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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Calutron Girls</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. 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Please see <a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_dates" title="Category:CS1 errors: dates">Category:CS1 errors: dates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">Category:CS1 maint: url-status</a>.)</span></span>. The present address (URL) is a <a href="/wiki/Help:Permanent_link" title="Help:Permanent link">permanent link</a> to this version.</b></p><div id="revision-info-current-plain" style="display: none;">Revision as of 21:36, 11 September 2024 by <a href="/wiki/User:Ira_Leviton" class="mw-userlink" title="User:Ira Leviton" data-mw-revid="1245244468"><bdi>Ira Leviton</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:Ira_Leviton" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:Ira Leviton">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/Ira_Leviton" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/Ira Leviton">contribs</a>)</span> <span class="comment">(Fixed a reference. Please see <a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_dates" title="Category:CS1 errors: dates">Category:CS1 errors: dates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_url-status" title="Category:CS1 maint: url-status">Category:CS1 maint: url-status</a>.)</span></div></div><div id="mw-revision-nav">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&diff=prev&oldid=1245244468" title="Calutron Girls">diff</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&direction=prev&oldid=1245244468" title="Calutron Girls">← Previous revision</a> | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Women working on the Manhattan Project</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A long corridor with many consoles with dials and switches, attended by women seated on high stools." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg/300px-Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg/450px-Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg/600px-Y12_Calutron_Operators.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1725" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption>Calutron Girls photographed by <a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a> at their calutron control panels at Y-12</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Calutron Girls</b> were a group of young women—mostly high school graduates—who had joined the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12 National Security Complex</a> located at <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, from 1943 to 1945. Although they were not allowed to know at the time, they were monitoring dials and watching meters for <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometers</a> adapted for <a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">separation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uranium_isotopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium isotopes">uranium isotopes</a> for the development of nuclear weapons for use during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> was used to make the "<a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a>" <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Hiroshima nuclear bombing</a> on August 6, 1945. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Calutron</a></div> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the United States established the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> to develop <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. This required <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> (U<sup>235</sup>), the <a href="/wiki/Fissionable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissionable isotope">fissionable isotope</a> of uranium. However, the vast majority of uranium mined from the ground is <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a>, while only 0.7% is U<sup>235</sup>. Scientists developed several processes for separating the isotopes of uranium, including electromagnetic separation and gaseous diffusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Nickell2010_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nickell2010-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12</a> factory was built in <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee" title="Oak Ridge, Tennessee">Oak Ridge, Tennessee</a>, to house 1,152 <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a>, a machine used for isotope separation.<sup id="cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlueRidge-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word "calutron" is a <a href="/wiki/Portmanteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Portmanteau">portmanteau</a> of <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">California University</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">Cyclotron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlueRidge-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calutrons, a variation on <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometers</a>, work by combining uranium with chlorine to make <a href="/wiki/Uranium_tetrachloride" title="Uranium tetrachloride">uranium tetrachloride</a>, which is then <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionized</a> and put in a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_chamber" title="Vacuum chamber">vacuum chamber</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>. When the charged particles move through the magnetic field, they move in a curve, the radius of which is proportional to the mass of the particles. The two isotopes differ in mass by about 1% and can thus be separated.<sup id="cite_ref-Nickell2010_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nickell2010-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The operation was relatively simple, but it required people to constantly monitor the calutrons.<sup id="cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlueRidge-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to a labor shortage, there were not enough scientists to operate all of them, and many young men were fighting in the war overseas, so the government recruited farm girls to operate the calutrons instead.<sup id="cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlueRidge-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WW2Museum_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WW2Museum-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local women were recruited because they were readily available, accustomed to hard work and were expected not to ask excessive questions and to be loyal and docile.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman2015_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recruitment_and_training">Recruitment and training</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Recruitment and training"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Eastman" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Eastman">Tennessee Eastman Company</a>, which ran the Y-12 site, recruited around 10,000 local women between 1943 and 1945 to operate the calutrons. They proposed to train operators with only a high school education, and they used a large local advertising campaign to recruit workers. One ad read, "When you're a grandmother you'll brag about working at Tennessee Eastman".<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman2015_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several workers heard about the jobs from friends.<sup id="cite_ref-hendersonville_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hendersonville-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reasons for applying included needing the money, having few other employment opportunities, youthful wanderlust, and wanting to help the war effort.