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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Manhattan Project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manhattan_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiocarbon_dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiocarbon_dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Radiocarbon dating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiocarbon_dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomic_Energy_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_Energy_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Atomic Energy Commission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic_Energy_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-UCLA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#UCLA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>UCLA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-UCLA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Awards and honors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Willard Libby</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="ويلارد ليبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ويلارد ليبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="ویلارد لیبای – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ویلارد لیبای" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF" title="উইলার্ড ফ্র্যাংক লিবি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উইলার্ড ফ্র্যাংক লিবি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BA_%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B1%D1%96" title="Уілард Фрэнк Лібі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Уілард Фрэнк Лібі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Уилард Либи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Уилард Либи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="ویلارد لیبای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویلارد لیبای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%8C%EB%9F%AC%EB%93%9C_%EB%A6%AC%EB%B9%84" title="윌러드 리비 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="윌러드 리비" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AC%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4_%D4%BC%D5%AB%D5%A2%D5%A2%D5%AB" title="Ուիլլարդ Լիբբի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուիլլարդ Լիբբի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80" title="विल्लर्ड लिब्बी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विल्लर्ड लिब्बी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_F._Libby" title="Willard F. Libby – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Willard F. Libby" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99" title="וילארד ליבי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="וילארד ליבי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="უილარდ ლიბი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უილარდ ლიბი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Franciscus_Libby" title="Willard Franciscus Libby – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Willard Franciscus Libby" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_F._Libby" title="Willard F. Libby – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Willard F. Libby" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80" title="विलार्ड लिबी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विलार्ड लिबी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="უილარდ ლიბი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უილარდ ლიბი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%89" title="ويلارد ليبى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ويلارد ليبى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%81_%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="ویلارد اف لیبای – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ویلارد اف لیبای" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Уиллард Либби – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Уиллард Либби" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A3%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AA%E3%83%93%E3%83%BC" title="ウィラード・リビー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウィラード・リビー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A1_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%80" title="ਵਿਲਾਰਡ ਲਿਬੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਲਾਰਡ ਲਿਬੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ولارڈ لیبی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ولارڈ لیبی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA" title="Либби, Уиллард Франк – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Либби, Уиллард Франк" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Вилард Френк Либи – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вилард Френк Либи" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Frank_Libby" title="Willard Frank Libby – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Willard Frank Libby" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%83%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF" title="வில்லார்ட் ஃபிராங்க் லிப்பி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வில்லார்ட் ஃபிராங்க் லிப்பி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Виллард Либби – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Виллард Либби" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA_%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%B1%D1%96" title="Віллард Франк Ліббі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Віллард Франк Ліббі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ولارڈ لیبی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ولارڈ لیبی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%97%C2%B7%E5%88%A9%E6%AF%94" title="威拉得·利比 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="威拉得·利比" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Willard Libby" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%97%C2%B7%E5%88%A9%E6%AF%94" title="威拉得·利比 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="威拉得·利比" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q190486#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American physical chemist (1908–1980)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Willard Libby</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Willard_Libby.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/66/Willard_Libby.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="297" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="210" data-file-height="297" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Willard Frank Libby</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1908-12-17</span>)</span>December 17, 1908<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Parachute,_Colorado" title="Parachute, Colorado">Parachute, Colorado</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">September 8, 1980<span style="display:none">(1980-09-08)</span> (aged 71)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>, <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Leonor Hickey</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1940; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1966)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods Marshall</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1966)<wbr /></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal" title="Elliott Cresson Medal">Elliott Cresson Medal</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Priestley_Award&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Priestley Award (page does not exist)">Joseph Priestley Award</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Award" title="Albert Einstein Award">Albert Einstein Award</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Day_Medal" title="Arthur L. Day Medal">Arthur L. Day Medal</a> (1961)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a></li> <li>SAM Laboratories</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i> Radioactivity of ordinary elements, especially samarium and neodymium: method of detection </i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1933)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Mitchell_Latimer" title="Wendell Mitchell Latimer">Wendell Mitchell Latimer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Sanford_Fox" title="Maurice Sanford Fox">Maurice Sanford Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sherwood_Rowland" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Sherwood Rowland">Frank Sherwood Rowland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Willard Frank Libby</b> (December 17, 1908 – September 8, 1980) was an American <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemist</a> noted for his role in the 1949 development of <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a>, a process which revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>. For his contributions to the team that developed this process, Libby was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1960. </p><p>A 1931 chemistry graduate of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, from which he received his doctorate in 1933, he studied radioactive elements and developed sensitive <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counters</a> to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> he worked in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>'s Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>, developing the <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> process for <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>. </p><p>After the war, Libby accepted a professorship at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Nuclear_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Nuclear Studies">Institute for Nuclear Studies</a>, where he developed the technique for dating organic compounds using <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a>. He also discovered that <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> similarly could be used for dating water, and therefore wine. In 1950, he became a member of the General Advisory Committee (GAC) of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC). He was appointed a commissioner in 1954, becoming its sole scientist. He sided with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> on pursuing a crash program to develop the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>, participated in the <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a> program, and defended the administration's atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a>. </p><p>Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 to become professor of chemistry at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), a position he held until his retirement in 1976. In 1962, he became the director of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> statewide Institute of <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> and Planetary Physics (IGPP). He started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972, and as a member of the <a href="/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board" title="California Air Resources Board">California Air Resources Board</a>, he worked to develop and improve California's air pollution standards. