eggert (2014). pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA51">51</a>–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holl2009-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holl2009_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl2009_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holl2009_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoll2009" class="citation journal cs1">Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy". <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i>. <b>22</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">415–</span>438. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-009-9030-6">10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161611760">161611760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Prehistory&rft.atitle=Early+West+African+Metallurgies%3A+New+Data+and+Old+Orthodoxy&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E415-%3C%2Fspan%3E438&rft.date=2009-11-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10963-009-9030-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161611760%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=Augustin+F.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=3432&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html">Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081025192915/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D3432%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html">Archived</a> 2008-10-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Unesco (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehret, Christopher (2002). <i>The Civilizations of Africa</i>. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, pp. 136, 137 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8139-2085-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8139-2085-X">0-8139-2085-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eze-Uzomaka-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eze-Uzomaka_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEze–Uzomaka" class="citation journal cs1">Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4103707">"Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja"</a>. <i>Academia.edu</i>. University of Nigeria,Nsukka, Nigeria<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academia.edu&rft.atitle=Iron+and+its+influence+on+the+prehistoric+site+of+Lejja&rft.aulast=Eze%E2%80%93Uzomaka&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4103707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eggert53-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eggert53_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eggert53_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eggert (2014). pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53">53</a>–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tylecote (1975) (see below)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SchmidtCS-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SchmidtCS_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidtAvery1978" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1978). "Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania". <i>Science</i>. <b>201</b> (4361): <span class="nowrap">1085–</span>1089. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978Sci...201.1085S">1978Sci...201.1085S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.201.4361.1085">10.1126/science.201.4361.1085</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1746308">1746308</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17830304">17830304</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37926350">37926350</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Complex+Iron+Smelting+and+Prehistoric+Culture+in+Tanzania&rft.volume=201&rft.issue=4361&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1085-%3C%2Fspan%3E1089&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37926350%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978Sci...201.1085S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17830304&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.201.4361.1085&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1746308%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Avery%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidt1983-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt1983_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidtAvery1983" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt, Peter; Avery, Donald (1983). "More Evidence for an Advanced Prehistoric Iron Technology in Africa". <i>Journal of Field Archaeology</i>. <b>10</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">421–</span>434. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F009346983791504228">10.1179/009346983791504228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Field+Archaeology&rft.atitle=More+Evidence+for+an+Advanced+Prehistoric+Iron+Technology+in+Africa&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E421-%3C%2Fspan%3E434&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F009346983791504228&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Avery%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SchmidtHA-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SchmidtHA_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1978" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt, Peter (1978). <i>Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Archaeology%3A+A+Structural+Approach+in+an+African+Culture&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAverySchmidt1996" class="citation book cs1">Avery, Donald; Schmidt, Peter (1996). "Preheating: Practice or illusion". <i>The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production</i>. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">267–</span>276.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preheating%3A+Practice+or+illusion&rft.btitle=The+Culture+and+Technology+of+African+Iron+Production&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E276&rft.pub=University+of+Florida+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Avery&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt2019" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt, Peter (2019). "Science in Africa: A history of ingenuity and invention in African iron technology". In Worger, W; Ambler, C; Achebe, N (eds.). <i>A Companion to African History</i>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">267–</span>288.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+in+Africa%3A+A+history+of+ingenuity+and+invention+in+African+iron+technology&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+African+History&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E267-%3C%2Fspan%3E288&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChilds1996" class="citation book cs1">Childs, S. Terry (1996). "Technological history and culture in western Tanzania". 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Steel+Industry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbx.businessweek.com%2Fsteel-industry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iOgfSDKecCcC&pg=PA4557">Congressional Record V. 148, Pt. 4, April 11, 2002 to April 24, 2002</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChopra,_Anuj2007" class="citation web cs1">Chopra, Anuj (12 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csmonitor.com/2007/0212/p07s02-wosc.html">"India's steel industry steps onto world stage"</a>. <i>Cristian Science Monitor</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cristian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=India%27s+steel+industry+steps+onto+world+stage&rft.date=2007-02-12&rft.au=Chopra%2C+Anuj&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsmonitor.com%2F2007%2F0212%2Fp07s02-wosc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180823005844/https://www.worldsteel.org/en/dam/jcr:1a0978ce-d387-4ce9-8d1b-5f929f343ac1/2017_2016+top+steel+producers_Extended+list.pdf">"Top Steelmakers in 2017"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+News&rft.atitle=Long-term+planning+needed+to+meet+steel+demand&rft.date=2008-03-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hellenicshippingnews.