CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of anthropology - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"27aefd03-6573-4acc-8055-7596e0164642","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_anthropology","wgTitle":"History of anthropology","wgCurRevisionId":1253265697,"wgRevisionId":1253265697,"wgArticleId":1676362,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","Webarchive template wayback links","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2022","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","Articles with French-language sources (fr)","CS1 maint: archived copy as title","All articles with self-published sources","Articles with self-published sources from January 2022","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from February 2022", "Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles with dead external links from January 2022","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from July 2023","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing French-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2011","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013","All articles that may contain original research","Articles that may contain original research from June 2024","CS1 errors: missing title","History of social sciences","Anthropology"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_anthropology","wgRelevantArticleId":1676362,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia" ,"wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q3136952","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false, "wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init", "ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of anthropology - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropology"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anthropology"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_anthropology rootpage-History_of_anthropology skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+anthropology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+anthropology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+anthropology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+anthropology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_science_of_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_science_of_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The science of history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_science_of_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto-anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Proto-anthropology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proto-anthropology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proto-anthropology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proto-anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Classical Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Herodotus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herodotus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Herodotus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herodotus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tacitus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tacitus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Tacitus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tacitus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Enlightenment_roots_of_the_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Enlightenment_roots_of_the_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The Enlightenment roots of the discipline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Enlightenment_roots_of_the_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview_of_the_modern_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_the_modern_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Overview of the modern discipline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_the_modern_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_anthropological_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_anthropological_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>National anthropological traditions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-National_anthropological_traditions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle National anthropological traditions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-National_anthropological_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-E.B._Tylor_and_James_Frazer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#E.B._Tylor_and_James_Frazer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>E.B. Tylor and James Frazer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-E.B._Tylor_and_James_Frazer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronislaw_Malinowski_and_the_British_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronislaw_Malinowski_and_the_British_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Bronislaw Malinowski and the British School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronislaw_Malinowski_and_the_British_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post_WW_II_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_WW_II_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Post WW II trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post_WW_II_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-George_Mercer_Dawson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_Mercer_Dawson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>George Mercer Dawson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_Mercer_Dawson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Edward_Sapir" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edward_Sapir"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Edward Sapir</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edward_Sapir-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marcel_Mauss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marcel_Mauss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Marcel Mauss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marcel_Mauss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Claude_Lévi-Strauss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Claude_Lévi-Strauss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>Claude Lévi-Strauss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Claude_Lévi-Strauss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lewis_Henry_Morgan_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lewis_Henry_Morgan_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lewis_Henry_Morgan_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franz_Boas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franz_Boas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>Franz Boas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franz_Boas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Other countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th-century_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>20th-century developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fieldnotes_and_memoirs_of_anthropologists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fieldnotes_and_memoirs_of_anthropologists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fieldnotes_and_memoirs_of_anthropologists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>History of anthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of anthropology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">9 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاريخ علم الإنسان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ علم الإنسان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27antropologia" title="Història de l'antropologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'antropologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_antropolog%C3%ADa" title="Historia