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TennesseeEncyclopedia_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TennesseeEncyclopedia-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Training lasted three weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman2015_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_at_work">Life at work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Life at work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Billboard reading "What you see here / what you do here / what you hear here / when you leave here / let it stay here", with three wise monkeys to demonstrate "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg/300px-Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg/450px-Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg/600px-Oak_Ridge_Wise_Monkeys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A billboard at Oak Ridge encouraging secrecy among workers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calutron_operator.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Calutron_operator.jpg/220px-Calutron_operator.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Calutron_operator.jpg/330px-Calutron_operator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Calutron_operator.jpg/440px-Calutron_operator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>A calutron operator</figcaption></figure> <p>Secrecy and confidentiality were a strict requirement of their employment.<sup id="cite_ref-Explore_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Explore-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Gladys Owens, who was one of the Calutron Girls, a manager at the facility once told them: "We can train you how to do what is needed, but cannot tell you what you are doing. I can only tell you that if our enemies beat us to it, God have mercy on us!"<sup id="cite_ref-Gladys_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gladys-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Testimonies said women who talked about what they were doing disappeared.<sup id="cite_ref-TennesseeEncyclopedia_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TennesseeEncyclopedia-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One young woman who disappeared was said to have "died from drinking some poison moonshine".<sup id="cite_ref-Gladys_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gladys-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If they were too nosy about what they were working on, they were replaced.<sup id="cite_ref-WW2Museum_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WW2Museum-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cars going in and out were searched, and letters were opened and read.<sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The workers sat on high stools for 8-hour shifts, seven days per week, monitoring gauges and adjusting knobs to keep the needles where they were supposed to be and recording readings.<sup id="cite_ref-hendersonville_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hendersonville-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The knobs were labeled with cryptic letters. The women did not know what the letters stood for, but they learned rules such as "if you got your M voltage up and your G voltage up, then Product would hit the birdcage in the E box at the top of the unit and if that happened, you'd get the Q and R you wanted".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had to make sure the machine remained at the correct temperature; if it got too hot, they used liquid nitrogen to cool it down.<sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the needles reached a point where they could not control them, they had to call someone else to come help.<sup id="cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlueRidge-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Former Calutron Girl Wynona Arrington Butner said, "We all wore little fountain-pen-sized <a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">dosimeters</a>. Part of signing out of the plant was to check the amount of radiation that you had absorbed every day."<sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civilian workers paid $2.50 per month (single) or $5.00 per month (family) for medical insurance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols1987124_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1987124-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another calutron installation at a <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California at Berkeley</a> laboratory was led by physicist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence</a> and operated by trained professional physicists. As the Y-12 calutron facility at Oak Ridge became operational, Lawrence desired that it be also run by physicists. Because of the labor shortage during WWII, the staffing went to farm girls instead.<sup id="cite_ref-WW2Museum_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WW2Museum-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As each new unit was completed by <a href="/wiki/Stone_%26_Webster" title="Stone & Webster">Stone & Webster</a>, Lawrence and a team of Berkeley scientists operated it to eliminate any bugs, then transferred it to Tennessee Eastman; this gave the scientists first-hand knowledge regarding any needed improvements. <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a> compared production data for units and pointed out to Lawrence that the young ”<a href="/wiki/Hillbilly" title="Hillbilly">hillbilly</a>” girl operators were outproducing his scientists. Lawrence claimed that his men were experimenting with ways to improve operations. But when he agreed to a weeklong “production race,” he lost.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman2015_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nichols wrote that “the girls won because they were trained like soldiers “to do or not to do – not to reason why”.<sup id="cite_ref-WW2Museum_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WW2Museum-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the scientists could not refrain from time-consuming investigations of even minor fluctuations of the dials. This little contest provided a big boost in morale for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols1987131_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1987131-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Calutron Girls had more of a sense of what they were working on than others. Butner, who had some training in chemistry, said she and others with a similar background had some sense of what they were doing. They knew they were producing "the Product", and they guessed it was somewhere near the bottom of the periodic table.<sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Willie Baker, on the other hand, said, "Even when somebody let it slip that we were building a bomb, I didn’t know what they meant. I was just a country girl. I had no understanding of what an atomic bomb was."<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman2015_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman2015-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bombing_and_aftermath">Bombing and aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bombing and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over two years, the calutrons at Y-12 had produced about 140 lb (64 kg) of U<sup>235</sup>. This was enough to make the first atomic bomb (enough uranium for a second <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> would have been available by December 1945).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols1987175_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols1987175-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-remembers_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remembers-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 6, 1945, when the US <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombing of Hiroshima">dropped the first bomb</a>, "Little Boy," on Hiroshima, Japan, the Calutron Girls were finally told what they had been working on.<sup id="cite_ref-hendersonville_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hendersonville-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some women were working and others were in their dorm rooms when someone came and told them that an atomic bomb had been dropped on Japan, and everyone there had played a part in making it.<sup id="cite_ref-ruth_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ruth-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hendersonville_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hendersonville-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Calutron Girls had mixed feelings about their part in the bomb. Ruth Huddleston said she was really happy at the time, because her boyfriend was stationed in Germany, and this would bring him back. It bothered her that she had a part in killing so many people, but she accepted that "if the bomb hadn’t been dropped, then probably more people would have been killed. ... But even today, if I think too much about it, it bothers me."