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_career">Early life and career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Willard Frank Libby was born in Parachute, Colorado, on December 17, 1908, the son of farmers Ora Edward Libby and his wife Eva May (née Rivers).<sup id="cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobelprize.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had two brothers, Elmer and Raymond, and two sisters, Eva and Evelyn.<sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Libby began his education in a two-room Colorado schoolhouse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagill1989703–712_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagill1989703–712-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he was five, Libby's parents moved to <a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa,_California" title="Santa Rosa, California">Santa Rosa, California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attended <a href="/wiki/Analy_High_School" title="Analy High School">Analy High School</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Sebastopol,_California" title="Sebastopol, California">Sebastopol</a>, from which he graduated in 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-Mural_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mural-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Libby, who grew to be 6 feet 2 inches (188 cm) tall, played <a href="/wiki/Tackle_(gridiron_football_position)" title="Tackle (gridiron football position)">tackle</a> on the high school <a href="/wiki/Gridiron_football" title="Gridiron football">football</a> team.<sup id="cite_ref-TIME_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIME-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1927 he entered the University of California, Berkeley, where he received his <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a> in 1931, and his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> in 1933,<sup id="cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobelprize.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writing his doctoral thesis on the "Radioactivity of ordinary elements, especially samarium and neodymium: method of detection"<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Mitchell_Latimer" title="Wendell Mitchell Latimer">Wendell Mitchell Latimer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UC_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Independently of the work of <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a> and Max Pahl, he discovered that the natural long-lived isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">samarium</a> primarily decay by emission of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Libby was appointed Instructor in the department of chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobelprize.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He became an <a href="/wiki/Assistant_professor" title="Assistant professor">assistant professor</a> of chemistry there in 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-Guggenheim_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guggenheim-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He spent the 1930s building sensitive <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counters</a> to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He joined Berkeley's chapter of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Chi_Sigma" title="Alpha Chi Sigma">Alpha Chi Sigma</a> in 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That year he was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship" title="Guggenheim Fellowship">Guggenheim Fellowship</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Guggenheim_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guggenheim-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elected to work at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TIME_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIME-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On December 8, 1941, the day after the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor">Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor</a> brought the United States into <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Libby volunteered his services to Nobel Prize laureate <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a>. Urey arranged for Libby to be given leave from the University of California, Berkeley and to join him at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> to work on the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, the wartime project to develop <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bombs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobelprize.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TIME_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIME-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at what became its Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962128_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962128-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his time in the New York City area, Libby was a resident of <a href="/wiki/Leonia,_New_Jersey" title="Leonia, New Jersey">Leonia, New Jersey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the next three years, Libby worked on the <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a> process for <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An atomic bomb required <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> material, and the fissile <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> made up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. The SAM Laboratories therefore had to find a way of separating kilograms of it from the more abundant <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a>. Gaseous diffusion worked on the principle that a lighter gas diffuses through a barrier faster than a heavier one at a rate inversely proportional to its molecular weight. But the only known gas containing uranium was the highly corrosive <a href="/wiki/Uranium_hexafluoride" title="Uranium hexafluoride">uranium hexafluoride</a>, and a suitable barrier was hard to find.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196229–31_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196229–31-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through 1942, Libby and his team studied different barriers and the means to protect them from corrosion from the uranium hexafluoride.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196299–100_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196299–100-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most promising type was a barrier made of powdered <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> developed by Edward O. Norris of the Jelliff Manufacturing Corporation and Edward Adler from the <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a>, which became known as the "Norris-Adler" barrier by late 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962101,_126_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962101,_126-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to developing a suitable barrier, the SAM Laboratories also had to assist in the design of a gaseous separation plant, which became known as <a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25</a>. Libby helped with the engineers from <a href="/wiki/Kellex" class="mw-redirect" title="Kellex">Kellex</a> to produce a workable design for a pilot plant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962121–124_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962121–124-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Libby conducted a series of tests that indicated that the Norris-Adler barrier would work, and he remained confident that with an all-out effort, the remaining problems with it could be solved. Although doubts remained, construction work began on the K-25 full-scale production plant in September 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962130–134_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962130–134-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As 1943 gave way to 1944, many problems remained. Tests began on the machinery at K-25 in April 1944 without a barrier. Attention turned to a new process developed by Kellex. Finally, in July 1944, Kellex barriers began to be installed in K-25.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962137–141_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962137–141-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> K-25 commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased. By April 1945, K-25 had attained a 1.1% enrichment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uranium partially enriched in K-25 was fed into the <a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">calutrons</a> at <a href="/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" title="Y-12 National Security Complex">Y-12</a> to complete the enrichment process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962159–160_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962159–160-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Construction of the upper stages of the K-25 plant was cancelled, and Kellex was directed to instead design and build a 540-stage side feed unit, which became known as K-27.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985158–165_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985158–165-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last of K-25's 2,892 stages commenced operation in August 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 5, K-25 starting producing feed enriched to 23 percent uranium-235.