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D1576%26Itemid%3D46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_RasVan_De_VijverGalvitaMarin2019" class="citation journal cs1">De Ras, Kevin; Van De Vijver, Ruben; Galvita, Vladimir V.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (2019-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8635595/file/01H8XFTKEF30019BF0QCCJDKB9.pdf">"Carbon capture and utilization in the steel industry: challenges and opportunities for chemical engineering"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering</i>. <b>26</b>: <span class="nowrap">81–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019COCE...26...81D">2019COCE...26...81D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.coche.2019.09.001">10.1016/j.coche.2019.09.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-8635595">1854/LU-8635595</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2211-3398">2211-3398</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210619173">210619173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Chemical+Engineering&rft.atitle=Carbon+capture+and+utilization+in+the+steel+industry%3A+challenges+and+opportunities+for+chemical+engineering&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.date=2019-12-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-8635595&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A210619173%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019COCE...26...81D&rft.issn=2211-3398&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.coche.2019.09.001&rft.aulast=De+Ras&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.au=Van+De+Vijver%2C+Ruben&rft.au=Galvita%2C+Vladimir+V.&rft.au=Marin%2C+Guy+B.&rft.au=Van+Geem%2C+Kevin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblio.ugent.be%2Fpublication%2F8635595%2Ffile%2F01H8XFTKEF30019BF0QCCJDKB9.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUchitelle2009" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Uchitelle" title="Louis Uchitelle">Uchitelle, Louis</a> (2009-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/02/business/02steel.html?_r=1&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink">"Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Steel+Industry%2C+in+Slump%2C+Looks+to+Federal+Stimulus&rft.date=2009-01-01&rft.aulast=Uchitelle&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F01%2F02%2Fbusiness%2F02steel.html%3F_r%3D1%26partner%3Dpermalink%26exprod%3Dpermalink&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). <i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEggert2014" class="citation book cs1">Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ"><i>Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context</i></a>. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3937248462" title="Special:BookSources/978-3937248462"><bdi>978-3937248462</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+iron+in+West+and+Central+Africa&rft.btitle=Nok%3A+African+Sculpture+in+Archaeological+Context&rft.place=Frankfurt&rft.pub=Africa+Magna+Verlag+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3937248462&rft.aulast=Eggert&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBBn1BQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2005" class="citation journal cs1">Lucas, Adam Robert (2005). "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe". <i>Technology and Culture</i>. <b>46</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2005.0026">10.1353/tech.2005.0026</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109564224">109564224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Industrial+Milling+in+the+Ancient+and+Medieval+Worlds%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Evidence+for+an+Industrial+Revolution+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftech.2005.0026&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A109564224%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Adam+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Needham, Joseph (1986). <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2</i>; Needham, Joseph (1986). <i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3</i>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTylecote1992" class="citation book cs1">Tylecote, R. F. (1992). <i>A History of Metallurgy</i> (2nd ed.). London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0901462886" title="Special:BookSources/978-0901462886"><bdi>978-0901462886</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Metallurgy&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Maney+Publishing%2C+for+the+Institute+of+Materials&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0901462886&rft.aulast=Tylecote&rft.aufirst=R.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldbaum1978" class="citation book cs1">Waldbaum, Jane C. (1978). <i>From Bronze to Iron: The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean</i>. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, vol. LIV. <a href="/wiki/Gothenburg" title="Gothenburg">Gothenburg</a>: Paul Åström. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9185058793" title="Special:BookSources/9185058793"><bdi>9185058793</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Bronze+to+Iron%3A+The+Transition+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+Iron+Age+in+the+Eastern+Mediterranean&rft.place=Gothenburg&rft.series=Studies+in+Mediterranean+Archaeology%2C+vol.+LIV&rft.pub=Paul+%C3%85str%C3%B6m&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9185058793&rft.aulast=Waldbaum&rft.aufirst=Jane+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Knowles, Anne Kelly. (2013). <i>Mastering Iron: The Struggle to Modernize an American Industry, 1800–1868</i> (University of Chicago Press) 334 pages <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Lam, Wengcheong (2014). <i>Everything Old is New Again? Rethinking the transition to Cast Iron Production in the Plains of Central China</i>, Chinese University of Hong Kong <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Pleiner, R. (2000). <i>Iron in Archaeology. The European Bloomery Smelters</i>, Praha, Archeologický Ústav Av Cr. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Pounds, Norman J. G. (1957). "Historical Geography of the Iron and Steel Industry of France". <i>Annals of the Association of American Geographers</i> 47#1, pp. 3–14. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2561556">2561556</a>.</li> <li>Wagner, Donald (1996). <i>Iron and Steel in Ancient China</i>. Leiden: E.J. Brill. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Woods, Michael and Mary B. Woods (2000). <i>Ancient Construction (Ancient Technology)</i> Runestone Press <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferrous_metallurgy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Iron and Steel, Metallurgy of"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Iron_and_Steel,_Metallurgy_of">"Iron and Steel, Metallurgy of" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iron+and+Steel%2C+Metallurgy+of&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFerrous+metallurgy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_technology434" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template talk:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prehistoric_technology434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system#Stone_Age_subdivisions" title="Three-age system">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iron_and_steel_production289" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template talk:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iron_and_steel_production289" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> production</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of ferrous metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron production<br />(<a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Ironworks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting" title="Vacuum arc remelting">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4014005-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Steel industry and trade"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85127829">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Fer -- Métallurgie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119531466">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Fer -- 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