de la antropología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la antropología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27anthropologie" title="Histoire de l'anthropologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'anthropologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_antropologi" title="Sejarah antropologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah antropologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="നരവംശശാസ്ത്രത്തിന്റെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നരവംശശാസ്ത്രത്തിന്റെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%DB%90_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87" title="د انسان پوهنې تاريخچه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د انسان پوهنې تاريخچه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_antropologia" title="História da antropologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da antropologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="人類學史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="人類學史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3136952#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_anthropology" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_anthropology" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_anthropology" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&oldid=1253265697" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_anthropology&id=1253265697&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_anthropology"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_anthropology"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_anthropology&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3136952" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>History of anthropology</b> in this article refers primarily to the 18th- and 19th-century precursors of modern anthropology. The term anthropology itself, innovated as a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> scientific word during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, has always meant "the study (or science) of man". The topics to be included and the terminology have varied historically. At present they are more elaborate than they were during the development of anthropology. For a presentation of modern social and cultural anthropology as they have developed in Britain, France, and North America since approximately 1900, see the relevant sections under <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anthropology" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:anthropology">anthropology</a></i> ostensibly is a produced compound of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄνθρωπος</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">anthrōpos</i></span>, "human being" (understood to mean "humankind" or "humanity"), and a supposed -λογία <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:-logia">-logia</a></i>, "study".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The compound, however, is unknown in ancient Greek or Latin, whether classical or mediaeval. It first appears sporadically in the scholarly Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">anthropologia</i></span> of Renaissance France, where it spawns the French word <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">anthropologie</i></span>, transferred into English as anthropology. It does belong to a class of words produced with the <a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logy</a> suffix, such as archeo-logy, bio-logy, etc., "the study (or science) of". </p><p>The mixed character of Greek <i>anthropos</i> and Latin <i>-logia</i> marks it as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no independent noun, logia, however, of that meaning in classical Greek. The word λόγος (<a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a>) has that meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Hunt_(speech_therapist)" title="James Hunt (speech therapist)">James Hunt</a> attempted to rescue the etymology in his first address to the <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Society_of_London" title="Anthropological Society of London">Anthropological Society of London</a> as president and founder, 1863. He did find an <i>anthropologos</i> from Aristotle in the standard <a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">ancient Greek Lexicon</a>, which he says defines the word as "speaking or treating of man".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view is entirely wishful thinking, as Liddell and Scott go on to explain the meaning: "i.e. fond of personal conversation".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If Aristotle, the very philosopher of the logos, could produce such a word without serious intent, there probably was at that time no anthropology identifiable under that name. </p><p>The lack of any ancient denotation of anthropology, however, is not an etymological problem. Liddell and Scott list 170 Greek compounds ending in <i>–logia</i>, enough to justify its later use as a productive suffix.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient Greeks often used suffixes in forming compounds that had no independent variant.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The etymological dictionaries are united in attributing <i>–logia</i> to <i>logos</i>, from <i>legein</i>, "to collect". The thing collected is primarily ideas, especially in speech. The <a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="American Heritage Dictionary">American Heritage Dictionary</a> says:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "(It is one of) derivatives independently built to logos." Its morphological type is that of an abstract noun: log-os > log-ia (a "qualitative abstract")<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> origin of the name of anthropology does not exclude the possibility that ancient authors presented anthropogical material under another name (see below). Such an identification is speculative, depending on the theorist's view of anthropology; nevertheless, speculations have been formulated by credible anthropologists, especially those that consider themselves <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalists</a> and others in history so classified now. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_science_of_history">The science of history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The science of history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a>, a historian of anthropology, begins <i>The Rise of Anthropological Theory</i> with the statement that anthropology is "the science of history".<sup id="cite_ref-Harris1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is not suggesting that <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> be renamed to anthropology, or that there is no distinction between history and <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a>, or that anthropology excludes current social practices, as the general meaning of history, which it has in "history of anthropology", would seem to imply. He is using "history" in a special sense, as the founders of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a> used it:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "the natural history of society", in the words of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the "universal history of mankind", the 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> objective.