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985148_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985148-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> K-25 and K-27 achieved their full potential only in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enriched uranium was used in the <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> bomb employed in the <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Hiroshima" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Hiroshima">bombing of Hiroshima</a> on August 6, 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962401–403_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962401–403-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Libby brought home a stack of newspapers and told his wife, "This is what I've been doing."<sup id="cite_ref-TIME_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIME-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radiocarbon_dating">Radiocarbon dating</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Radiocarbon dating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war, Libby accepted an offer from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> of a professorship in the chemistry department at the new <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Nuclear_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute for Nuclear Studies">Institute for Nuclear Studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobelprize.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He returned to his pre-war studies of radioactivity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, <a href="/wiki/Serge_Korff" class="mw-redirect" title="Serge Korff">Serge Korff</a> had discovered that <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> generated <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> in the upper atmosphere. These interact with <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14">nitrogen-14</a> in the air to produce <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_lecture_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_lecture-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><sup>1</sup>n + <sup>14</sup>N → <sup>14</sup>C + <sup>1</sup>p</dd></dl> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of carbon-14 is 5,730±40 years.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Libby realized that when plants and animals die they cease to ingest fresh carbon-14, thereby giving any organic compound a built-in nuclear clock.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_lecture_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_lecture-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He published his theory in 1946,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and expanded on it in his monograph <i>Radiocarbon Dating</i> in 1955. He also developed sensitive radiation detectors that could make the measurements required by the technique. Tests against <a href="/wiki/Sequoia_(genus)" title="Sequoia (genus)">sequoia</a> with known dates from their tree rings showed <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> to be reliable and accurate. The technique revolutionised <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a> and other disciplines that dealt with ancient artefacts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1960, he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> "for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also discovered that <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> similarly could be used for dating water, and therefore wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_lecture_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel_lecture-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atomic_Energy_Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Atomic Energy Commission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC) Chairman <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Dean_(lawyer)" title="Gordon Dean (lawyer)">Gordon Dean</a> appointed Libby to its influential General Advisory Committee (GAC) in 1950. In 1954, he was appointed an AEC commissioner by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> on the recommendation of Dean's successor, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a>. Libby and his family moved from Chicago to <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> He brought with him a truckload of scientific equipment, which he used to establish a laboratory at the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Institution_for_Science" title="Carnegie Institution for Science">Carnegie Institution</a> there to continue his studies of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>. Staunchly conservative politically, he was one of the few scientists who sided with <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> during the debate on whether it was wise to pursue a crash program to develop the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TIME_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIME-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a commissioner, Libby played an important role in promoting Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a> program,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was part of the United States delegation at the Geneva Conferences on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in 1955 and 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-TIME_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIME-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettHoll1989446_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettHoll1989446-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the only scientist among the five AEC commissioners, it fell to Libby to defend the Eisenhower administration's stance on atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettHoll1989278–279_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettHoll1989278–279-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that the dangers of radiation from nuclear tests were less than that from chest X-rays, and therefore less important than the risk of having an inadequate nuclear arsenal, but his arguments failed to convince the scientific community or reassure the public.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene200765_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene200765-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 1956, he publicly revealed the existence of <a href="/wiki/Project_SUNSHINE" title="Project SUNSHINE">Project Sunshine</a>, a series of secret research studies to ascertain the impact of radioactive fallout on the world's population that he had initiated in 1953 while serving on the GAC. The project caused controversy after it was revealed to the public and with the revelation it was found out that much of the research involved stealing the bodies of dead children without the parents' consent and doing radioactive experiments on them. Many of the 1,500 sample cadavers were babies and young children, and were taken from countries from Australia to Europe, often without their parents' consent or knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1958, even Libby and Teller were supporting limits on atmospheric nuclear testing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettHoll1989542–543_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettHoll1989542–543-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="UCLA">UCLA</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: UCLA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Willard_Libby_in_Lab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Willard_Libby_in_Lab.jpg/220px-Willard_Libby_in_Lab.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Willard_Libby_in_Lab.jpg/330px-Willard_Libby_in_Lab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Willard_Libby_in_Lab.jpg/440px-Willard_Libby_in_Lab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Libby in the lab, c. 1960s</figcaption></figure> <p>Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959, and he became professor of chemistry at University of California, Los Angeles, a position he held until his retirement in 1976. He taught honors freshman chemistry. In 1962, he became the director of the University of California statewide Institute of <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> and Planetary Physics (IGPP), a position he also held until 1976. His time as director encompassed the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_space_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo space program">Apollo space program</a> and the lunar landings. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarey2006231–232-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UC_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Libby started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-UC_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a member of the <a href="/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board" title="California Air Resources Board">California Air Resources Board</a>, he worked to develop and improve California's air pollution standards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeaborg198192–95-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He established a research program to investigate <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous_catalysis" title="Heterogeneous catalysis">heterogeneous catalysis</a> with the idea of reducing emissions from motor vehicles through more complete fuel combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-UC_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The election of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> as president in 1968 generated speculation that Libby might be appointed as Presidential Science Advisor. There was a storm of protest from scientists who felt that Libby was too conservative, and the offer was not made.