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itemprop="url"><span itemprop="name">Blog</span></a></li> </ul></div></nav><div class="site-inner"><div class="content-sidebar-wrap"><main class="content"><article class="post-589 page type-page status-publish has-post-thumbnail entry" aria-label="Alexander Fleming" itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/CreativeWork"><header class="entry-header"><h1 class="entry-title" itemprop="headline">Alexander Fleming</h1> </header><div class="entry-content" itemprop="text"><p><img src="https://www.famousscientists.org/fs/wp-content/plugins/lazy-load/images/1x1.trans.gif" data-lazy-src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/alexander-fleming.jpg" fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" width="460" height="350" alt="Alexander Fleming" class="aligncenter"><noscript><img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/alexander-fleming.jpg" width="460" height="350" alt="Alexander Fleming" class="aligncenter" /></noscript></p> <div style="text-align:center;font-size:1.4em;position:relative;top:-14px;"><strong>Lived 1881 – 1955.</strong></div> <p>Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, whose use as an antibiotic has saved untold millions of lives. Less well-known is that before making this world-changing discovery, he had already made significant life-saving contributions to medical science.</p> <h3>Beginnings</h3> <p>Alexander Fleming was born on August 6, 1881 at his parents’ farm located near the small town of Darvel, in Scotland, UK. </p> <p>His parents, Hugh Fleming and Grace Stirling Morton, were both from farming families. His father’s health was fragile; he died when Alexander was just seven years old.</p> <p>Alexander’s earliest schooling, between the ages of five and eight, was at a tiny moorland school where 12 pupils of all ages were taught in a single classroom.</p> <p>Darvel School was Alexander’s next school, which involved an eight-mile round trip on foot every school-day. At the age of 11 his academic potential was recognized and he was awarded a scholarship to Kilmarnock Academy, where he boarded for about two years before leaving for London.</p> <p>Alexander arrived in London early in 1895, age 13. This was the year his fellow Scot, Arthur Conan Doyle, published <em>The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes</em>, in which readers were horrified to learn their hero had died falling into the Reichenbach Falls.</p> <p>Alexander lived in the home of his elder brother, Tom, who was a doctor of medicine. Most of the Fleming family ended up living with Tom, leaving the eldest brother, Hugh, running the farm. </p> <p>Alexander attended the Polytechnic School, where he studied business and commerce. He started in a class appropriate to his age, but his teachers soon realized he needed more challenging work. He was moved into a class with boys two years older than him and finished school at the age of 16. </p> <div class="center-340"> <span class="adstyle">Advertisements</span><br /> <script async src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><ins class="adsbygoogle" style="display:block" data-ad-client="ca-pub-9461632227417539" data-ad-slot="4853610001" data-ad-format="auto"></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});</script> </div> <h3>Work and Medical School</h3> <p>Alexander’s business training helped him get a job in a shipping office, but he did not enjoy working there. </p> <p>In 1901, at the age of 20, he inherited some money from his uncle, John Fleming. He decided to use the money to go to medical school; he wanted to become a doctor like his successful brother Tom. </p> <p>First, he needed suitable qualifications to enable him to enroll at medical school. This did not present any great difficulties; he passed his exams with the highest marks of any student in the United Kingdom.</p> <p>In 1903, age 22, Alexander enrolled at London’s St Mary’s Hospital Medical School, graduating with distinction three years later as Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery. </p> <p>Rather than follow in Tom’s footsteps, Alexander was persuaded by Almroth Wright, an authority in immunology, to become a researcher in his bacteriology group at St Mary’s Hospital Medical School. While carrying out this research Fleming graduated, in 1908, with a degree in bacteriology and the Gold Medal for top student. St Mary’s Hospital Medical School then promoted him to the role of bacteriology lecturer.</p> <p>Almroth Wright was interested in our bodies’ natural ability to fight infection. Fleming became particularly fascinated by the fact that although people suffer bacterial infections from time to time, our natural defenses usually prevent infections from taking hold.</p> <h2 class="bluebold">Fleming’s Most Significant Contributions to Science</h2> <h3 class="greenbold">Proving that Antiseptics Kill rather than Cure</h3> <p>In 1914 World War 1 broke out and Fleming, age 33, joined the army, becoming a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps working in field hospitals in France. </p> <p>There, in a series of brilliant experiments, he established that antiseptic agents used to treat wounds and prevent infection were actually killing more soldiers than the infections were! </p> <p>The antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, boric acid and hydrogen peroxide, were failing to kill bacteria deep in wounds; worse, they were in fact lowering the soldier’s natural resistance to infection because they were killing white blood cells. </p> <p>Fleming demonstrated that antiseptic agents were only useful in treating superficial wounds, but were harmful when applied to deep wounds.</p> <p>Almroth Wright believed that a saline solution – salt water – should be used to clean deep wounds, because this did not interfere with the body’s own defenses and in fact attracted white cells. Fleming proved this result in the field. </p> <p>Wright and Fleming published their results, but most army doctors refused to change their ways, resulting in many preventable deaths.</p> <div style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://www.famousscientists.org/fs/wp-content/plugins/lazy-load/images/1x1.trans.gif" data-lazy-src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/wounded-soldier-ww1.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="204" alt="Wounded Soldier" class><noscript><img decoding="async" src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/wounded-soldier-ww1.jpg" width="400" height="204" alt="Wounded Soldier" class /></noscript><p class="wp-caption-text">Nurses come to the aid of a wounded soldier. Fleming saved many soldiers’ lives in World War One by washing deep wounds with saline solution rather than the antiseptics recommended by medical textbooks.</p></div> <h3 class="greenbold">Discovery of Lysozyme</h3> <p>In 1919 Fleming returned to research at St Mary’s Hospital Medical School in London. His wartime experience had firmly established his view that antibacterial agents should be used only if they worked with the body’s natural defenses rather than against them; in particular, agents must not harm white blood cells. </p> <p>His first discovery of such an agent came in 1922, when he was 41 years old. </p> <p>Fleming had taken secretions from inside the nose of a patient suffering from a head cold. He cultured the secretions to grow any bacteria that happened to be present. In the secretions, he discovered a new bacterium he called <em>Micrococcus lysodeikticus</em>, now called <em>M luteus</em>. </p> <p>A few days later, Fleming was examining these bacteria. He himself was now suffering from a head cold, and a drop of mucus fell from his nose on to the bacteria. The bacteria in the area where the drop fell were almost instantly destroyed. Always on the lookout for natural bacteria killers, this observation excited Fleming enormously.</p> <p>He tested the effect of other fluids from the body, such as blood serum, saliva, and tears, on these bacteria and found that bacteria would not grow where a drop of one of these fluids was placed.</p> <p>Fleming discovered the common factor in the fluids was an enzyme. He named his newly discovered enzyme <em>lysozyme</em>. The effect of lysozyme was to destroy certain types of microbe, rendering them harmless to people. The presence of lysozyme in our bodies prevents some potentially pathogenic microbes from causing us harm. It gives us natural immunity to a number of diseases. However, lysozyme’s usefulness as a medicine is rather limited, because it has little or no effect on many other microbes that infect humans.</p> <p>Fleming had discovered a natural antibiotic that did not kill white blood cells. If only he could find a more powerful antibiotic, then medicine could be transformed.