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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toy_preference_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Toy preference studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toy_preference_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Playmate_and_play-style_preferences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Playmate_and_play-style_preferences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Playmate and play-style preferences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Playmate_and_play-style_preferences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adult_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adult_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Adult traits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adult_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Needs of gender-nonconforming children and families</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Needs_of_gender-nonconforming_children_and_families-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" 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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Childhood gender nonconformity</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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অনিশ্চয়তা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শৈশবকালীন লৈঙ্গিক অনিশ্চয়তা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-conformit%C3%A9_de_genre_dans_l%27enfance" title="Non-conformité de genre dans l'enfance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Non-conformité de genre dans l'enfance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inconformidade_de_g%C3%AAnero_na_inf%C3%A2ncia" title="Inconformidade de gênero na infância – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Inconformidade de gênero na infância" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" 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href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a> patterns, or identify with the opposite <a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex and gender distinction">sex/gender</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical behavior among those who exhibit the phenomenon includes but is not limited to a propensity to <a href="/wiki/Cross-dress" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-dress">cross-dress</a>, refusal to take part in activities conventionally thought suitable for the gender and the exclusive choice of play-mates of the opposite sex. </p><p>Multiple studies have correlated childhood gender nonconformity with eventual <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a>. In these studies, a majority of those who identify as <a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">gay</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">lesbian</a> self-report being gender nonconforming as children.<sup id="cite_ref-Baumeister_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumeister-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The therapeutic community is divided over the proper response to childhood gender nonconformity. </p><p>Gender nonconforming children face <a href="/wiki/Gender_policing" title="Gender policing">gender policing</a> from both adults and peers, including <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a> based on their gender nonconformity. Gender policing at a young age can increase the risk of alcohol use, anxiety, and depression in adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Payne_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Payne-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GNC_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GNC-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manifestations">Manifestations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Manifestations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_nonconformity" title="Gender nonconformity">Gender nonconformity</a></i> in children can have many forms, reflecting various ways in which a child relates to their gender. In literature, <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender variance">gender variance</a></i> and <i>gender atypicality</i> are used synonymously with <i>gender nonconformity</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Cross-gender clothing preferences;</li> <li>Playing with toys generally associated with the opposite sex;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Preference for playmates of the opposite sex;</li> <li>Identification with characters of the opposite sex in stories, cartoons or films;</li> <li>Affirmation of the desire to be a member of the opposite sex;</li> <li>Strong verbal affirmation of a cross-gender identity.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_developmental_theories_of_gender">Social and developmental theories of gender</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Social and developmental theories of gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of childhood <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> nonconformity assumes that there is a correct way to be a girl or a boy. There are a number of social and developmental perspectives that explore how children come to identify with a particular gender and engage in activities that are associated with this <a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender role</a>. </p><p>Psychoanalytic theories of gender emphasize that children begin to identify with the parent, and that girls tend to identify with their mothers and boys with their fathers. The identification is often associated with the child's realization that they do not share the same <a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">genitals</a> with both parents. According to <a href="/wiki/Freud" class="mw-redirect" title="Freud">Freud</a>'s theories, this discovery leads to <a href="/wiki/Penis_envy" title="Penis envy">penis envy</a> in girls and <a href="/wiki/Castration_anxiety" title="Castration anxiety">castration anxiety</a> in boys. Although there is not much <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical evidence</a> to back up Freud, his theories sparked new conversations surrounding <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a> and gender, conversations his daughter <a href="/wiki/Anna_Freud" title="Anna Freud">Anna Freud</a> continued in her research.