<sup id="cite_ref-obit_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obit-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Libby retired and became a <a href="/wiki/Professor_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Professor emeritus">professor emeritus</a> in 1976,<sup id="cite_ref-UC_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he remained professionally active until his death in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagill1989703–712_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagill1989703–712-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Awards and honors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Libby was an elected member of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagill1989703–712_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagill1989703–712-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the Nobel Prize, he received numerous honors and awards, including Columbia University's Chandler Medal in 1954,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Remsen Memorial Lecture Award in 1955, the Bicentennial Lecture Award from the <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a> and the Nuclear Applications in Chemistry Award in 1956, the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal" title="Elliott Cresson Medal">Elliott Cresson Medal</a> in 1957, the <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs_Award" title="Willard Gibbs Award">Willard Gibbs Award</a> in 1958, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Priestley_Award&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Priestley Award (page does not exist)">Joseph Priestley Award</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_College" title="Dickinson College">Dickinson College</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal" title="Albert Einstein Medal">Albert Einstein Medal</a> in 1959, the <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America" title="Geological Society of America">Geological Society of America</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Day_Medal" title="Arthur L. Day Medal">Arthur L. Day Medal</a> in 1961,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaylin1993419–420_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaylin1993419–420-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Golden Plate Award of the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement" title="Academy of Achievement">American Academy of Achievement</a> in 1961,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_American_Institute_of_Chemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold Medal of the American Institute of Chemists">Gold Medal of the American Institute of Chemists</a> in 1970,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Lehman Award from the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Academy_of_Sciences" title="New York Academy of Sciences">New York Academy of Sciences</a> in 1971. He was elected a member of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1950.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaylin1993419–420_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaylin1993419–420-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Analy_High_School" title="Analy High School">Analy High School</a> library has a mural of Libby,<sup id="cite_ref-Mural_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mural-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Sebastopol city park and a nearby highway are named in his honor.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His 1947 paper on radiocarbon dating was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the University of Chicago in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-Award_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Award-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Breakthrough_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breakthrough-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1940, Libby married Leonor Hickey, a <a href="/wiki/Physical_education" title="Physical education">physical education</a> teacher.<sup id="cite_ref-TIME_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIME-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had twin daughters, Janet Eva and Susan Charlotte, who were born in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1966 Libby divorced Leonor and married <a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods Marshall</a>, a distinguished <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear physicist">nuclear physicist</a> who was one of the original builders of <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a>, the world's first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>. She joined him at UCLA as a professor of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental engineering</a> in 1973. Through this second marriage he acquired two stepsons, the children of her first marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-NNDB_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NNDB-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-obituary_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obituary-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Libby died at the <a href="/wiki/UCLA_Medical_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA Medical Center">UCLA Medical Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> on September 8, 1980, from a blood clot in his lung complicated by <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-obit_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obit-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His papers are in the <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Young_Research_Library" title="Charles E. Young Research Library">Charles E. Young Research Library</a> at UCLA.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seven volumes of his papers were edited by Leona and Rainer Berger and published in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibby1981_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibby1981-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFArnoldLibby1946" class="citation report cs1">Arnold, J.R.; Libby, W.F. (October 10, 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1022752/m2/1/high_res_d/4350390.pdf">Radiocarbon from Pile Graphite; Chemical Methods for Its Concentrations</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). pp. CC–3643, 4350390. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2172%2F4350390">10.2172/4350390</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4350390">4350390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Radiocarbon+from+Pile+Graphite%3B+Chemical+Methods+for+Its+Concentrations&rft.pages=CC-3643%2C+4350390&rft.date=1946-10-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4350390%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2172%2F4350390&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rft.au=Libby%2C+W.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc1022752%2Fm2%2F1%2Fhigh_res_d%2F4350390.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW.F._Libby1946" class="citation journal cs1">W.F. Libby (1946). "Atmospheric Helium Three and Radiocarbon from Cosmic Radiation". <i>Physical Review</i>. <b>69</b> (<span class="nowrap">11–</span>12): <span class="nowrap">671–</span>672. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1946PhRv...69..671L">1946PhRv...69..671L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.69.671.2">10.1103/PhysRev.69.671.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Atmospheric+Helium+Three+and+Radiocarbon+from+Cosmic+Radiation&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E671-%3C%2Fspan%3E672&rft.date=1946&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.69.671.2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1946PhRv...69..671L&rft.au=W.F.+Libby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Libby, Willard F., <i>Radiocarbon dating</i>, 2d ed., University of Chicago Press, 1955.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibby1958" class="citation journal cs1">Libby, W. F. (August 15, 1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534564">"Radioactive Fallout"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>44</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">800–</span>820. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1958PNAS...44..800L">1958PNAS...44..800L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.44.8.800">10.1073/pnas.44.8.800</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC534564">534564</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16590276">16590276</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Radioactive+Fallout&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E800-%3C%2Fspan%3E820&rft.date=1958-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC534564%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16590276&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.44.8.800&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1958PNAS...44..800L&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=W.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC534564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibby1958" class="citation conference cs1">Libby, W. F. (August 4, 1958). <i>Progress in the use of isotopes. The Atomic Triad - reactors, radioisotopes and radiation</i>. Second United Nations International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Atomic Energy Commission. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4325402">4325402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Progress+in+the+use+of+isotopes.+The+Atomic+Triad+-+reactors%2C+radioisotopes+and+radiation&rft.pub=Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.date=1958-08-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4325402%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=W.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibby1967" class="citation conference cs1">Libby, W. F. (August 1967). <i>History of Radiocarbon Dating</i>. Symposium on radioactive dating and methods of low-level counting. Monaco. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4433103714">4433103714</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4582402">4582402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=History+of+Radiocarbon+Dating&rft.place=Monaco&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=1967-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4582402%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4433103714&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=W.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibbyLibby1972" class="citation conference cs1">Libby, L. M.; Libby, W. F. (October 18, 1972). <i>Vulcanism and radiocarbon dates</i>. International radiocarbon dating conference. Wellington, New Zealand. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.736.4982">10.1.1.736.4982</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4246295">4246295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Vulcanism+and+radiocarbon+dates&rft.place=Wellington%2C+New+Zealand&rft.date=1972-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.736.4982%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4246295%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=L.+M.&rft.au=Libby%2C+W.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibby1972" class="citation conference cs1">Libby, W. F. (October 18, 1972). <i>Radiocarbon dating, memories, and hopes</i>. International Conference on Radiocarbon Dating. Wellington, New Zealand. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.473.4730">10.1.1.473.4730</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4247579">4247579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Radiocarbon+dating%2C+memories%2C+and+hopes&rft.place=Wellington%2C+New+Zealand&rft.date=1972-10-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.473.4730%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F4247579%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=W.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibby1981" class="citation book cs1">Libby, W. F. (1981). Berger, Rainer; <a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Libby, Leona Marshall</a> (eds.). <i>Collected papers</i>. Santa Monica, California: Geo Science Analytical. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941054-00-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941054-00-3"><bdi>978-0-941054-00-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collected+papers&rft.place=Santa+Monica%2C+California&rft.pub=Geo+Science+Analytical&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-941054-00-3&rft.aulast=Libby&rft.aufirst=W.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span> (7 volumes)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nobelprize.org-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nobelprize.org_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1960/libby-bio.html">"Willard F. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 30,</span> 2011</span>. <q>Much later, its residents included five Nobel Prize winners, among them Enrico Fermi, one of the developers of the atomic bomb, and Willard Libby, who discovered radiocarbon dating; Sammy Davis Jr., Pat Boone and Alan Alda, the entertainers, and Robert Ludlum, the author</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Well-Read%2C+Well-Shaded+and+Well-Placed&rft.date=1997-06-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9E01EFDF113CF936A25755C0A961958260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196229–31-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196229–31_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 29–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196299–100-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196299–100_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962101,_126-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962101,_126_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 101, 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962121–124-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962121–124_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 121–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962130–134-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962130–134_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 130–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962137–141-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962137–141_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 137–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985167–171_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, pp. 167–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962159–160-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962159–160_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 159–160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985158–165-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985158–165_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, pp. 158–165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985148-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985148_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1985">Jones 1985</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962401–403-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962401–403_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962">Hewlett & Anderson 1962</a>, pp. 401–403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorff1940" class="citation journal cs1">Korff, S. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 16,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Leona+Marshall+Libby+Dies%3B+Sole+Woman+to+Work+on+Fermi%27s+1st+Nuclear+Reactor&rft.date=1986-11-13&rft.aulast=Folkart&rft.aufirst=Burt+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1986-11-13-me-24930-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt9j49q5hh/dsc/">"Finding Aid for the Willard F. Libby Papers"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Finding+Aid+for+the+Willard+F.+Libby+Papers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oac.cdlib.org%2Ffindaid%2Fark%3A%2F13030%2Fkt9j49q5hh%2Fdsc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELibby1981-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibby1981_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLibby1981">Libby 1981</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarey2006" class="citation book cs1">Carey, Charles W. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanscientis0000care"><i>American scientists</i></a>. New York: Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5499-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5499-2"><bdi>978-0-8160-5499-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57414633">57414633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+scientists&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57414633&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5499-2&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanscientis0000care&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2007" class="citation book cs1">Greene, Benjamin P. (2007). <i>Eisenhower, Science Advice, and the Nuclear Test-Ban Debate, 1945–1963</i>. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5445-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5445-3"><bdi>978-0-8047-5445-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/65204949">65204949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower%2C+Science+Advice%2C+and+the+Nuclear+Test-Ban+Debate%2C+1945%E2%80%931963&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F65204949&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-5445-3&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettAnderson1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett" title="Richard G. Hewlett">Hewlett, Richard G.</a>; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf"><i>The New World, 1939–1946</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07186-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07186-5"><bdi>978-0-520-07186-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643">637004643</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931946&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F637004643&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07186-5&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Oscar+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.governmentattic.org%2F5docs%2FTheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewlettHoll1989" class="citation book cs1">—; Holl, Jack M. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/08/f2/HewlettandHollAtomsforPeaceandWarComplete.pdf"><i>Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961 Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06018-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06018-0"><bdi>978-0-520-06018-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/82275622">82275622</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 14,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atoms+for+Peace+and+War%2C+1953%E2%80%931961+Eisenhower+and+the+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.series=A+History+of+the+United+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F82275622&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06018-0&rft.aulast=Hewlett&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Holl%2C+Jack+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenergy.gov%2Fsites%2Fprod%2Ffiles%2F2013%2F08%2Ff2%2FHewlettandHollAtomsforPeaceandWarComplete.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1985" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Vincent (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007074359/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf"><i>Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10913875">10913875</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 7, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 25,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan%3A+The+Army+and+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10913875&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F011%2F11-10%2FCMH_Pub_11-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaylin1993" class="citation book cs1">Laylin, James K. (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780841226906"><i>Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901–1992</i></a></span>. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8412-2690-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8412-2690-6"><bdi>978-0-8412-2690-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/28113007">28113007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nobel+Laureates+in+Chemistry%2C+1901%E2%80%931992&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=American+Chemical+Society&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F28113007&rft.isbn=978-0-8412-2690-6&rft.aulast=Laylin&rft.aufirst=James+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780841226906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagill1989" class="citation book cs1">Magill, Frank N. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nobelprizewinner0000unse_s8k3"><i>The Nobel Prize Winners, Chemistry 1938–1968</i></a>. Pasadena, California: Salem Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89356-561-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89356-561-9"><bdi>978-0-89356-561-9</bdi></a>. Multi-volume set. Volume .