</p> <p>Today, lysozyme is used as a food and wine preservative. It is naturally present in large concentrations in egg-whites, offering protection to chicks against infection. It is also used in medicines, particularly in Asia, where it is used in treatments for head colds, athlete’s foot, and throat infections.</p> <div style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img src="https://www.famousscientists.org/fs/wp-content/plugins/lazy-load/images/1x1.trans.gif" data-lazy-src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/lysozyme.jpg" loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="400" height="331" alt="lysozyme" class><noscript><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/lysozyme.jpg" width="400" height="331" alt="lysozyme" class /></noscript><p class="wp-caption-text">Lysozyme is shown here in blue. It is an enzyme, meaning it is a type of protein. It destroys bacteria by breaking down their cell walls, shown in pink.</p></div> <div class="quoteblue"><img src="https://www.famousscientists.org/fs/wp-content/plugins/lazy-load/images/1x1.trans.gif" data-lazy-src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/100-alexander-fleming.jpg" loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="Alexander Fleming" width="100" height="100" class="alignleft"><noscript><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/100-alexander-fleming.jpg" alt="Alexander Fleming" width="100" height="100" class="alignleft" /></noscript>“The view has been generally held that the function of tears, saliva and sputum, so far as infections are concerned, was to rid the body of microbes by mechanically washing them away… however, it is quite clear that these secretions, together with most of the tissues of the body, have the property of destroying microbes to a very high degree.”</p> <div class="quotename">Alexander Fleming</div> <div class="quoto">Bacteriologist</div> </div> <div style="line-height:20px;"> </div> <h3 class="greenbold">Discovery of Penicillin</h3> <p>In the month of August 1928, Fleming did something very important. He enjoyed a long vacation with his wife and young son.</p> <p>On Monday, September 3, he returned to his laboratory and saw a pile of Petri dishes he had left on his bench. The dishes contained colonies of <em>Staphylococcus</em> bacteria. While he was away, one of his assistants had left a window open and the dishes had become contaminated by different microbes.</p> <p>Annoyed, Fleming looked through the dishes and found something remarkable had taken place in one of them.</p> <p>A fungus was growing and the bacterial colonies around it had been killed. Farther from the fungus, the bacteria looked normal. Excited by his observation, Fleming showed the dish to an assistant, who remarked on how similar this seemed to Fleming’s famous discovery of lysozyme.</p> <p>Hoping he had discovered a better natural antibiotic than lysozyme, Fleming now devoted himself to growing more of the fungus. He identified that it belonged to the <em>Penicillium</em> genus and that it produced a bacteria-killing liquid. On March 7, 1929 he formally named the antibiotic <em>penicillin</em>.</p> <p>Fleming published his results, showing that penicillin killed many different species of bacteria, including those responsible for scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis, and diphtheria. Furthermore, penicillin was non-toxic and it did not attack white blood cells.</p> <p>Unfortunately, the scientific world was largely underwhelmed, ignoring his discovery.</p> <p>Fleming faced a number of problems:</p> <ul> <li>it was difficult to isolate penicillin from the fungus producing it </li> <li>he could not find a way of producing penicillin in high concentrations</li> <li>penicillin seemed to be slow acting</li> <li>clinical tests of penicillin as a surface antiseptic showed it was not especially effective</li> <li>Fleming’s boss, Almroth Wright, had a generalized dislike of chemists and refused to allow them in his laboratory. The presence of a skilled chemist would have been a huge benefit in terms of isolating, purifying, and concentrating penicillin.</li> </ul> <p>Regardless of these issues, Fleming continued with some work on penicillin in the 1930s, but never made the breakthrough he needed to produce it in large, concentrated quantities. Others, however, did.</p> <p>In the early 1940s a team of scientists led by pathologist <a class="post" href="https://www.famousscientists.org/howard-florey/">Howard Florey</a> and biochemist Ernst Boris Chain at the University of Oxford transformed penicillin into the medicine we know today.</p> <p>In 1945 Alexander Fleming shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology with Florey and Chain. The award was made:</p> <blockquote><p>“for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases.”</p></blockquote> <p>In his Nobel Prize winning speech in 1945, Fleming warned of a danger which today is becoming ever more pressing:</p> <div class="quoteblue"><img src="https://www.famousscientists.org/fs/wp-content/plugins/lazy-load/images/1x1.trans.gif" data-lazy-src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/100-alexander-fleming.jpg" loading="lazy" decoding="async" alt="Alexander Fleming" width="100" height="100" class="alignleft"><noscript><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="//www.famousscientists.org/images1/100-alexander-fleming.jpg" alt="Alexander Fleming" width="100" height="100" class="alignleft" /></noscript>“It is not difficult to make microbes resistant to penicillin in the laboratory by exposing them to concentrations not sufficient to kill them, and the same thing has occasionally happened in the body. The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.”</p> <div class="quotename">Alexander Fleming</div> <div class="quoto">Bacteriologist</div> </div> <div style="line-height:20px;"> </div> <p>Fleming was always fulsome in his praise for Florey, Chain, and their team, and he downplayed his own role in penicillin’s story. Despite his modesty, he became a worldwide hero. Millions of people owed their lives to the antibiotic he had discovered. </p> <p>In 1945 he toured America, where chemical companies offered him a personal gift of $100,000 as a mark of respect and gratitude for his work. Typically of Fleming, he did not accept the gift for himself: he donated it to the research laboratories at St Mary’s Hospital Medical School.</p> <h3>Some Personal Details and the End</h3> <p>In 1915, while a captain in the Medical Corps, Fleming married Sarah Marion McElroy. Their only son, Robert, became a general medical practitioner. </p> <p>In 1944 Fleming was knighted and became Sir Alexander Fleming.</p> <p>His wife Sarah died in 1949. </p> <p>In 1953 Fleming married Dr. Amalia Koutsouri-Voureka, who was working in his research group at St Mary’s Hospital Medical School.</p> <p>On March 11, 1955 Alexander Fleming died age 73 in London of a heart attack. His ashes were placed in St Paul’s Cathedral.</p> <div style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:16px;"> <span style="color:#ccc;font-size:0.8em;">Advertisements</span><br /> <script async src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><ins class="adsbygoogle" style="display:inline-block;width:336px;height:280px" data-ad-client="ca-pub-9461632227417539" data-ad-slot="6240434405"></ins><script>(adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});</script> </div> <p><strong>Author of this page: <a class="post" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.famousscientists.org/about/">The Doc</a></strong><br /> Images of scientists on this page digitally enhanced and colorized by this website. © All rights reserved. </p> <h5>Cite this Page</h5> <p>Please use the following MLA compliant citation:</p> <pre class='code'> "Alexander Fleming." Famous Scientists. famousscientists.org. 09 Jul. 2015. Web. <script type="text/javascript">  </script> <www.famousscientists.org/alexander-fleming/>.</pre> <p>Published by FamousScientists.org</p> <p><strong>Further Reading</strong><br /> On a Remarkable Bacteriolytic Element Found in Tissues and Secretions<br /> Alexander Fleming<br /> Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Vol. 93, No. 653 (May 1, 1922), pp. 306-317</p> <p>Lysozyme<br /> Elliott Osserman<br /> Proceedings of the Lysozyme Conference held in New York on October 29-31, 1972 on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the discovery of lysozyme by Sir Alexander Fleming</p> <p>The Life of Alexander Fleming<br /> Andre Maurois<br /> E.P. 