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just as <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> comprises the characteristics of organisms past and present, so cultural or social history comprises the characteristics of society past and present. It includes both documented history and prehistory, but its slant is toward institutional development rather than particular non-repeatable historical events. </p><p>According to Harris, the 19th-century anthropologists were theorizing under the presumption that the development of society followed some sort of laws. He decries the loss of that view in the 20th century by the denial that any laws are discernable or that current institutions have any bearing on ancient. He coins the term ideographic for them. The 19th-century views, on the other hand, are <a href="/wiki/Nomothetic" title="Nomothetic">nomothetic</a>; that is, they provide laws. He intends "to reassert the methodological priority of the search for the laws of history in the science of man".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is looking for "a general theory of history".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His perception of the laws: "I believe that the analogue of the Darwinian strategy in the realm of sociocultural phenomena is the principle of techno-environmental and techno-economic determinism", he calls <a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">cultural materialism</a>, which he also details in <i>Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture.</i> </p><p>Elsewhere he refers to "my theories of historical determinism", defining the latter: "By a deterministic relationship among cultural phenomena, I mean merely that similar variables under similar conditions tend to give rise to similar consequences."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of "tends to" implies some degree of freedom to happen or not happen, but in strict <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a>, given certain causes, the result and only that result must occur. Different philosophers, however, use determinism in different senses. The deterministic element that Harris sees is lack of human social engineering: "free will and moral choice have had virtually no significant effect upon the direction taken thus far by evolving systems of social life."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Harris agrees with the 19th-century view that laws are <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstractions</a> from <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>: "...sociocultural entities are constructed from the direct or indirect observation of the behavior and thought of specific individuals ...."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Institutions are not a physical reality; only people are. When they act in society, they do so according to the laws of history, of which they are not aware; hence, there is no historical element of free will. Like the 20th-century anthropologists in general, Harris places a high value on the empiricism, or collection of data. This function must be performed by trained observers. </p><p>He borrows terms from linguistics: just as a <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phon-<b>etic</b> system</a> is a description of sounds developed without regard to the meaning and structure of the language, while a <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phon-<b>emic</b></a> system describes the meaningful sounds actually used within the language, so anthropological data can be <a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">emic and etic</a>. Only trained observers can avoid eticism, or description without regard to the meaning in the culture: "... etics are in part observers' emics incorrectly applied to a foreign system...."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He makes a further distinction between <a href="/wiki/Synchrony_and_diachrony" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchrony and diachrony">synchronic and diachronic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Synchronic ("same time") with reference to anthropological data is contemporaneous and cross-cultural. Diachronic ("through time") data shows the development of lines through time. Cultural materialism, being a "processually holistic and globally comparative scientific research strategy" must depend for accuracy on all four types of data.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural materialism differs from the others by the insertion of culture as the effect. Different material factors produce different cultures. </p><p>Harris, like many other anthropologists, in looking for anthropological method and data before the use of the term anthropology, had little difficulty finding them among the ancient authors. The ancients tended to see players on the stage of history as ethnic groups characterized by the same or similar languages and customs: the Persians, the Germans, the Scythians, etc. Thus the term history meant to a large degree the "story" of the fortunes of these players through time. The ancient authors never formulated laws. Apart from a rudimentary <a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">three-age system</a>, the stages of history, such as are found in Lubbock, Tylor, Morgan, Marx and others, are yet unformulated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proto-anthropology">Proto-anthropology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Proto-anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eriksen and Nielsen use the term proto-anthropology to refer to near-anthropological writings, which contain some of the criteria for being anthropology, but not all. They classify proto-anthropology as being "travel writing or social philosophy", going on to assert "It is only when these aspects ... are fused, that is, when data and theory are brought together, that anthropology appears."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process began to occur in the 18th century of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Age">Classical Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classical Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many anthropological writers find anthropological-quality theorizing in the works of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Rome">Classical Rome</a>; for example, <a href="/wiki/John_Myres" title="John Myres">John Myres</a> in <i>Herodotus and Anthropology</i> (1908); E. E. Sikes in <i>The Anthropology of the Greeks</i> (1914); <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kluckhohn" title="Clyde Kluckhohn">Clyde Kluckhohn</a> in <i>Anthropology and the Classics</i> (1961), and many others.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An equally long list may be found in French and German as well as other languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Herodotus">Herodotus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Herodotus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 484</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 425 BCE</span>), a Greek writer, set about to chronicle and explain the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> of 499 to 449 BCE. He did so in a surviving work conventionally termed <i>the History</i> or <i>the Histories</i>. His text begins: "These are the researches of Herodotus of Halicarnassus ...." </p><p>The Persia-based <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, deciding to bring Greece into its domain, conducted a massive invasion across the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a> using multi-cultural forces raised from many different locations, but were decisively defeated by the Greek city-states. Herodotus was far from interested in only the non-repeatable events. He provides ethnic details and histories of the peoples within the empire and to the north of it, in most cases being the first to do so. His methods were reading accounts, interviewing witnesses, and in some cases taking notes for himself. </p><p>These "researches" have been considered anthropological since at least as early as the late 19th century. The title, "Father of History" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">pater historiae</i>), had been conferred on Herodotus probably by <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pointing out that <a href="/wiki/John_Myres" title="John Myres">John Myres</a> in 1908 had believed that Herodotus was an anthropologist on a par with those of his own day, <a href="/wiki/James_M._Redfield" title="James M. Redfield">James M. Redfield</a> asserts: "Herodotus, as we know, was both Father of History and Father of Anthropology."