</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+Winners%2C+Chemistry+1938%E2%80%931968&rft.place=Pasadena%2C+California&rft.pub=Salem+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-89356-561-9&rft.aulast=Magill&rft.aufirst=Frank+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnobelprizewinner0000unse_s8k3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeaborg1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Seaborg, Glenn T.</a> (February 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2914458">"Obituary: Willard Frank Libby"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>34</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">92–</span>95. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981PhT....34b..92S">1981PhT....34b..92S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2914458">10.1063/1.2914458</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Willard+Frank+Libby&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E95&rft.date=1981-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2914458&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981PhT....34b..92S&rft.aulast=Seaborg&rft.aufirst=Glenn+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.2914458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWillard+Libby" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Willard_Libby&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/224">Willard Libby</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190486#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1960 <i>Radiocarbon Dating</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry144" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Chemistry" title="List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Henricus_van_%27t_Hoff" title="Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff">Jacobus van 't Hoff</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Fischer" title="Emil Fischer">Emil Fischer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_von_Baeyer" title="Adolf von Baeyer">Adolf von Baeyer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Moissan" title="Henri Moissan">Henri Moissan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Buchner" title="Eduard Buchner">Eduard Buchner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Wallach" title="Otto Wallach">Otto Wallach</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Grignard" title="Victor Grignard">Victor Grignard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sabatier_(chemist)" title="Paul Sabatier (chemist)">Paul Sabatier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Werner" title="Alfred Werner">Alfred Werner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_William_Richards" title="Theodore William Richards">Theodore Richards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1915: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Willst%C3%A4tter" title="Richard Willstätter">Richard Willstätter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1917</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1918: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1919</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1921: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis Aston</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Pregl" title="Fritz Pregl">Fritz Pregl</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1924</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1925: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Adolf_Zsigmondy" title="Richard Adolf Zsigmondy">Richard Zsigmondy</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Svedberg" title="Theodor Svedberg">Theodor Svedberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Otto_Wieland" title="Heinrich Otto Wieland">Heinrich Wieland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Windaus" title="Adolf Windaus">Adolf Windaus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Harden" title="Arthur Harden">Arthur Harden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_von_Euler-Chelpin" title="Hans von Euler-Chelpin">Hans von Euler-Chelpin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Fischer" title="Hans Fischer">Hans Fischer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1931: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bergius" title="Friedrich Bergius">Friedrich Bergius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1933</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1934: <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène Joliot-Curie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Haworth" title="Norman Haworth">Norman Haworth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Karrer" title="Paul Karrer">Paul Karrer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kuhn" title="Richard Kuhn">Richard Kuhn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Butenandt" title="Adolf Butenandt">Adolf Butenandt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Ru%C5%BEi%C4%8Dka" title="Leopold Ružička">Leopold Ružička</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Artturi_Ilmari_Virtanen" title="Artturi Ilmari Virtanen">Artturi Virtanen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/James_B._Sumner" title="James B. Sumner">James B. Sumner</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Howard_Northrop" title="John Howard Northrop">John Northrop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley" title="Wendell Meredith Stanley">Wendell Meredith Stanley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(chemist)" title="Robert Robinson (chemist)">Robert Robinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Arne_Tiselius" title="Arne Tiselius">Arne Tiselius</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/William_Giauque" title="William Giauque">William Giauque</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Diels" title="Otto Diels">Otto Diels</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Alder" title="Kurt Alder">Kurt Alder</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Archer_Martin" title="Archer Martin">Archer Martin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laurence_Millington_Synge" title="Richard Laurence Millington Synge">Richard Synge</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Hermann Staudinger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Hinshelwood</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Semyonov" title="Nikolay Semyonov">Nikolay Semyonov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander Todd</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Heyrovsk%C3%BD" title="Jaroslav Heyrovský">Jaroslav Heyrovský</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Willard Libby</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Kendrew" title="John Kendrew">John Kendrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ziegler" title="Karl Ziegler">Karl Ziegler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Mulliken" title="Robert S. Mulliken">Robert S. Mulliken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Eigen" title="Manfred Eigen">Manfred Eigen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Norrish" title="Ronald George Wreyford Norrish">Ronald Norrish</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Lars_Onsager" title="Lars Onsager">Lars Onsager</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Odd_Hassel" title="Odd Hassel">Odd Hassel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Federico_Leloir" title="Luis Federico Leloir">Luis Federico Leloir</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg" title="Gerhard Herzberg">Gerhard Herzberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/Christian_B._Anfinsen" title="Christian B. Anfinsen">Christian B. Anfinsen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Moore" title="Stanford Moore">Stanford Moore</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Stein" title="William Howard Stein">William Stein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Otto_Fischer" title="Ernst Otto Fischer">Ernst Otto Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Wilkinson" title="Geoffrey Wilkinson">Geoffrey Wilkinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Paul Flory</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Prelog" title="Vladimir Prelog">Vladimir Prelog</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/William_Lipscomb" title="William Lipscomb">William Lipscomb</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_C._Brown" title="Herbert C. Brown">Herbert C. Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wittig" title="Georg Wittig">Georg Wittig</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Kenichi_Fukui" title="Kenichi Fukui">Kenichi Fukui</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roald_Hoffmann" title="Roald Hoffmann">Roald Hoffmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Taube" title="Henry Taube">Henry Taube</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bruce_Merrifield" title="Robert Bruce Merrifield">Robert Merrifield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Hauptman" title="Herbert A. Hauptman">Herbert A. Hauptman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Karle" title="Jerome Karle">Jerome Karle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Dudley_R._Herschbach" title="Dudley R. Herschbach">Dudley R. Herschbach</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuan_T._Lee" title="Yuan T. Lee">Yuan T. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Polanyi" title="John Polanyi">John Polanyi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Donald_J._Cram" title="Donald J. Cram">Donald J. Cram</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Lehn" title="Jean-Marie Lehn">Jean-Marie Lehn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_J._Pedersen" title="Charles J. Pedersen">Charles J. Pedersen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/Johann_Deisenhofer" title="Johann Deisenhofer">Johann Deisenhofer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Huber" title="Robert Huber">Robert Huber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hartmut_Michel" title="Hartmut Michel">Hartmut Michel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Altman" title="Sidney Altman">Sidney Altman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Thomas Cech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Elias_James_Corey" title="Elias James Corey">Elias Corey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Ernst" title="Richard R. Ernst">Richard R. Ernst</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Kary_Mullis" title="Kary Mullis">Kary Mullis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Smith_(chemist)" title="Michael Smith (chemist)">Michael Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/George_Andrew_Olah" title="George Andrew Olah">George Olah</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Crutzen" title="Paul J. Crutzen">Paul J. Crutzen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mario_Molina" title="Mario Molina">Mario Molina</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._Sherwood_Rowland" title="F. Sherwood Rowland">F. Sherwood Rowland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Curl" title="Robert Curl">Robert Curl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harry_Kroto" title="Harry Kroto">Harold Kroto</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Smalley" title="Richard Smalley">Richard Smalley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Boyer" title="Paul D. Boyer">Paul D. Boyer</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_E._Walker" title="John E. Walker">John E. Walker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jens_Christian_Skou" title="Jens Christian Skou">Jens Christian Skou</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kohn" title="Walter Kohn">Walter Kohn</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Pople" title="John Pople">John Pople</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Zewail" title="Ahmed Zewail">Ahmed Zewail</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Alan_J._Heeger" title="Alan J. Heeger">Alan J. Heeger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_MacDiarmid" title="Alan MacDiarmid">Alan MacDiarmid</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Shirakawa" title="Hideki Shirakawa">Hideki Shirakawa</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/William_Standish_Knowles" title="William Standish Knowles">William Knowles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dji_Noyori" title="Ryōji Noyori">Ryoji Noyori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">K. Barry Sharpless</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Fenn" title="John B. Fenn">John B. Fenn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Koichi_Tanaka" title="Koichi Tanaka">Koichi Tanaka</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kurt_W%C3%BCthrich" title="Kurt Wüthrich">Kurt Wüthrich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Agre" title="Peter Agre">Peter Agre</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roderick_MacKinnon" title="Roderick MacKinnon">Roderick MacKinnon</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Ciechanover" title="Aaron Ciechanover">Aaron Ciechanover</a> / <a href="/wiki/Avram_Hershko" title="Avram Hershko">Avram Hershko</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irwin_Rose" title="Irwin Rose">Irwin Rose</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Grubbs" title="Robert H. Grubbs">Robert H. Grubbs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Schrock" title="Richard R. Schrock">Richard R. Schrock</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yves_Chauvin" title="Yves Chauvin">Yves Chauvin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Roger_D._Kornberg" title="Roger D. Kornberg">Roger D. Kornberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Ertl" title="Gerhard Ertl">Gerhard Ertl</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Osamu_Shimomura" title="Osamu Shimomura">Osamu Shimomura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Chalfie" title="Martin Chalfie">Martin Chalfie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roger_Y._Tsien" title="Roger Y. Tsien">Roger Y. Tsien</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venkatraman Ramakrishnan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Steitz" title="Thomas A. Steitz">Thomas A. Steitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ada_Yonath" title="Ada Yonath">Ada E. Yonath</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Heck" title="Richard F. Heck">Richard F. Heck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Suzuki" title="Akira Suzuki">Akira Suzuki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ei-ichi_Negishi" title="Ei-ichi Negishi">Ei-ichi Negishi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Dan_Shechtman" title="Dan Shechtman">Dan Shechtman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lefkowitz" title="Robert Lefkowitz">Robert Lefkowitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Kobilka" title="Brian Kobilka">Brian Kobilka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Karplus" title="Martin Karplus">Martin Karplus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Levitt_(biophysicist)" title="Michael Levitt (biophysicist)">Michael Levitt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arieh_Warshel" title="Arieh Warshel">Arieh Warshel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Betzig" title="Eric Betzig">Eric Betzig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Hell" title="Stefan Hell">Stefan Hell</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_E._Moerner" title="William E. Moerner">William E. Moerner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/Tomas_Lindahl" title="Tomas Lindahl">Tomas Lindahl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_L._Modrich" title="Paul L. Modrich">Paul L. Modrich</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aziz_Sancar" title="Aziz Sancar">Aziz Sancar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Sauvage" title="Jean-Pierre Sauvage">Jean-Pierre Sauvage</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Stoddart" title="Fraser Stoddart">Fraser Stoddart</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Feringa" title="Ben Feringa">Ben Feringa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dubochet" title="Jacques Dubochet">Jacques Dubochet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Frank" title="Joachim Frank">Joachim Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henderson_(biologist)" title="Richard Henderson (biologist)">Richard Henderson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/Frances_Arnold" title="Frances Arnold">Frances Arnold</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Winter" title="Gregory Winter">Gregory Winter</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smith_(chemist)" title="George Smith (chemist)">George Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a> / <a href="/wiki/M._Stanley_Whittingham" title="M. Stanley Whittingham">M. Stanley Whittingham</a> / <a href="/wiki/Akira_Yoshino" title="Akira Yoshino">Akira Yoshino</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2020: <a href="/wiki/Emmanuelle_Charpentier" title="Emmanuelle Charpentier">Emmanuelle Charpentier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Jennifer Doudna</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2021: <a href="/wiki/David_MacMillan" title="David MacMillan">David MacMillan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_List" title="Benjamin List">Benjamin List</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2022: <a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Bertozzi" title="Carolyn Bertozzi">Carolyn R. Bertozzi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Morten_P._Meldal" title="Morten P. Meldal">Morten P. Meldal</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barry_Sharpless" title="Karl Barry Sharpless">Karl Barry Sharpless</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2023: <a href="/wiki/Moungi_Bawendi" title="Moungi Bawendi">Moungi G. Bawendi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_E._Brus" title="Louis E. Brus">Louis E. Brus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Ekimov" title="Alexey Ekimov">Alexei I. Ekimov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/David_Baker_(biochemist)" title="David Baker (biochemist)">David Baker</a> / <a href="/wiki/Demis_Hassabis" title="Demis Hassabis">Demis Hassabis</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_M._Jumper" title="John M. Jumper">John M. Jumper</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1960_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1960 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1960 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1960 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1960_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1960 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Willard Libby</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1960_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1960 Nobel Prize in Literature">1960</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint-John_Perse" title="Saint-John Perse">Saint-John Perse</a> (France)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Luthuli" title="Albert Luthuli">Albert Luthuli</a> (South Africa)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Donald A. Glaser</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Macfarlane Burnet</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1955_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1955 Nobel Prize winners">1955</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1956_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1956 Nobel Prize winners">1956</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1957_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1957 Nobel Prize winners">1957</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners">1958</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1959_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1959 Nobel Prize winners">1959</a></dd> <dd><b>1960 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1961_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1961 Nobel Prize winners">1961</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners">1962</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1963_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1963 Nobel Prize winners">1963</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1964_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1964 Nobel Prize winners">1964</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1965_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1965 Nobel