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J. Thomson</a><span class="lwr">: Discovered the electron </span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/johannes-kepler/">Johannes Kepler</a><span class="lwr">: Solved the mystery of the planets </span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/dmitri-mendeleev/">Dmitri Mendeleev</a><span class="lwr">: Discovered 8 new chemical elements by thinking </span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/maurice-hilleman/">Maurice Hilleman</a><span class="lwr">: Record breaking inventor of over 40 vaccines </span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/marie-curie/">Marie Curie</a><span class="lwr">: Won – uniquely – both the chemistry & physics Nobel Prizes </span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/jacques-cousteau/">Jacques Cousteau</a><span class="lwr">: Marine pioneer, inventor, Oscar winner </span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/niels-bohr/">Niels Bohr</a><span class="lwr">: Founded the bizarre science of quantum mechanics </span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/srinivasa-ramanujan/">Srinivasa Ramanujan</a><span class="lwr">: Untrained genius of mathematics</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/milutin-milankovic/">Milutin Milankovic</a><span class="lwr">: Proved Earth’s climate is regulated by its orbit</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/antoine-lavoisier/">Antoine Lavoisier</a><span class="lwr">: The giant of chemistry who was executed</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/emmy-noether/">Emmy Noether</a><span class="lwr">: The greatest of female mathematicians, she unlocked a secret of the universe</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/wilder-penfield/">Wilder Penfield</a><span class="lwr">: Pioneer of brain surgery; mapped the brain’s functions</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-nicolle/">Charles Nicolle</a><span class="lwr">: Eradicated typhus epidemics</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/samuel-morse/">Samuel Morse</a><span class="lwr">: The telegraph and Morse code</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/jane-goodall/">Jane Goodall</a><span class="lwr">: Major discoveries in chimpanzee behavior</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-philoponus/">John Philoponus</a><span class="lwr">: 6th century anticipation of Galileo and Newton</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-perkin/">William Perkin</a><span class="lwr">: Youthful curiosity brought the color purple to all</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/democritus/">Democritus</a><span class="lwr">: Atomic theory BC and a universe of diverse inhabited worlds</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/susumu-tonegawa/">Susumu Tonegawa</a><span class="lwr">: Discovered how our bodies make millions of different antibodies</span></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/cecilia-payne-gaposchkin/">Cecilia Payne</a><span class="lwr">: Discovered that stars are almost entirely hydrogen and helium</span></li> </ul> </div> </div></section> <section id="text-10" class="widget widget_text"><div class="widget-wrap"><h4 class="widget-title widgettitle">Top 100 Scientists</h4> <div class="textwidget"><ul> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/popular/">Our Top 100 Scientists</a></li> </ul> </div> </div></section> <section id="text-11" class="widget widget_text"><div class="widget-wrap"><h4 class="widget-title widgettitle">Our Most Popular Scientists</h4> <div class="textwidget"><ul> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/top-astronomers/">Astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/top-biologists/">Biologists & Health Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/top-chemists/">Chemists</a></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/top-geologists/">Geologists and Paleontologists</a></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/top-mathematicians/">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/top-physicists/">Physicists</a></li> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/top-scientists-in-antiquity/">Scientists in Ancient Times</a></li> </ul></div> </div></section> <section id="text-12" class="widget widget_text"><div class="widget-wrap"><h4 class="widget-title widgettitle">List of Scientists</h4> <div class="textwidget"><ul> <li><a href="//www.famousscientists.org/list/">Alphabetical List</a></li> </ul> </div> </div></section> </aside></div><aside class="sidebar sidebar-secondary widget-area" role="complementary" aria-label="Secondary Sidebar" itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/WPSideBar"> <section id="recent-posts-3" class="widget widget_recent_entries"><div class="widget-wrap"> <h4 class="widget-title widgettitle">Recent Posts</h4> <ul> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/perfect-numbers-tiny-universe/">Perfect Numbers and our Tiny Universe</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/universe-shortest-planck/">What Happens when the Universe chooses its own Units?</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/hipparchus-and-the-2000-year-old-clue/">Hipparchus and the 2000 Year-Old Clue</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/darwin-cheaper-origin/">Darwin Pleaded for Cheaper Origin of Species</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/you-die-for-showing-im-wrong/">You Will Die For Showing I’m Wrong!</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/triumph-of-stoic-philosophy/">Getting Through Hard Times – The Triumph of Stoic Philosophy</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/kepler-god-solar-system/">Johannes Kepler, God, and the Solar System</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/babbage-rage-musicians-revenge/">Charles Babbage and the Vengeance of Organ-Grinders</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/man-who-proved-einstein-wrong/">Howard Robertson – the Man who Proved Einstein Wrong</a> </li> <li> <a href="https://www.famousscientists.org/susskind-alice-wave-particle/">Susskind, Alice, and Wave-Particle Gullibility</a> </li> </ul> </div></section> <section id="text-9" class="widget widget_text"><div class="widget-wrap"> <div class="textwidget"><p><script async src="//pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js"></script><br /> <br /> <ins class="adsbygoogle" style="display:block" data-ad-client="ca-pub-9461632227417539" data-ad-slot="6449546408" data-ad-format="link"></ins><br /> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script></p> </div> </div></section> </aside></div><div class="footer-widgets"><div class="wrap"><div class="widget-area footer-widgets-1 footer-widget-area"><section id="text-8" class="widget widget_text"><div class="widget-wrap"><h4 class="widget-title widgettitle">Alphabetical List of Scientists</h4> <div class="textwidget"><p><a title="Louis Agassiz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/louis-agassiz/">Louis Agassiz</a> | <a title="Maria Gaetana Agnesi" href="//www.famousscientists.org/maria-gaetana-agnesi/">Maria Gaetana Agnesi</a> | <a title="Al-Battani" href="//www.famousscientists.org/al-battani/">Al-Battani</a><a title="Abu Nasr Al-Farabi" href="//www.famousscientists.org/abu-nasr-al-farabi/">Abu Nasr Al-Farabi</a> | <a title="Alhazen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alhazen/">Alhazen</a> | <a title="Jim Al-Khalili" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jim-al-khalili/">Jim Al-Khalili</a> | <a title="Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi" href="//www.famousscientists.org/muhammad-ibn-musa-al-khwarizmi/">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a> | <a title="Mihailo Petrovic Alas" href="//www.famousscientists.org/mihailo-petrovic-alas/">Mihailo Petrovic Alas</a> | <a title="Angel Alcala" href="//www.famousscientists.org/angel-alcala/">Angel Alcala</a> | <a title="Salim Ali" href="//www.famousscientists.org/salim-ali/">Salim Ali</a> | <a title="Luis Alvarez" href="//www.famousscientists.org/luis-alvarez/">Luis Alvarez</a> | <a title="Andre Marie Ampère" href="//www.famousscientists.org/andre-marie-ampere/">Andre Marie Ampère</a> | <a title="Anaximander" href="//www.famousscientists.org/anaximander/">Anaximander</a> | <a title="Carl Anderson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/carl-anderson/">Carl Anderson</a> | <a title="Mary Anning" href="//www.famousscientists.org/mary-anning/">Mary Anning</a> | <a title="Virginia Apgar" href="//www.famousscientists.org/virginia-apgar/">Virginia Apgar</a> | <a title="Archimedes" href="//www.famousscientists.org/archimedes/">Archimedes</a> | <a title="Agnes Arber" href="//www.famousscientists.org/agnes-arber/">Agnes Arber</a> | <a title="Aristarchus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/aristarchus/">Aristarchus</a> | <a title="Aristotle" href="//www.famousscientists.org/aristotle/">Aristotle</a> | <a title="Svante Arrhenius" href="//www.famousscientists.org/svante-arrhenius/">Svante Arrhenius</a> | <a title="Oswald Avery" href="//www.famousscientists.org/oswald-avery/">Oswald Avery</a> | <a title="Amedeo