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social learning theory emphasizes the rewards and punishments that children receive for sex appropriate or inappropriate behaviors. One of the criticisms of <a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">social learning theory</a> is that it assumes that children are passive, rather than active participants in their <a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">social environment</a>. </p><p>Cognitive development theory argues that children are active in defining gender and behaving in ways that reflect their perceptions of <a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender roles</a>. Children are in search of regularities and consistencies in their environment, and the pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">cognitive consistency</a> motivates children to behave in ways that are congruent with the <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">societal constructions</a> of gender. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gender_schema_theory" title="Gender schema theory">Gender schema theory</a> is a hybrid model that combines social learning and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">cognitive development</a> theories. Developed by <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Bem" title="Sandra Bem">Sandra Bem</a> in 1981, her husband <a href="/wiki/Daryl_J._Bem" class="mw-redirect" title="Daryl J. Bem">Daryl J. Bem</a> argues that children have a cognitive readiness to learn about themselves and their surroundings. They build <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">schemas</a> to help them navigate their social world, and these schemas form a larger network of associations and beliefs about gender and gender roles.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem_1996_320–335_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem_1996_320–335-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences_of_androgens">Influences of androgens</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Influences of androgens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toy_preference_studies">Toy preference studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Toy preference studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Rhesus_Macaque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Young_Rhesus_Macaque.jpg/220px-Young_Rhesus_Macaque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Young_Rhesus_Macaque.jpg/330px-Young_Rhesus_Macaque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Young_Rhesus_Macaque.jpg/440px-Young_Rhesus_Macaque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1333" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Studies with young <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaques</a> suggest that some gender-typical preferences may not only be caused by human socialization.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Gendered_associations_of_pink_and_blue" title="Gendered associations of pink and blue">Gendered associations of pink and blue</a></div> <p>According to popular <a href="/wiki/Gender_stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender stereotypes">gender stereotypes</a> toys for girls tend to be round and pink, while toys for boys tend to be angular and blue. The subtle characteristics of toys may differentially appeal to the developing brains of female and male children.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study of toy preferences of twelve- to 24-month-old infants, males spent more time looking at cars than females and females spent more time looking at dolls than males. No preference for color was found, and within each sex, both boys and girls preferred dolls to cars at age 12 months.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hines_2010_448_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines_2010_448-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study of preschool-aged children found that the cultural labeling of toys as "gender-appropriate" impacted toy preferences. In partial contrast to this view, certain animal studies have lent support for <a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">biologically determined</a> gendered toy preferences. In a study of juvenile <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus monkeys</a>, when given the option between plush or wheeled toys, female monkeys gravitated toward both toys, while male monkeys mainly preferred toys with wheels. These findings suggest that gendered preferences for toys can occur without the complex <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a> processes found in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Female rhesus monkeys also tend to engage in more nurturing play activities, while males tend to engage in more rough-and-tumble play. However, the co-author of the study warned about overinterpreting the results, stating "The plush and wheeled categories served as proxies for feminine and masculine, but other toy characteristics, such as size or colour, might explain the male's behaviour, or the male monkeys might seek out more physically active toys."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Girls with <a href="/wiki/Congenital_adrenal_hyperplasia" title="Congenital adrenal hyperplasia">congenital adrenal hyperplasia</a> (CAH) have atypically high blood concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a>. In studies of toy preference, these girls show increased interest in male-typical toys, like trucks and balls. Overall, their play habits and preferences more closely resembled male-typical play than female-typical play. Even with children exposed to a normal range of prenatal androgens, increased testosterone was associated with increased preference for male-typical toys, and decreased prenatal testosterone was associated with a greater interest in female-typical toys. </p><p>Overall, the degree of androgen exposure during prenatal and postnatal development may bias males and females toward specific <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive processes</a>, which are further reinforced through processes of <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a>. The male interest in balls and wheeled toys may relate to the androgenised brains preference for objects that move through space. The higher levels of androgens in the developing male brain could elicit greater attraction to cars and balls, while lower levels of androgens elicit a preference for dolls and nurturing activities in the female brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Hines_2010_448_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines_2010_448-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cordelia_Fine" title="Cordelia Fine">Cordelia Fine</a> criticizes toy-preference studies in non-human primates. She explains the disparity across research and the labeling of toys, with the rhesus monkey study deeming stuffed animals as inherently feminine, all the while a study with <a href="/wiki/Vervet_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Vervet monkeys">vervet monkeys</a> shows males displaying a preference for stuffed dogs. Moreover, the effects of hormonal treatment are deemed inconclusive and significant long-term effects on rhesus monkeys being nonexistent, with treated prenatal females showing no increase in aggression and still adopting "feminine" social roles into adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-Fine_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the subject of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, Fine presents the argument of correlation being confused for causality; are females with CAH interested in typically masculine activities due to their having an innate quality or is this a result of their association with boys and men as a gender? If a visual and spatial value is deemed as a preeminent element in typically masculine toys (such as trucks), females with CAH and males in studies should consequently show a much higher interest for neutral toys such as puzzles and sketchpads (as opposed to non-CAH females), something which they do not.<sup id="cite_ref-Fine_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Playmate_and_play-style_preferences">Playmate and play-style preferences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Playmate and play-style preferences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children's preference for same-sex playmates is a robust finding that has been observed in many human cultures and across a number of animal species. Preference for same-sex playmates is at least partially linked to socialization processes, but children may also gravitate toward peers with similar play styles. Girls generally engage in more nurturing-and-mothering-type behaviors, while boys show greater instances of rough-and-tumble play.<sup id="cite_ref-Hines_1994_1042–53_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines_1994_1042–53-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For much of human history, people lived in small <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> societies. Over time <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> forces may have selected for children's play activities related to adult survival skills. </p><p>However, it is not uncommon for girls and boys to prefer opposite-sex playmates and to engage in gender-atypical play styles. As with toy preferences, androgens may be involved in playmate and play style preferences. Girls who have <a href="/wiki/Congenital_adrenal_hyperplasia" title="Congenital adrenal hyperplasia">congenital adrenal hyperplasia</a> (CAH) typically engage in more rough-and-tumble play. Hines and Kaufman (1994) found that 50% of girls with CAH reported a preference for boys as playmates, while less than 10% of their non-CAH sisters preferred boys as playmates.<sup id="cite_ref-Hines_1994_1042–53_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines_1994_1042–53-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study found that girls with CAH still preferred same-sex playmates, but their atypical play styles resulted in them spending more time alone engaging in their preferred activities. Girls with CAH are more likely to have <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">masculinized genitalia</a>, and it has been suggested that this could lead parents to treat them more like boys; however, this claim is unsubstantiated by parental reports.<sup id="cite_ref-Hines_2004_75–81_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines_2004_75–81-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adult_traits">Adult traits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Adult traits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been a number of studies correlating childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">sexual orientation</a>; however, the relationship between CGN and <a href="/wiki/Trait_theory" title="Trait theory">personality traits</a> in adulthood has been largely overlooked. Lippa measured CGN, gender-related occupational preferences, self-ascribed <a href="/wiki/Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a>-<a href="/wiki/Femininity" title="Femininity">femininity</a> and anxiety in <a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">heterosexual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexual</a> women and men through self-report measures. Gay men showed a tendency toward more feminine self-concepts than heterosexual men. Similarly, lesbian women reported "higher self-ascribed masculinity, more masculine occupational preferences, and more CGN than heterosexual women." Lippa's study found stronger correlations in CGN and adult personality traits in men than in women. Overall, Lippa's study suggests that gender nonconforming behaviors are relatively stable across a person's life-time.<sup id="cite_ref-Lippa_2008_684–93_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lippa_2008_684–93-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the advantages of Lippa's study is the relatively high sample size of 950 participants, which was diverse both in terms of representations of sexual orientation and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnicity</a>. Although there may be a tendency to want to generalize these findings to all heterosexual and homosexual men and women, an awareness that a tendency toward certain behaviors does not mean that they are a monolithic group is necessary; for some individuals, sexual orientation may be the only thing they have in common.<sup id="cite_ref-Lippa_2008_684–93_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lippa_2008_684–93-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measures_of_anxiety">Measures of anxiety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Measures of anxiety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CGN is associated with higher levels of psychological distress in gay men than in lesbian women. The findings were extended to heterosexual men and women, where "CGN [was] associated with psychological distress in heterosexual men but not in heterosexual women."