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herodotus calls his method of travelling around taking notes "theorizing". Redfield translates it as "tourism" with a scientific intent. He identifies three terms of Herodotus as overlapping on culture: <i>diaitia</i>, material goods such as houses and consumables; <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos"><i>ethea</i></a>, the mores or customs; and <i>nomoi</i>, the authoritative precedents or <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">laws</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tacitus">Tacitus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tacitus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> historian, <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> (c. 56 – c. 120 CE), wrote many of the only surviving contemporary accounts in describing several ancient <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavic</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> peoples. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cannibalism_in_Brazil_(%27French_Antarctica%27)_in_1555,_by_Andr%C3%A9_Thevet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cannibalism_in_Brazil_%28%27French_Antarctica%27%29_in_1555%2C_by_Andr%C3%A9_Thevet.jpg/200px-Cannibalism_in_Brazil_%28%27French_Antarctica%27%29_in_1555%2C_by_Andr%C3%A9_Thevet.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cannibalism_in_Brazil_%28%27French_Antarctica%27%29_in_1555%2C_by_Andr%C3%A9_Thevet.jpg/300px-Cannibalism_in_Brazil_%28%27French_Antarctica%27%29_in_1555%2C_by_Andr%C3%A9_Thevet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Cannibalism_in_Brazil_%28%27French_Antarctica%27%29_in_1555%2C_by_Andr%C3%A9_Thevet.jpg/400px-Cannibalism_in_Brazil_%28%27French_Antarctica%27%29_in_1555%2C_by_Andr%C3%A9_Thevet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="1216" /></a><figcaption>Cannibalism among "the savages" in Brazil, as described and pictured by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Th%C3%A9vet" class="mw-redirect" title="André Thévet">André Thévet</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Table_of_Natural_History,_Cyclopaedia,_Volume_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/200px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/300px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/400px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1602" data-file-height="2580" /></a><figcaption>Table of natural history, 1728 <i><a href="/wiki/Cyclopaedia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopaedia</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Another candidate for one of the first scholars to carry out comparative ethnographic-type studies in person was the medieval <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Abu_Rayhan_al-Biruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Rayhan al-Biruni">Abu Rayhan al-Biruni</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, who wrote about the peoples, customs, and religions of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. According to Akbar S. Ahmed, like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a> with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, and presented his findings with <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_(philosophy)" title="Neutrality (philosophy)">neutrality</a> using <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">cross-cultural comparisons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue, however, that he hardly can be considered an anthropologist in the conventional sense.<sup id="cite_ref-Tapper1995_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tapper1995-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote detailed comparative studies on the religions and cultures in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tapper1995_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tapper1995-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biruni's tradition of comparative cross-cultural study continued in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> through to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a>'s work in the fourteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medieval scholars may be considered forerunners of modern anthropology as well, insofar as they conducted or wrote detailed studies of the customs of peoples considered "different" from themselves in terms of geography. <a href="/wiki/John_of_Plano_Carpini" class="mw-redirect" title="John of Plano Carpini">John of Plano Carpini</a> reported of his stay among the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. His report was unusual in its detailed depiction of a non-European culture.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s systematic observations of nature, anthropology, and geography are another example of studying human variation across space.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polo's travels took him across such a diverse human landscape and his accounts of the peoples he met as he journeyed were so detailed that they earned for Polo the name "the father of modern anthropology".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a></div> <p>The first use of the term "anthropology" in English to refer to a natural science of humanity was apparently in <a href="/wiki/Richard_Harvey_(astrologer)" title="Richard Harvey (astrologer)">Richard Harvey's</a> 1593 <i>Philadelphus, a defense of the legend of Brutus in British history</i>, which, includes the passage: "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Enlightenment_roots_of_the_discipline">The Enlightenment roots of the discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Enlightenment roots of the discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/170px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/255px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/340px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a><figcaption>Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)</figcaption></figure> <p>Many scholars consider modern anthropology as an outgrowth of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> (1715–1789),<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a period when Europeans attempted to study human behavior systematically, the known varieties of which had been increasing since the fifteenth century as a result of the <a href="/wiki/First_European_colonization_wave_(15th_century%E2%80%9319th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="First European colonization wave (15th century–19th century)">first European colonization wave</a>. The traditions of <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, history, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> then evolved into something more closely resembling the modern views of these disciplines and informed the development of the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, of which anthropology was a part. </p><p>It took <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804) 25 years to write one of the first major treatises on anthropology, <i>Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View</i> (1798), which treats it as a branch of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant is not generally considered to be a modern anthropologist, as he never left his region of Germany, nor did he study any cultures besides his own.