Avogadro" href="//www.famousscientists.org/amedeo-avogadro/">Amedeo Avogadro</a> | <a title="Avicenna" href="//www.famousscientists.org/avicenna/">Avicenna</a></p> <p><a title="Charles Babbage" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-babbage/">Charles Babbage</a> | <a title="Francis Bacon" href="//www.famousscientists.org/francis-bacon/">Francis Bacon</a> | <a title="Alexander Bain" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alexander-bain/">Alexander Bain</a> | <a title="John Logie Baird" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-logie-baird/">John Logie Baird</a> | <a title="Joseph Banks" href="//www.famousscientists.org/joseph-banks/">Joseph Banks</a> | <a title="Ramon Barba" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ramon-barba/">Ramon Barba</a> | <a title="John Bardeen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-bardeen/">John Bardeen</a> | <a title="Charles Barkla" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-barkla/">Charles Barkla</a> | <a title="Ibn Battuta" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ibn-battuta/">Ibn Battuta</a> | <a title="William Bayliss" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-bayliss/">William Bayliss</a> | <a title="George Beadle" href="//www.famousscientists.org/george-beadle/">George Beadle</a> | <a title="Arnold Orville Beckman" href="//www.famousscientists.org/arnold-orville-beckman/">Arnold Orville Beckman</a> | <a title="Henri Becquerel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henri-becquerel/">Henri Becquerel</a> | <a title="Emil Adolf Behring" href="//www.famousscientists.org/emil-adolf-behring/">Emil Adolf Behring</a> | <a title="Alexander Graham Bell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alexander-graham-bell/">Alexander Graham Bell</a> | <a title="Emile Berliner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/emil-berliner/">Emile Berliner</a> | <a title="Claude Bernard" href="//www.famousscientists.org/claude-bernard/">Claude Bernard</a> | <a title="Timothy John Berners-Lee" href="//www.famousscientists.org/timothy-john-berners-lee/">Timothy John Berners-Lee</a> | <a title="Daniel Bernoulli" href="//www.famousscientists.org/daniel-bernoulli/">Daniel Bernoulli</a> | <a title="Jacob Berzelius" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jacob-berzelius/">Jacob Berzelius</a> | <a title="Henry Bessemer" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henry-bessemer/">Henry Bessemer</a> | <a title="Hans Bethe" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hans-bethe/">Hans Bethe</a> | <a title="Homi Jehangir Bhabha" href="//www.famousscientists.org/homi-jehangir-bhabha/">Homi Jehangir Bhabha</a> | <a title="Alfred Binet" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alfred-binet/">Alfred Binet</a> | <a title="Clarence Birdseye" href="//www.famousscientists.org/clarence-birdseye/">Clarence Birdseye</a> | <a title="Kristian Birkeland" href="//www.famousscientists.org/kristian-birkeland/">Kristian Birkeland</a> | <a title="James Black" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-black/">James Black</a> | <a title="Elizabeth Blackwell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/elizabeth-blackwell/">Elizabeth Blackwell</a> | <a title="Alfred Blalock" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alfred-blalock/">Alfred Blalock</a> | <a title="Katharine Burr Blodgett" href="//www.famousscientists.org/katharine-burr-blodgett/">Katharine Burr Blodgett</a> | <a title="Franz Boas" href="//www.famousscientists.org/franz-boas/">Franz Boas</a> | <a title="David Bohm" href="//www.famousscientists.org/david-bohm/">David Bohm</a> | <a title="Aage Bohr" href="//www.famousscientists.org/aage-bohr/">Aage Bohr</a> | <a title="Niels Bohr" href="//www.famousscientists.org/niels-bohr/">Niels Bohr</a> | <a title="Ludwig Boltzmann" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ludwig-boltzmann/">Ludwig Boltzmann</a> | <a title="Max Born" href="//www.famousscientists.org/max-born/">Max Born</a> | <a title="Carl Bosch" href="//www.famousscientists.org/carl-bosch/">Carl Bosch</a> | <a title="Robert Bosch" href="//www.famousscientists.org/robert-bosch/">Robert Bosch</a> | <a title="Jagadish Chandra Bose" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jagadish-chandra-bose/">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a> | <a title="S. N. Bose" href="//www.famousscientists.org/s-n-bose/">Satyendra Nath Bose</a> | <a title="Walther Wilhelm Georg Bothe" href="//www.famousscientists.org/walther-wilhelm-georg-bothe/">Walther Wilhelm Georg Bothe</a> | <a title="Robert Boyle" href="//www.famousscientists.org/robert-boyle/">Robert Boyle</a> | <a title="Lawrence Bragg" href="//www.famousscientists.org/lawrence-bragg/">Lawrence Bragg</a> | <a title="Tycho Brahe" href="//www.famousscientists.org/tycho-brahe/">Tycho Brahe</a> | <a title="Brahmagupta" href="//www.famousscientists.org/brahmagupta/">Brahmagupta</a> | <a title="Hennig Brand" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hennig-brand/">Hennig Brand</a> | <a title="Georg Brandt" href=" //www.famousscientists.org/georg-brandt/">Georg Brandt</a> | <a title="Wernher Von Braun" href="//www.famousscientists.org/wernher-von-braun/">Wernher Von Braun</a> | <a title="J Harlen Bretz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/j-harlen-bretz/">J Harlen Bretz</a> | <a title="Louis de Broglie" href="//www.famousscientists.org/louis-de-broglie/">Louis de Broglie</a> | <a title="Alexander Brongniart" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alexander-brongniart/">Alexander Brongniart</a> | <a title="Robert Brown" href="//www.famousscientists.org/robert-brown/">Robert Brown</a> | <a title="Michael E. Brown" href="//www.famousscientists.org/michael-e-brown/">Michael E. Brown</a> | <a title="Lester R. Brown" href="//www.famousscientists.org/lester-r-brown/">Lester R. Brown</a> | <a title="Eduard Buchner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/eduard-buchner//">Eduard Buchner</a> | <a title="Linda Buck" href="//www.famousscientists.org/linda-buck/">Linda Buck</a> | <a title="William Buckland" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-buckland/">William Buckland</a> | <a title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon" href="//www.famousscientists.org/georges-louis-leclerc-comte-de-buffon/">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a> | <a title="Robert Bunsen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/robert-bunsen/">Robert Bunsen</a> | <a title="Luther Burbank" href="//www.famousscientists.org/luther-burbank/">Luther Burbank</a> | <a title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jocelyn-bell-burnell/">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</a> | <a title="Macfarlane" href="//www.famousscientists.org/macfarlane-burnet/">Macfarlane Burnet</a> | <a title="Thomas Burnet" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-burnet/">Thomas Burnet</a></p> <p><a title="Benjamin Cabrera" href="//www.famousscientists.org/benjamin-cabrera/">Benjamin Cabrera</a> | <a title="Santiago Ramon y Cajal" href="//www.famousscientists.org/santiago-ramon-y-cajal/">Santiago Ramon y Cajal</a> | <a title="Rachel Carson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/rachel-carson/">Rachel Carson</a> | <a title="George Washington Carver" href="//www.famousscientists.org/george-washington-carver/">George Washington Carver</a> | <a title="Henry Cavendish" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henry-cavendish/">Henry Cavendish</a> | <a title="Anders Celsius" href="//www.famousscientists.org/anders-celsius/">Anders Celsius</a> | <a title="James Chadwick" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-chadwick/">James Chadwick</a> | <a title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar" href="//www.famousscientists.org/subrahmanyan-chandrasekhar/">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> | <a title="Erwin Chargaff" href="//www.famousscientists.org/erwin-chargaff/">Erwin Chargaff</a> | <a title="Noam Chomsky" href="//www.famousscientists.org/noam-chomsky/">Noam Chomsky</a> | <a title="Steven Chu" href="//www.famousscientists.org/steven-chu/">Steven Chu</a> | <a title="Leland Clark" href="//www.famousscientists.org/leland-clark/">Leland Clark</a> | <a title="John Cockcroft" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-cockcroft/">John Cockcroft</a> | <a title="Arthur Compton" href="//www.famousscientists.org/arthur-compton/">Arthur Compton</a> | <a title="Nicolaus Copernicus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/nicolaus-copernicus/">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> | <a title="Gerty Theresa Cori" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gerty-theresa-cori/">Gerty Theresa Cori</a> | <a title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-augustin-de-coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a> | <a