<sup id="cite_ref-remembers_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-remembers-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Butner had a similar experience: at the time, she was happy that the war was over and people she knew in the service could come home, but over time, she began to question whether it was the right thing to do.<sup id="cite_ref-oakridger_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oakridger-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2020, only a few elderly Calutron Girls remained. Some, such as Huddleston, regularly shared their stories with the public, often alongside Oak Ridge historian Ray Smith.<sup id="cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlueRidge-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The women are the subject of the nonfiction book <i>The Girls of Atomic City</i> by <a href="/wiki/Denise_Kiernan" title="Denise Kiernan">Denise Kiernan</a> and the novel <i>The Atomic City Girls</i> by Janet Beard.<sup id="cite_ref-WW2Museum_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WW2Museum-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_the_Riveter" title="Rosie the Riveter">Rosie the Riveter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_World_War_II" title="Women in World War II">Women in World War II</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nickell2010-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nickell2010_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nickell2010_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNickell2010" class="citation book cs1">Nickell, Duane S. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K7UuSxACz0oC&pg=PA141"><i>Guidebook for the Scientific Traveler: Visiting Physics and Chemistry Sites Across America</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. pp. 141–142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4730-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4730-5"><bdi>978-0-8135-4730-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guidebook+for+the+Scientific+Traveler%3A+Visiting+Physics+and+Chemistry+Sites+Across+America&rft.pages=141-142&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-4730-5&rft.aulast=Nickell&rft.aufirst=Duane+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK7UuSxACz0oC%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BlueRidge-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlueRidge_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson2020" class="citation web cs1">Henderson, Nancy (April 30, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blueridgecountry.com/newsstand/magazine/calutron-girls-atomic-bomb/">"Girl Power, Circa 1940: Building The Bomb (and Not Knowing It) in East Tennessee"</a>. <i>blueridgecountry.com</i>. LeisureMedia360<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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September 25, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=%22What%27s+going+on+over+there%3F%22+--+The+Manhattan+Project+in+Oak+Ridge%2C+Tennessee&rft.date=2015-09-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fm.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D5MuAB1qSEEc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Explore-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Explore_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exploreoakridge.com/who-were-the-calutron-girls-of-oak-ridge/">"Who Were the Calutron Girls of Oak Ridge?"</a>. <i>exploreoakridge.com</i>. Oak Ridge CVB. September 12, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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June 5, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=Short+Circuit%3A+Ruth%27s+Story&rft.date=2017-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Fpodcasts%2Fdirect-current-energygov-podcast%2Fshort-circuit-ruths-story&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLida2018" class="citation web cs1">Lida, Gretchen (January 12, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonindependentreviewofbooks.com/index.php/bookreview/the-atomic-city-girls-a-novel">"The Atomic City Girls: A Novel"</a>. <i>Washington Independent Review of Books</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 21,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Washington+Independent+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=The+Atomic+City+Girls%3A+A+Novel&rft.date=2018-01-12&rft.aulast=Lida&rft.aufirst=Gretchen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonindependentreviewofbooks.com%2Findex.php%2Fbookreview%2Fthe-atomic-city-girls-a-novel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Calutron_Girls&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Calutron" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Calutron">Calutron</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denise_Kiernan" title="Denise Kiernan">Kiernan, Denise</a> (March 11, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zav6AgAAQBAJ"><i>The Girls of Atomic City: The Untold Story of the Women Who Helped Win World War II</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon and Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-1753-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-1753-5"><bdi>978-1-4516-1753-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Girls+of+Atomic+City%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+the+Women+Who+Helped+Win+World+War+II&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2014-03-11&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-1753-5&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Denise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzav6AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols1987" class="citation book cs1">Nichols, Kenneth (1987). <i>The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made</i>. New York: William Morrow and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-06910-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-06910-X"><bdi>0-688-06910-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Trinity%3A+A+Personal+Account+of+How+America%27s+Nuclear+Policies+Were+Made&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=William+Morrow+and+Company&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-688-06910-X&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2013" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Ray (February 9, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jOBLCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT133"><i>2006 Historically Speaking: As published in the Oak Ridger Newspaper</i></a>. Lulu.com. pp. 133–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-257-23331-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-257-23331-1"><bdi>978-1-257-23331-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2006+Historically+Speaking%3A+As+published+in+the+Oak+Ridger+Newspaper&rft.pages=133-&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2013-02-09&rft.isbn=978-1-257-23331-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjOBLCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/gladys-evans-interview">"Gladys Evans' Interview"</a>. <i>Voices of the Manhattan Project</i>. September 21, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Voices+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.atitle=Gladys+Evans%27+Interview&rft.date=2005-09-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.manhattanprojectvoices.org%2Foral-histories%2Fgladys-evans-interview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/ruth-huddlestons-interview">"Ruth Huddleston's Interview"</a>. <i>Voices of the Manhattan Project</i>. April 25, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Voices+of+the+Manhattan+Project&rft.atitle=Ruth+Huddleston%27s+Interview&rft.date=2018-04-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.manhattanprojectvoices.org%2Foral-histories%2Fruth-huddlestons-interview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACalutron+Girls" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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