Prize winners">1965</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_Persons_of_the_Year103" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template talk:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_Persons_of_the_Year103" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_Person_of_the_Year" title="Time Person of the Year"><i>Time</i> Persons of the Year</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1927–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> (1927)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Chrysler" title="Walter Chrysler">Walter Chrysler</a> (1928)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Owen_D._Young" title="Owen D. Young">Owen D. Young</a> (1929)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a> (1930)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> (1931)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1932)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_S._Johnson" title="Hugh S. Johnson">Hugh S. Johnson</a> (1933)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1934)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> (1935)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wallis_Simpson" title="Wallis Simpson">Wallis Simpson</a> (1936)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soong_Mei-ling" title="Soong Mei-ling">Soong Mei-ling</a> (1937)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> (1938)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1939)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1940)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1941)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1942)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1943)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1945)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> (1946)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1947)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1948)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1949)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">The American Fighting-Man</a> (1950)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a> (1951)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II </a> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> (1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> (1954)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Curtice" title="Harlow Curtice">Harlow Curtice</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Freedom Fighters</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> U.S. Scientists: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper" title="Charles Stark Draper">Charles Draper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Donald A. Glaser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Willard Libby</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Purcell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Rabi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Van_Allen" title="James Van Allen">James Van Allen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a> </span> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Westmoreland" title="William Westmoreland">William Westmoreland</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Baby_boomers" title="Baby boomers">The Generation Twenty-Five and Under</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">The Apollo 8 Astronauts</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a> </span> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(United_States)" title="Middle America (United States)">The Middle Americans</a> (1969)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Sirica" title="John Sirica">John Sirica</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Faisal of Saudi Arabia">King Faisal</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> American Women: <a href="/wiki/Susan_Brownmiller" title="Susan Brownmiller">Susan Brownmiller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Byerly" title="Kathleen Byerly">Kathleen Byerly</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alison_Cheek" title="Alison Cheek">Alison Cheek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jill_Ker_Conway" title="Jill Ker Conway">Jill Conway</a> / <a href="/wiki/Betty_Ford" title="Betty Ford">Betty Ford</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ella_Grasso" title="Ella Grasso">Ella Grasso</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carla_Anderson_Hills" title="Carla Anderson Hills">Carla Hills</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</a> / <a href="/wiki/Susie_Sharp" title="Susie Sharp">Susie Sharp</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_Sutton_(journalist)" title="Carol Sutton (journalist)">Carol Sutton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Addie_L._Wyatt" title="Addie L. Wyatt">Addie Wyatt</a> </span> (1975)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (1976)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1978)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> (1979)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">The Computer</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ueberroth" title="Peter Ueberroth">Peter Ueberroth</a> (1984)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Corazon_Aquino" title="Corazon Aquino">Corazon Aquino</a> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">The Endangered Earth</a> (1988)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Turner" title="Ted Turner">Ted Turner</a> (1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Peacemakers: <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> </span> (1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Newt Gingrich</a> (1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Ho" title="David Ho">David Ho</a> (1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Grove" title="Andrew Grove">Andrew Grove</a> (1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a> (1998)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bezos" title="Jeff Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2000)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rudy_Giuliani" title="Rudy Giuliani">Rudolph Giuliani</a> (2001)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Whistleblowers: <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Cooper_(accountant)" title="Cynthia Cooper (accountant)">Cynthia Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coleen_Rowley" title="Coleen Rowley">Coleen Rowley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sherron_Watkins" title="Sherron Watkins">Sherron Watkins</a> </span> (2002)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">The American Soldier</a> (2003)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Good Samaritans: <a href="/wiki/Bono" title="Bono">Bono</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melinda_French_Gates" title="Melinda French Gates">Melinda Gates</a> </span> (2005)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/You_(Time_Person_of_the_Year)" title="You (Time Person of the Year)">You</a> (2006)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> (2007)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2008)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> (2009)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a> (2010)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">The Protester</a> (2011)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2012)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> (2013)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> <a href="/wiki/Responses_to_the_West_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" title="Responses to the West African Ebola virus epidemic">Ebola Fighters</a>: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. <a href="/wiki/Kent_Brantly" title="Kent Brantly">Kent Brantly</a> / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / <a href="/wiki/Salome_Karwah" title="Salome Karwah">Salome Karwah</a> </span> (2014)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> (2015)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (2016)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/MeToo_movement" title="MeToo movement">The Silence Breakers</a> (2017)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="wrap"> The Guardians: <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Khashoggi" title="Jamal Khashoggi">Jamal Khashoggi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Ressa" title="Maria Ressa">Maria Ressa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wa_Lone" title="Wa Lone">Wa Lone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kyaw_Soe_Oo" title="Kyaw Soe Oo">Kyaw Soe Oo</a> / Staff of <i><a href="/wiki/Capital_Gazette_shooting" title="Capital Gazette shooting">The Capital</a></i> </span> (2018)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greta_Thunberg" title="Greta Thunberg">Greta Thunberg</a> (2019)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (2020)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a> (2021)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy" title="Volodymyr Zelenskyy">Volodymyr Zelenskyy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Spirit of Ukraine</a> (2022)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Swift" title="Taylor Swift">Taylor Swift</a> (2023)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (2024)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project245" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project245" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190486#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2136" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190486#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2136" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190486#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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Year 1951–1975\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5b65fffc7d-248zp","timestamp":"20250214041701","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Willard Libby","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Willard_Libby","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q190486","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q190486","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-06-13T21:41:13Z","dateModified":"2024-12-17T21:01:31Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/6\/66\/Willard_Libby.jpg","headline":"American physical chemist"}</script> </body> </html>