title="Jacques Cousteau" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jacques-cousteau/">Jacques Cousteau</a> | <a title="Brian Cox" href="//www.famousscientists.org//brian-cox/">Brian Cox</a> | <a title="Francis Crick" href="//www.famousscientists.org/francis-crick/">Francis Crick</a> | <a title="James Croll" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-croll/">James Croll</a> | <a title="Nicholas Culpeper" href="//www.famousscientists.org/nicholas-culpeper/">Nicholas Culpeper</a> | <a title="Marie Curie" href="//www.famousscientists.org/marie-curie/">Marie Curie</a> | <a title="Pierre Curie" href="//www.famousscientists.org/pierre-curie/">Pierre Curie</a> | <a title="Georges Cuvier" href="//www.famousscientists.org/georges-cuvier/">Georges Cuvier</a> | <a title="Adalbert Czerny" href="//www.famousscientists.org/adalbert-czerny/">Adalbert Czerny</a></p> <p><a title="Gottlieb Daimler" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gottlieb-daimler/">Gottlieb Daimler</a> | <a title="John Dalton" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-dalton/">John Dalton</a> | <a title="James Dwight Dana" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-dwight-dana/">James Dwight Dana</a> | <a title="Charles Darwin" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-darwin/">Charles Darwin</a> | <a title="Humphry Davy" href="//www.famousscientists.org/humphry-davy/">Humphry Davy</a> | <a title="Peter Debye" href="//www.famousscientists.org/peter-debye/">Peter Debye</a> | <a title="Max Delbruck" href="//www.famousscientists.org/max-delbruck/">Max Delbruck</a> | <a title="Jean Andre Deluc" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jean-andre-deluc/">Jean Andre Deluc</a> | <a title="Democritus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/democritus/">Democritus</a> | <a title="René Descartes" href="//www.famousscientists.org/rene-descartes/">René Descartes</a> | <a title="Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/rudolf-christian-karl-diesel/">Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel</a> | <a title="Diophantus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/diophantus/">Diophantus</a> | <a title="Paul Dirac" href="//www.famousscientists.org/paul-dirac/">Paul Dirac</a> | <a title="Prokop Divis" href="//www.famousscientists.org/prokop-divis/">Prokop Divis</a> | <a title="Theodosius Dobzhansky" href="//www.famousscientists.org/theodosius-dobzhansky/">Theodosius Dobzhansky</a> | <a title="Frank Drake" href="//www.famousscientists.org/frank-drake/">Frank Drake</a> | <a title="K. Eric Drexler" href="//www.famousscientists.org/k-eric-drexler/">K. Eric Drexler</a></p> <p><a title="John Eccles" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-eccles/">John Eccles</a> | <a title="Arthur Eddington" href="//www.famousscientists.org/arthur-eddington/">Arthur Eddington</a> | <a title="Thomas Alva Edison" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-alva-edison/">Thomas Edison</a> | <a title="Paul Ehrlich" href="//www.famousscientists.org/paul-ehrlich/">Paul Ehrlich</a> | <a title="Albert Einstein" href="//www.famousscientists.org/albert-einstein/">Albert Einstein</a> | <a title="Gertrude Elion" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gertrude-b-elion/">Gertrude Elion</a> | <a title="Empedocles" href="//www.famousscientists.org/empedocles/">Empedocles</a> | <a title="Eratosthenes" href="//www.famousscientists.org/eratosthenes/">Eratosthenes</a> | <a title="Euclid" href="//www.famousscientists.org/euclid/">Euclid</a> | <a title="Eudoxus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/eudoxus-of-cnidus/">Eudoxus</a> | <a title="Leonhard Euler" href="//www.famousscientists.org/leonhard-euler/">Leonhard Euler</a></p> <p><a title="Michael Faraday" href="//www.famousscientists.org/michael-faraday/">Michael Faraday</a> | <a title="Pierre de Fermat" href="//www.famousscientists.org/pierre-de-fermat/">Pierre de Fermat</a> | <a title="Enrico Fermi" href="//www.famousscientists.org/enrico-fermi/">Enrico Fermi</a> | <a title="Richard Feynman" href="//www.famousscientists.org/richard-feynman/">Richard Feynman</a> | <a title="Fibonacci" href="//www.famousscientists.org/fibonacci-leonardo-of-pisa/">Fibonacci – Leonardo of Pisa</a> | <a title="Emil Fischer" href="//www.famousscientists.org/emil-fischer/">Emil Fischer</a> | <a title="Ronald Fisher" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ronald-fisher/">Ronald Fisher</a> | <a title="Alexander Fleming" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alexander-fleming/">Alexander Fleming</a> | <a title="John Ambrose Fleming" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-ambrose-fleming/">John Ambrose Fleming</a> | <a title="Howard Florey" href="//www.famousscientists.org/howard-florey/">Howard Florey</a> | <a title="Henry Ford" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henry-ford/">Henry Ford</a> | <a title="Lee De Forest" href="//www.famousscientists.org/lee-de-forest/">Lee De Forest</a> | <a title="Dian Fossey" href="//www.famousscientists.org/dian-fossey-2/">Dian Fossey</a> | <a title="Leon Foucault" href="//www.famousscientists.org/leon-foucault/">Leon Foucault</a> | <a title="Benjamin Franklin" href="//www.famousscientists.org/benjamin-franklin/">Benjamin Franklin</a> | <a title="Rosalind Franklin" href="//www.famousscientists.org/rosalind-franklin/">Rosalind Franklin</a> | <a title="Sigmund Freud" href="//www.famousscientists.org/sigmund-freud/">Sigmund Freud</a> | <a title="Elizebeth Smith Friedman" href="//www.famousscientists.org/elizebeth-smith-friedman/">Elizebeth Smith Friedman</a></p> <p><a title="Galen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/galen/">Galen</a> | <a title="Galileo Galilei" href="//www.famousscientists.org/galileo-galilei/">Galileo Galilei</a> | <a title="Francis Galton" href="//www.famousscientists.org/francis-galton/">Francis Galton</a> | <a title="Luigi Galvani" href="//www.famousscientists.org/luigi-galvani/">Luigi Galvani</a> | <a title="George Gamow" href="//www.famousscientists.org/george-gamow/">George Gamow</a> | <a title="Martin Gardner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/martin-gardner/">Martin Gardner</a> | <a title="Carl Friedrich Gauss" href="//www.famousscientists.org/carl-friedrich-gauss/">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> | <a title="Murray Gell-Mann" href="//www.famousscientists.org/murray-gell-mann/">Murray Gell-Mann</a> | <a title="Sophie Germain" href="//www.famousscientists.org/sophie-germain/">Sophie Germain</a> | <a title="Willard Gibbs" href="//www.famousscientists.org/j-willard-gibbs/">Willard Gibbs</a> | <a title="William Gilbert" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-gilbert/">William Gilbert</a> | <a title="Sheldon Lee Glashow" href="//www.famousscientists.org/sheldon-lee-glashow/">Sheldon Lee Glashow</a> | <a title="Robert Goddard" href="//www.famousscientists.org/robert-goddard/">Robert Goddard</a> | <a title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer" href="//www.famousscientists.org/maria-goeppert-mayer/">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a> | <a title="Thomas Gold" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-gold/">Thomas Gold</a> | <a title="Jane Goodall" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jane-goodall/">Jane Goodall</a> | <a title="Stephen Jay Gould" href="//www.famousscientists.org/stephen-jay-gould/">Stephen Jay Gould</a> | <a title="Otto von Guericke" href="//www.famousscientists.org/otto-von-guericke/">Otto von Guericke</a></p> <p><a title="Fritz Haber" href="//www.famousscientists.org/fritz-haber/">Fritz Haber</a> | <a title="Ernst Haeckel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernst-haeckel/">Ernst Haeckel</a> | <a title="Otto Hahn" href="//www.famousscientists.org/otto-hahn/">Otto Hahn</a> | <a title="Albrecht von Haller" href="//www.famousscientists.org/albrecht-von-haller/">Albrecht von Haller</a> | <a title="Edmund Halley" href="//www.famousscientists.org/edmund-halley/">Edmund Halley</a> | <a title="Alister Hardy" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alister-hardy/">Alister Hardy</a> | <a title="Thomas Harriot" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-harriot/">Thomas Harriot</a> | <a title="William Harvey" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-harvey/">William Harvey</a> | <a title="Stephen Hawking" href="//www.famousscientists.org/stephen-hawking/">Stephen Hawking</a> | <a title="Otto Haxel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/otto-haxel/">Otto Haxel</a> | <a title="Werner Heisenberg" href="//www.famousscientists.org/werner-heisenberg/">Werner Heisenberg</a> | <a title="Hermann von Helmholtz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hermann-von-helmholtz/">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> | <a title="Jan Baptist von