<sup id="cite_ref-Lippa_2008_684–93_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lippa_2008_684–93-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In effect, "CGN impacts men more negatively than women, regardless of sexual orientation."<sup id="cite_ref-Lippa_2008_684–93_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lippa_2008_684–93-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pattern of results may be derived by from society's greater acceptance of typically masculine behaviors in girls, and discouragement of typically feminine behaviors in boys.<sup id="cite_ref-Lippa_2008_684–93_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lippa_2008_684–93-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_orientation">Sexual orientation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sexual orientation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A great deal of research has been conducted on the relationship between CGN and sexual orientation. Gay men often report being feminine boys, and lesbian women often report being masculine girls. In men, CGN is a strong predictor of sexual orientation in adulthood, but this relationship is not as well understood in women.<sup id="cite_ref-Baumeister_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baumeister-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_2008_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women with CAH reported more male typical play behaviours and showed less heterosexual interest.<sup id="cite_ref-Hines_2004_75–81_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hines_2004_75–81-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fraternal_birth_order_and_male_sexual_orientation" title="Fraternal birth order and male sexual orientation">fraternal birth order effect</a> is a well-documented phenomenon that predicts that a man's odds of being homosexual increase 33-48% with each older brother that the man has. Research has shown that the mother develops an <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune response</a> due to blood factor incompatibility with male fetuses. With each male fetus, the mother's immune system responds more strongly to what it perceives as a threat. The mother's immune response can disrupt typical prenatal hormones, like testosterone, which have been implicated in both childhood gender nonconformity and adult sexual orientation. </p><p>Bem proposed a theory on the relationship between childhood gender nonconformity, which he refers to as the "exotic become erotic" (EBE).<sup id="cite_ref-Bem_1996_320–335_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem_1996_320–335-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bem argues that biological factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_hormones_and_sexual_orientation" title="Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation">prenatal hormones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">neuroanatomy</a>, predispose children to behave in ways that do not conform to their sex assigned at birth. Gender nonconforming children will often prefer opposite-sex playmates and activities. These become alienated from their same-sex peer group. As children enter <a href="/wiki/Adolescence" title="Adolescence">adolescence</a> "the exotic becomes erotic" where dissimilar and unfamiliar same-sex peers produce <a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a>, and the general arousal becomes eroticized over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem_1996_320–335_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem_1996_320–335-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critiques of Bem's theory in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Review" title="Psychological Review">Psychological Review</a></i> concluded that "studies cited by Bem and additional research show that Exotic Becomes Erotic theory is not supported by scientific evidence."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bem was criticized for relying on a non-random sample of gay men from the 1970s and for drawing conclusions that appear to contradict the original data. An "examination of the original data showed virtually all respondents were familiar with children of both sexes", and that only 9% of gay men said that "none or only a few" of their friends were male, and most gay men (74%) reported having "an especially close friend of the same sex" during grade school. It is also noted that "71% of gay men reported feeling different from other boys, but so did 38% of heterosexual men. The difference for gay men is larger, but still indicates that feeling different from same-sex peers was common for heterosexual men." Bem also acknowledged that gay men were more likely to have older brothers (the <a href="/wiki/Fraternal_birth_order_and_male_sexual_orientation" title="Fraternal birth order and male sexual orientation">fraternal birth order effect</a>), which appeared to contradict an unfamiliarity with males. Bem cited cross-cultural studies which also "appear to contradict the EBE theory assertion", such as the <a href="/wiki/Sambia_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sambia people">Sambia</a> tribe in Papua New Guinea, which ritually enforced homosexual acts among teenagers, yet once these boys reached adulthood, only a small proportion of men continued to engage in homosexual behaviour - similar to levels observed in the United States. Additionally, Bem's theory is criticized for misrepresenting common experiences of lesbians.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003, Lorene Gottschalk, a self-described <a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">radical feminist</a> suggested there may be a reporting bias linking gender nonconformity to homosexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers have explored the possibility of bias by comparing childhood home videos with self-reports of gender nonconformity, finding that the presence of gender nonconformity was highly consistent with self-reporting, emerged early and carried on into adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_dysphoria">Gender dysphoria</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Gender dysphoria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria_in_children" title="Gender dysphoria in children">Gender dysphoria in children</a></div> <p>Children with <a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria" title="Gender dysphoria">gender dysphoria</a>, also known as gender identity disorder (GID), exhibit the typical gender-nonconforming patterns of