Helmont" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jan-baptist-von-helmont/">Jan Baptist von Helmont</a> | <a title="Joseph Henry" href="//www.famousscientists.org/joseph-henry-2/">Joseph Henry</a> | <a title="Caroline Herschel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/caroline-herschel/">Caroline Herschel</a> | <a title="John Herschel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-herschel/">John Herschel</a> | <a title="William Herschel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-herschel/">William Herschel</a> | <a title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gustav-ludwig-hertz/">Gustav Ludwig Hertz</a> | <a title="Heinrich Hertz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/heinrich-hertz/">Heinrich Hertz</a> | <a title="Karl F. Herzfeld" href="//www.famousscientists.org/karl-f-herzfeld/">Karl F. Herzfeld</a> | <a title="George de Hevesy" href="//www.famousscientists.org/george-de-hevesy/">George de Hevesy</a> | <a title="Antony Hewish" href="//www.famousscientists.org/antony-hewish/">Antony Hewish</a> | <a title="David Hilbert" href="//www.famousscientists.org/david-hilbert/">David Hilbert</a> | <a title="Maurice Hilleman" href="//www.famousscientists.org/maurice-hilleman/">Maurice Hilleman</a> | <a title="Hipparchus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hipparchus/">Hipparchus</a> | <a title="Hippocrates" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hippocrates/">Hippocrates</a> | <a title="Shintaro Hirase" href="//www.famousscientists.org/shintaro-hirase/">Shintaro Hirase</a> | <a title="Dorothy Hodgkin" href="//www.famousscientists.org/dorothy-hodgkin/">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> | <a title="Robert Hooke" href="//www.famousscientists.org/robert-hooke/">Robert Hooke</a> | <a title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins" href="//www.famousscientists.org/frederick-gowland-hopkins/">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> | <a title="William Hopkins" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-hopkins/">William Hopkins</a> | <a title="Grace Murray Hopper" href="//www.famousscientists.org/grace-murray-hopper/">Grace Murray Hopper</a> | <a title="Frank Hornby" href="//www.famousscientists.org/frank-hornby/">Frank Hornby</a> | <a title="Jack Horner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jack-horner/">Jack Horner</a> | <a title="Bernardo Houssay" href="//www.famousscientists.org/bernardo-houssay/">Bernardo Houssay</a> | <a title="Fred Hoyle" href=" //www.famousscientists.org/fred-hoyle/">Fred Hoyle</a> | <a title="Edwin Hubble" href="//www.famousscientists.org/edwin-hubble/">Edwin Hubble</a> | <a title="Alexander von Humboldt" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alexander-von-humboldt/">Alexander von Humboldt</a> | <a title="Zora Neale Hurston" href="//www.famousscientists.org/zora-neale-hurston/">Zora Neale Hurston</a> | <a title="James Hutton" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-hutton/">James Hutton</a> | <a title="Christiaan Huygens" href="//www.famousscientists.org/christiaan-huygens/">Christiaan Huygens</a> | <a title="Hypatia" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hypatia/">Hypatia</a></p> <p><a title="Ernesto Illy" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernesto-illy/">Ernesto Illy</a> | <a title="Jan Ingenhousz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jan-ingenhousz/">Jan Ingenhousz</a> | <a title="Ernst Ising" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernst-ising/">Ernst Ising</a> | <a title="Keisuke Ito" href="//www.famousscientists.org/keisuke-ito/">Keisuke Ito</a></p> <p><a title="Mae Carol Jemison" href="//www.famousscientists.org/mae-carol-jemison/">Mae Carol Jemison</a> | <a title="Edward Jenner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/edward-anthony-jenner/">Edward Jenner</a> | <a title="J. Hans D. Jensen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/j-hans-d-jensen/">J. Hans D. Jensen</a> | <a title="Irene Joliot-Curie" href="//www.famousscientists.org/irene-joliot-curie/">Irene Joliot-Curie</a> | <a title="James Prescott Joule" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-prescott-joule/">James Prescott Joule</a> | <a title="Percy Lavon Julian" href="//www.famousscientists.org/percy-lavon-julian/">Percy Lavon Julian</a></p> <p><a title="Michio Kaku" href="//www.famousscientists.org/michio-kaku/">Michio Kaku</a> | <a title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes" href="//www.famousscientists.org/heike-kamerlingh-onnes/">Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</a> | <a title="Pyotr Kapitsa" href="//www.famousscientists.org/pyotr-kapitsa/">Pyotr Kapitsa</a> | <a title="Friedrich August Kekulé" href="//www.famousscientists.org/friedrich-august-kekule/">Friedrich August Kekulé</a> | <a title="Frances Kelsey" href="//www.famousscientists.org/frances-kelsey/">Frances Kelsey</a> | <a title="Pearl Kendrick" href="//www.famousscientists.org/pearl-kendrick/">Pearl Kendrick</a> | <a title="Johannes Kepler" href="//www.famousscientists.org/johannes-kepler/">Johannes Kepler</a> | <a title="Abdul Qadeer Khan" href="//www.famousscientists.org/abdul-qadeer-khan/">Abdul Qadeer Khan</a> | <a title="Omar Khayyam" href="//www.famousscientists.org/omar-khayyam/">Omar Khayyam</a> | <a title="Alfred Kinsey" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alfred-kinsey/">Alfred Kinsey</a> | <a title="Gustav Kirchoff" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gustav-kirchoff/">Gustav Kirchoff</a> | <a title="Martin Klaproth" href="//www.famousscientists.org/martin-klaproth/">Martin Klaproth</a> | <a title="Robert Koch" href="//www.famousscientists.org/robert-koch/">Robert Koch</a> | <a title="Emil Kraepelin" href="//www.famousscientists.org/emil-kraepelin/">Emil Kraepelin</a> | <a title="Thomas Kuhn" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-kuhn/">Thomas Kuhn</a> | <a title="Stephanie Kwolek" href="//www.famousscientists.org/stephanie-kwolek/">Stephanie Kwolek</a></p> <p><a title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange" href="//www.famousscientists.org/joseph-louis-lagrange/">Joseph-Louis Lagrange</a> | <a title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jean-baptiste-lamarck/">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> | <a title="Hedy Lamarr" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hedy-lamarr/">Hedy Lamarr</a> | <a title="Edwin Herbert Land" href="//www.famousscientists.org/edwin-herbert-land/">Edwin Herbert Land</a> | <a title="Karl Landsteiner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/karl-landsteiner/">Karl Landsteiner</a> | <a title="Pierre-Simon Laplace" href="//www.famousscientists.org/pierre-simon-laplace/">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a> | <a title="Max von Laue" href="//www.famousscientists.org/max-von-laue/">Max von Laue</a> | <a title="Antoine Lavoisier" href="//www.famousscientists.org/antoine-lavoisier/">Antoine Lavoisier</a> | <a title="Ernest Lawrence" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernest-lawrence/">Ernest Lawrence</a> | <a title="Henrietta Swan Leavitt" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henrietta-swan-leavitt/">Henrietta Leavitt</a> | <a title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek" href="//www.famousscientists.org/antonie-van-leeuwenhoek/">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> | <a title="Inge Lehmann" href="//www.famousscientists.org/inge-lehmann/">Inge Lehmann</a> | <a title="Gottfried Leibniz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gottfried-leibniz/">Gottfried Leibniz</a> | <a title="Georges Lemaître" href="//www.famousscientists.org/georges-lemaitre/">Georges Lemaître</a> | <a title="Leonardo da Vinci" href="//www.famousscientists.org/leonardo-da-vinci/">Leonardo da Vinci</a> | <a title="Niccolo Leoniceno" href="//www.famousscientists.org/niccolo-leoniceno/">Niccolo Leoniceno</a> | <a title="Aldo Leopold" href="//www.famousscientists.org/aldo-leopold/">Aldo Leopold</a> | <a title="Rita Levi-Montalcini" href="//www.famousscientists.org/rita-levi-montalcini/">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a> | <a title="Claude Levi-Strauss" href="//www.famousscientists.org/claude-levi-strauss/">Claude Levi-Strauss</a> | <a title="Willard Frank Libby" href="//www.famousscientists.org/willard-frank-libby/">Willard Frank Libby</a> | <a title="Justus von Liebig" href="//www.famousscientists.org/justus-von-liebig/">Justus von Liebig</a> | <a title="Carolus Linnaeus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/carolus-linnaeus/">Carolus Linnaeus</a> | <a title="Joseph Lister" href="//www.famousscientists.org/joseph-lister/">Joseph Lister</a> | <a title="John Locke" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-locke/">John Locke</a> | <a title="Hendrik Antoon Lorentz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hendrik-antoon-lorentz/">Hendrik Antoon Lorentz</a> | <a title="Konrad Lorenz" href="//www.famousscientists.org/konrad-lorenz/">Konrad Lorenz</a> | <a title="Ada Lovelace" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ada-lovelace/">Ada Lovelace</a> | <a title="Percival Lowell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/percival-lowell/">Percival Lowell</a> | <a title="Lucretius" href="//www.famousscientists.org/lucretius/">Lucretius</a> | <a title="Charles Lyell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-lyell/">Charles Lyell</a> | <a title="Trofim Lysenko" href="//www.famousscientists.org/trofim-lysenko/">Trofim Lysenko</a></p> <p><a title="Ernst Mach" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernst-mach/">Ernst Mach</a> | <a title="Marcello Malpighi" href="//www.famousscientists.org/marcello-malpighi/">Marcello Malpighi</a> | <a title="Jane Marcet" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jane-marcet/">Jane Marcet</a> | <a title="Guglielmo Marconi" href="//www.famousscientists.org/guglielmo-marconi/">Guglielmo Marconi</a> | <a title="Lynn Margulis" href="//www.famousscientists.org/lynn-margulis/">Lynn Margulis</a> | <a title="Barry Marshall" href="//www.famousscientists.org/barry-marshall/">Barry Marshall</a> | <a title="Polly Matzinger" href="//www.famousscientists.org/polly-matzinger/">Polly Matzinger</a> | <a title="Matthew Maury" href="//www.famousscientists.org/matthew-maury/">Matthew Maury</a> | <a title="James Clerk Maxwell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-clerk-maxwell/">James Clerk Maxwell</a> | <a title="Ernst Mayr" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernst-mayr/">Ernst Mayr</a> | <a title="Barbara McClintock" href="//www.famousscientists.org/barbara-mcclintock/">Barbara McClintock</a> | <a title="Lise Meitner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/lise-meitner/">Lise Meitner</a> | <a title="Gregor Mendel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gregor-mendel/">Gregor Mendel</a> | <a title="Dmitri Mendeleev" href="//www.famousscientists.org/dmitri-mendeleev/">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> | <a title="Franz Mesmer" href="//www.famousscientists.org/franz-mesmer/">Franz Mesmer</a> | <a title="Antonio Meucci" href="//www.famousscientists.org/antonio-meucci/">Antonio Meucci</a> | <a title="John Michell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-michell/">John Michell</a> | <a title="Albert Abraham Michelson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/albert-abraham-michelson/">Albert Abraham Michelson</a> | <a title="Thomas Midgeley Jr." href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-midgeley-jr/">Thomas Midgeley Jr.</a> | <a title="Milutin Milankovitch" href="//www.famousscientists.org/milutin-milankovic/">Milutin Milankovic</a> | <a title="Maria Mitchell" href="//www.famousscientists.org/maria-mitchell/">Maria Mitchell</a> | <a title="Mario Molina" href="//www.famousscientists.org/mario-molina/">Mario Molina</a> | <a title="Thomas Hunt Morgan" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-hunt-morgan/">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> | <a title="Samuel Morse" href="//www.famousscientists.org/samuel-morse/">Samuel Morse</a> | <a title="Henry Moseley" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henry-moseley/">Henry Moseley</a></p> <p><a title="Ukichiro Nakaya" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ukichiro-nakaya/">Ukichiro Nakaya</a> | <a title="John Napier" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-napier/">John Napier</a> | <a title="Giulio Natta" href="//www.famousscientists.org/giulio-natta/">Giulio Natta</a> | <a title="John Needham" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-needham/">John Needham</a> | <a title="John von Neumann" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-von-neumann/">John von Neumann</a> | <a title="Thomas Newcomen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-Newcomen/">Thomas Newcomen</a> | <a title="Isaac Newton" href="//www.famousscientists.org/isaac-newton/">Isaac Newton</a> | <a title="Charles Nicolle" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-nicolle/">Charles Nicolle</a> | <a title="Florence Nightingale" href="//www.famousscientists.org/florence-nightingale/">Florence Nightingale</a> | <a title="Tim Noakes" href="//www.famousscientists.org/tim-noakes/">Tim Noakes</a> | <a title="Alfred Nobel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alfred-nobel/">Alfred Nobel</a> | <a title="Emmy Noether" href="//www.famousscientists.org/emmy-noether/">Emmy Noether</a> | <a title="Christiane Nusslein-Volhard" href="//www.famousscientists.org/christiane-nusslein-volhard/">Christiane Nusslein-Volhard</a> | <a title="Bill Nye" href="//www.famousscientists.org/bill-nye/">Bill Nye</a></p> <p><a title="Hans Christian Oersted" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hans-christian-oersted/">Hans Christian Oersted</a> | <a title="Georg Ohm" href="//www.famousscientists.org/georg-ohm/">Georg Ohm</a> | <a title="J. Robert Oppenheimer" href="//www.famousscientists.org/j-robert-oppenheimer/">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> | <a title="Wilhelm Ostwald" href="//www.famousscientists.org/wilhelm-ostwald/">Wilhelm Ostwald</a> | <a title="William Oughtred" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-oughtred/">William Oughtred</a></p> <p><a title="Blaise Pascal" href="//www.famousscientists.org/blaise-pascal/">Blaise Pascal</a> | <a title="Louis Pasteur" href="//www.famousscientists.org/louis-pasteur/">Louis Pasteur</a> | <a title="Wolfgang Ernst Pauli" href="//www.famousscientists.org/wolfgang-ernst-pauli/">Wolfgang Ernst Pauli</a> | <a title="Linus Pauling" href="//www.famousscientists.org/linus-pauling/">Linus Pauling</a> | <a title="Randy Pausch" href="//www.famousscientists.org/randy-pausch/">Randy Pausch</a> | <a title="Ivan Pavlov" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ivan-pavlov/">Ivan Pavlov</a> | <a title="Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin" href="//www.famousscientists.org/cecilia-payne-gaposchkin/">Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin</a> | <a title="Wilder Penfield" href="//www.famousscientists.org/wilder-penfield/">Wilder Penfield</a> | <a title="Marguerite Perey" href="//www.famousscientists.org/marguerite-perey/">Marguerite Perey</a> | <a title="William Perkin" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-perkin/">William Perkin</a> | <a title="John Philoponus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-philoponus/">John Philoponus</a> | <a title="Jean Piaget" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jean-piaget/">Jean Piaget</a> | <a title="Philippe Pinel" href="//www.famousscientists.org/philippe-pinel/">Philippe Pinel</a> | <a title="Max Planck" href="//www.famousscientists.org/max-planck/">Max Planck</a> | <a title="Pliny the Elder" href="//www.famousscientists.org/pliny-the-elder/">Pliny the Elder</a> | <a title="Henri Poincaré" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henri-poincare/">Henri Poincaré</a> | <a title="Karl Popper" href="//www.famousscientists.org/karl-popper/">Karl Popper</a> | <a title="Beatrix Potter" href="//www.famousscientists.org/beatrix-potter/">Beatrix Potter</a> | <a title="Joseph Priestley" href="//www.famousscientists.org/joseph-priestley/">Joseph Priestley</a> | <a title="Proclus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/proclus/">Proclus</a> | <a title="Claudius Ptolemy" href="//www.famousscientists.org/claudius-ptolemy/">Claudius Ptolemy</a> | <a title="Pythagoras" href="//www.famousscientists.org/pythagoras/">Pythagoras</a></p> <p><a title="Adolphe Quetelet" href="//www.famousscientists.org/adolphe-quetelet/">Adolphe Quetelet</a> | <a title="Harriet Quimby" href="//www.famousscientists.org/harriet-quimby/">Harriet Quimby</a> | <a title="Thabit ibn Qurra" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thabit-ibn-qurra/">Thabit ibn Qurra</a></p> <p><a title="C. V. Raman" href="//www.famousscientists.org/c-v-raman/">C. V. Raman</a> | <a title="Srinivasa Ramanujan" href="//www.famousscientists.org/srinivasa-ramanujan/">Srinivasa Ramanujan</a> | <a title="William Ramsay" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-ramsay/">William Ramsay</a> | <a title="John Ray" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-ray/">John Ray</a> | <a title="Prafulla Chandra Ray" href="//www.famousscientists.org/prafulla-chandra-ray/">Prafulla Chandra Ray</a> | <a title="Francesco Redi" href="//www.famousscientists.org/francesco-redi/">Francesco Redi</a> | <a title="Sally Ride" href="//www.famousscientists.org/sally-ride/">Sally Ride</a> | <a title="Bernhard Riemann" href="//www.famousscientists.org/bernhard-riemann/">Bernhard Riemann</a> | <a title="Wilhelm