behaviors, such as a preference for toys, playmates, clothing, and play-styles that are typically associated with the opposite sex. Children with GID will sometimes display disgust toward their own genitals or changes that occur in <a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">puberty</a> (e.g. facial hair or <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Langer_2004_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langer_2004-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A diagnosis of GID in children requires evidence of discomfort, confusion, or aversion to the gender roles associated with the child's genetic sex. Children do not necessarily have to express a desire to be the opposite sex, but it is still taken into consideration when making a <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Langer_2004_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langer_2004-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> was released in 2013, children <i>must</i> express a desire to be of a gender different to that assigned at birth for a diagnosis of gender dysphoria in childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some advocates have argued that a <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">DSM-IV</a> diagnosis legitimizes the experiences of these children, making it easier to rally around a medically defined disorder, in order to raise public awareness and garner funding for future research and therapies. Diagnoses of <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity_disorder_in_children" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender identity disorder in children">gender identity disorder in children</a> (GIDC) remains controversial, as many argue that the <a href="/wiki/Label_(sociology)" title="Label (sociology)">label</a> pathologizes behaviors and cognitions that fall within the normal variation within gender. The <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">stigma</a> associated with mental health disorders may do more harm than good.<sup id="cite_ref-Langer_2004_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langer_2004-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">DSM-5</a> renamed the condition <i>gender dysphoria</i> to avoid this stigma.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parental_reactions">Parental reactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Parental reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Parents with gender non-conforming children may not know where to turn to express their feelings. Many parents accept their child's behavior, but are more concerned about the overall well-being of the child. In some cases families are not accepting of their child's non-conformity, typically lashing out with punishment grounded on <a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">homophobia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a>. Regardless of the stance a parent decides to take on gender non-conformity, it will affect the child and the child's relationship with the family. </p><p>Transphobia can occur when gender nonconforming children are met with others who do not understand or accept what they are going through. Diane Ehrensaft states that, "Transphobia is the anxieties, prejudices, aspersion, aggression, and hatred cast on individuals who do not accept the gender assigned to them at birth but instead play outside that definition of self or perhaps any binary categorizations of gender, possibly to the extent of altering their body."<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrensaft2011_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrensaft2011-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transphobia can become a serious conflict within the family and can damage the relationship the child has with his or her family. </p><p>Parents who recognize that they have gender non-conforming children sometimes experience a feeling of loss, shock, denial, anger, and despair.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These feelings typically subside as a parent learns more about gender nonconformity. However, there are families that remain unaccepting of gender nonconformity and correlate it to psychological or social problems. Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist Jean Malpas says, "Some react very negatively and the gender nonconformity can become a significant source of conflict between parents and a damaging source of disconnection between parent and child."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Diane_Ehrensaft&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diane Ehrensaft (page does not exist)">Diane Ehrensaft</a> divides families into three types, affecting the outcome of a child's gender transition. "Transformers", in her system, are comfortable in supporting their child in their gender-variant journey and can easily identify their child as a separate person; Ehrensaft says they "will stand a good chance of overcoming whatever transphobic reactions may reside within them to evolve into parents who both meet their child where he or she is and become an advocate for their gender-nonconforming child in the outside world."<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrensaft2011_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrensaft2011-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Transphobics" are not comfortable in their own gender, may not understand that gender is fluid, may feel their child is an extension of themselves, and respond negatively when their child is faced with adversity; Ehrensaft believes that these parents undermine the love they express for their children with excessive negativity and transphobic "reactivity", denying the child room for nonconformity. Finally, "transporters" appear to be completely accepting of their child's gender nonconformity, while privately doubting its authenticity, and may say things like "it's just a phase" or "they'll grow out of it." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peer_reactions">Peer reactions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Peer reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once children reach school age, girls who are considered "tomboys" and boys who are considered to be more "sensitive" than their gender-typical peers are more likely to face challenges during childhood than their gender-typical counterparts. It is possible that their nonconformity goes unnoticed, however, it is more likely that they fall victim to bullying and harassment when they reach school age.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study on gender-atypical fifteen year olds, atypical males self-report being lonelier, bullied more, less likely to have male friends, and be in "greater distress" than gender-typical males in the same demographic.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Needs_of_gender-nonconforming_children_and_families">Needs of gender-nonconforming children and families</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Needs of gender-nonconforming children and families"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is still controversy regarding the best approach for gender nonconforming children, but as gender nonconformity becomes more widely accepted many parents and professionals have identified things that gender variant or gender nonconforming children need to easily adjust to their transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-Riley2013_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riley2013-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parents have suggested that their children need the ability to discuss their gender non-conformity freely with their parents, to be loved throughout their transformation, and to be permitted to make choices regarding their gender on their own. They have also suggested a peer support team and supportive counseling in addition to support from their school and schools administrators and authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-Riley2013_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riley2013-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parents must be mindful of a child's need for parent expressions of acceptance and validation. If not validated a child may begin sharing less with their parent and more with friends, this could lead to the parent thinking the gender nonconformity was just a brief phase.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Disclosure is also very important to a family when raising a gender non-conforming child. Parents need to consider whom to talk to about their child and what type of information they decide to share. Other members of the family must also be prepared to make decisions regarding what to say and whom to say it to.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding their own needs, parents have suggested that they need information regarding gender nonconforming children that can better assist them and their child in making their transition. Additionally, parents have stated they need increased education on gender-nonconforming children, and support from surrounding friends and family to help build parental confidence. Parents have also suggested they need counseling to help provide direction, support from medical professionals and peers, and access to transgender people to help provide them with a positive portrayal of transgender communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Riley2013_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Riley2013-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2018 article in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sunday_Times" title="The Sunday Times">The Sunday Times</a></i>, by journalist <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Gilligan" title="Andrew Gilligan">Andrew Gilligan</a>, reported criticism of trans groups for large increases in the number of child referrals to the UK National Health Service specialist service dealing with Transgender children.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_childhood" title="Gender roles in childhood">Gender roles in childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_variance" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender variance">Gender variance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinaforing" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinaforing">Pinaforing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sissy" title="Sissy">Sissy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomboy" title="Tomboy">Tomboy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendered_associations_of_pink_and_blue" title="Gendered associations of pink and blue">Gendered associations of pink and blue</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Childhood_gender_nonconformity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKathleen_Y.Anthony_I.Ritter,_Terndrup2002" class="citation book cs1">Kathleen Y.; Anthony I.; Ritter, Terndrup (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofaffirm0000ritt"><i>Handbook of Affirmative Psychotherapy with Lesbians and Gay Men</i></a></span>. Guilford Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofaffirm0000ritt/page/58">58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-714-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57230-714-8"><bdi>978-1-57230-714-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Affirmative+Psychotherapy+with+Lesbians+and+Gay+Men&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Guilford+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-57230-714-8&rft.au=Kathleen+Y.&rft.au=Anthony+I.&rft.au=Ritter%2C+Terndrup&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookofaffirm0000ritt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChildhood+gender+nonconformity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baumeister-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baumeister_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baumeister_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumeister2001" class="citation book cs1">Baumeister, Roy F. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=roychiRaM8gC&pg=PA202"><i>Social Psychology and Human Sexuality: Essential Readings</i></a>. Psychology Press. pp. 201–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-018-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84169-018-6"><bdi>978-1-84169-018-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Psychology+and+Human+Sexuality%3A+Essential+Readings&rft.pages=201-2&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84169-018-6&rft.aulast=Baumeister&rft.aufirst=Roy+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DroychiRaM8gC%26pg%3DPA202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChildhood+gender+nonconformity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schroeder-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schroeder_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarolyn_S._SchroederBetty_N._Gordon2002" class="citation book cs1">Carolyn S. 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