Röntgen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/wilhelm-rontgen/">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> | <a title="Hermann Rorschach" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hermann-rorschach/">Hermann Rorschach</a> | <a title="Ronald Ross" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ronald-ross/">Ronald Ross</a> | <a title="Ibn Rushd" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ibn-rushd/">Ibn Rushd</a> | <a title="Ernest Rutherford" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernest-rutherford/">Ernest Rutherford</a></p> <p><a title="Carl Sagan" href="//www.famousscientists.org/carl-sagan/">Carl Sagan</a> | <a title="Abdus Salam" href="//www.famousscientists.org/mohammad-abdus-salam/">Abdus Salam</a> | <a title="Jonas Salk" href="//www.famousscientists.org/jonas-salk/">Jonas Salk</a> | <a title="Frederick Sanger" href="//www.famousscientists.org/frederick-sanger/">Frederick Sanger</a> | <a title="Alberto Santos-Dumont" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alberto-santos-dumont/">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a> | <a title="Walter Schottky" href="//www.famousscientists.org/walter-schottky/">Walter Schottky</a> | <a title="Erwin Schrödinger" href="//www.famousscientists.org/erwin-schrodinger/">Erwin Schrödinger</a> | <a title="Theodor Schwann" href="//www.famousscientists.org/theodor-schwann/">Theodor Schwann</a> | <a title="Glenn Seaborg" href="//www.famousscientists.org/glenn-seaborg/">Glenn Seaborg</a> | <a title="Hans Selye" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hans-selye/">Hans Selye</a> | <a title="Charles Sherrington" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-sherrington/">Charles Sherrington</a> | <a title="Gene Shoemaker" href="//www.famousscientists.org/gene-shoemaker/">Gene Shoemaker</a> | <a title="Ernst Werner von Siemens" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernstwerner-von-siemens/">Ernst Werner von Siemens</a> | <a title="George Gaylord Simpson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/george-gaylord-simpson/">George Gaylord Simpson</a> | <a title="B. F. Skinner" href="//www.famousscientists.org/b-f-skinner/">B. F. Skinner</a> | <a title="William Smith" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-smith/">William Smith</a> | <a title="Frederick Soddy" href="//www.famousscientists.org/frederick-soddy/">Frederick Soddy</a> | <a title="Mary Somerville" href="//www.famousscientists.org/mary-somerville/">Mary Somerville</a> | <a title="Arnold Sommerfeld" href="//www.famousscientists.org/arnold-sommerfeld/">Arnold Sommerfeld</a> | <a title="Hermann Staudinger" href="//www.famousscientists.org/hermann-staudinger/">Hermann Staudinger</a> | <a title="Nicolas Steno" href="//www.famousscientists.org/nicolas-steno/">Nicolas Steno</a> | <a title="Nettie Stevens" href="//www.famousscientists.org/nettie-stevens/">Nettie Stevens</a> | <a title="William John Swainson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-john-swainson/">William John Swainson</a> | <a title="Leo Szilard" href="//www.famousscientists.org/leo-szilard/">Leo Szilard</a></p> <p><a title="Niccolo Tartaglia" href="//www.famousscientists.org/niccolo-tartaglia/">Niccolo Tartaglia</a> | <a title="Edward Teller" href="//www.famousscientists.org/edward-teller/">Edward Teller</a> | <a title="Nikola Tesla" href="//www.famousscientists.org/nikola-tesla/">Nikola Tesla</a> | <a title="Thales of Miletus" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thales/">Thales of Miletus</a> | <a title="Theon of Alexandria" href="//www.famousscientists.org/theon-of-alexandria/">Theon of Alexandria</a> | <a title="Benjamin Thompson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/benjamin-thompson/">Benjamin Thompson</a> | <a title="J. J. Thomson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/j-j-thomson/">J. J. Thomson</a> | <a title="William Thomson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/william-thomson/">William Thomson</a> | <a title="Henry David Thoreau" href="//www.famousscientists.org/henry-david-thoreau/">Henry David Thoreau</a> | <a title="Kip S. Thorne" href="//www.famousscientists.org/kip-s-thorne/">Kip S. Thorne</a> | <a title="Clyde Tombaugh" href="//www.famousscientists.org/clyde-tombaugh/">Clyde Tombaugh</a> | <a title="Susumu Tonegawa" href="//www.famousscientists.org/susumu-tonegawa/">Susumu Tonegawa</a> | <a title="Evangelista Torricelli" href="//www.famousscientists.org/evangelista-torricelli/">Evangelista Torricelli</a> | <a title="Charles Townes" href="//www.famousscientists.org/charles-townes/">Charles Townes</a> | <a title="Youyou Tu" href="//www.famousscientists.org/youyou-tu/">Youyou Tu</a> | <a title="Alan Turing" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alan-turing/">Alan Turing</a> | <a title="Neil deGrasse Tyson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/neil-degrasse-tyson">Neil deGrasse Tyson</a></p> <p><a title="Harold Urey" href="//www.famousscientists.org/harold-urey/">Harold Urey</a></p> <p><a title="Craig Venter" href="//www.famousscientists.org/craig-venter/">Craig Venter</a> | <a title="Vladimir Vernadsky" href="//www.famousscientists.org/vladimir-vernadsky/">Vladimir Vernadsky</a> | <a title="Andreas Vesalius" href="//www.famousscientists.org/andreas-vesalius/">Andreas Vesalius</a> | <a title="Rudolf Virchow" href="//www.famousscientists.org/rudolf-virchow/">Rudolf Virchow</a> | <a title="Artturi Virtanen" href="//www.famousscientists.org/artturi-virtanen/">Artturi Virtanen</a> | <a title="Alessandro Volta" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alessandro-volta/">Alessandro Volta</a></p> <p><a title="Selman Waksman" href="//www.famousscientists.org/selman-waksman/">Selman Waksman</a> | <a title="George Wald" href="//www.famousscientists.org/george-wald/">George Wald</a> | <a title="Alfred Russel Wallace" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alfred-russel-wallace/">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> | <a title="John Wallis" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-wallis/">John Wallis</a> | <a title="Ernest Walton" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ernest-walton/">Ernest Walton</a> | <a title="James Watson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-watson/">James Watson</a> | <a title="James Watt" href="//www.famousscientists.org/james-watt/">James Watt</a> | <a title="Alfred Wegener" href="//www.famousscientists.org/alfred-wegener/">Alfred Wegener</a> | <a title="John Archibald Wheeler" href="//www.famousscientists.org/john-archibald-wheeler/">John Archibald Wheeler</a> | <a title="Maurice Wilkins" href="//www.famousscientists.org/maurice-wilkins/">Maurice Wilkins</a> | <a title="Thomas Willis" href="//www.famousscientists.org/thomas-willis/">Thomas Willis</a> | <a title="E. O. Wilson" href="//www.famousscientists.org/e-o-wilson/">E. O. Wilson</a> | <a title="Sven Wingqvist" href="//www.famousscientists.org/sven-wingqvist/">Sven Wingqvist</a> | <a title="Sergei Winogradsky" href="//www.famousscientists.org/sergei-winogradsky/">Sergei Winogradsky</a> | <a title="Carl Woese" href="//www.famousscientists.org/carl-woese/">Carl Woese</a> | <a title="Friedrich Wöhler" href="//www.famousscientists.org/friedrich-wohler/">Friedrich Wöhler</a> | <a title="Wilbur and Orville Wright" href="//www.famousscientists.org/wilbur-and-orville-wright/">Wilbur and Orville Wright</a> | <a title="Wilhelm Wundt" href="//www.famousscientists.org/wilhelm-wundt/">Wilhelm Wundt</a></p> <p><a title="Chen-Ning Yang" href="//www.famousscientists.org/chen-ning-yang/">Chen-Ning Yang</a></p> <p><a title="Ahmed Zewail" href="//www.famousscientists.org/ahmed-zewail/">Ahmed Zewail</a></p> </div> </div></section> </div></div></div><footer class="site-footer" itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/WPFooter"><div class="wrap"><div class="gototop"><p> <a href="#" class="top">Return to top of page</a> </p></div> <div class="creds"><p> <a href="//www.famousscientists.org/">Famous Scientists</a> - <a href="//www.famousscientists.org/privacy-policy/">Privacy</a> - <a href="//www.famousscientists.org/contact/">Contact</a> - <a href="//www.famousscientists.org/about/">About</a> - Content & Imagery © 2024 </p></div></div></footer></div><script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-6004318-19', 'famousscientists.org'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.famousscientists.org/fs/wp-content/plugins/lazy-load/js/jquery.sonar.min.js?ver=0.6.1" id="jquery-sonar-js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.famousscientists.org/fs/wp-content/plugins/lazy-load/js/lazy-load.js?ver=0.6.1" id="wpcom-lazy-load-images-js"></script> <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'8e9d79b8cd7eab44',t:'MTczMjgyOTU5Ny4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script></body> </html>