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did, however, begin teaching an annual course in anthropology in 1772. Developments in the systematic study of ancient civilizations through the disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a> informed both archaeology and eventually social anthropology, as did the study of East and South Asian languages and cultures. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers, such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a>, whose work formed the basis for the "culture concept", which is central to the discipline.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Institutionally, anthropology emerged from the development of <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> (expounded by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Buffon</a>) that occurred during the European colonization of the seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Programs of ethnographic study originated in this era as the study of the "human primitives" overseen by colonial administrations. </p><p>There was a tendency in late eighteenth century Enlightenment thought to understand human society as natural phenomena that behaved according to certain principles and that could be observed empirically. In some ways, studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was not unlike studying the flora and fauna of those places. </p><p>Early anthropology was divided between proponents of <a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">unilinealism</a>, who argued that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process, from the most primitive to the most advanced, and various forms of non-lineal theorists, who tended to subscribe to ideas such as <a href="/wiki/Diffusionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusionism">diffusionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most nineteenth-century social theorists, including anthropologists, viewed non-European societies as windows onto the pre-industrial human past. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_of_the_modern_discipline">Overview of the modern discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Overview of the modern discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marxist anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a> once characterized anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the social sciences". Understanding how <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines. Scholarly traditions of <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, history, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> developed during this time and informed the development of the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Herder" title="Herder">Herder</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a> whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. </p><p>These intellectual movements in part grappled with one of the greatest paradoxes of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>: as the world is becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world is increasingly atomized and dispersed. As <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> observed in the 1840s: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilized nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations.</p></blockquote> <p>Ironically, this universal interdependence, rather than leading to greater human solidarity, has coincided with increasing racial, ethnic, religious, and class divisions, and new—and to some confusing or disturbing—cultural expressions. These are the conditions of life with which people today must contend, but they have their origins in processes that began in the 16th century and accelerated in the 19th century. </p><p>Institutionally anthropology emerged from <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> (expounded by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Buffon</a>). This was the study of human beings—typically people living in European colonies. Thus studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places. It was for this reason, for instance, that <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a> could write monographs on both <i>The League of the Iroquois</i> and <i>The American Beaver and His Works</i>. This is also why the material culture of 'civilized' nations such as China have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside European art while artifacts from Africa or Native North American cultures were displayed in <a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">natural history museums</a> with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. Curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a>, since its relationship to <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a> was and is complex.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (June 2024)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Drawing on the methods of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured "participant-observation"—and drawing on the new <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a> through <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, they proposed the scientific study of a new object: "humankind", conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept "culture", which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes <i>Homo sapiens</i>—and perhaps all species of genus <i><a href="/wiki/Hominoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoid">Homo</a></i>—from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, "culture" not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_anthropological_traditions">National anthropological traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: National anthropological traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology_by_country" title="History of anthropology by country">History of anthropology by country</a></div> <p>As academic disciplines began to differentiate over the course of the nineteenth century, anthropology grew increasingly distinct from the biological approach of natural history, on the one hand, and from purely historical or literary fields such as Classics, on the other. A common criticism was that many social sciences (such as economists, sociologists, and psychologists) in Western countries focused disproportionately on Western subjects, while anthropology focused disproportionately on the "other".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Museums such as the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> were not the only site of anthropological studies: with the <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> period, starting in the 1870s, <a href="/wiki/Zoo" title="Zoo">zoos</a> became unattended "laboratories", especially the so-called "ethnological exhibitions" or "Negro villages". Thus, "savages" from the colonies were displayed, often nudes, in cages, in what has been called "<a href="/wiki/Human_zoos" class="mw-redirect" title="Human zoos">human zoos</a>". For example, in 1906, Congolese <a href="/wiki/Pygmy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pygmy">pygmy</a> <a href="/wiki/Ota_Benga" title="Ota Benga">Ota Benga</a> was put by anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a> in a cage in the <a href="/wiki/Bronx_Zoo" title="Bronx Zoo">Bronx Zoo</a>, labelled "the missing link" between an orangutan and the "white race"—Grant, a renowned <a href="/wiki/Eugenicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugenicist">eugenicist</a>, was also the author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race">The Passing of the Great Race</a></i> (1916). Such exhibitions were attempts to illustrate and prove in the same movement the validity of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>, which first formulation may be found in <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Inequality_of_Human_Races" class="mw-redirect" title="An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races">An Essay on the Inequality of Human Races</a></i> (1853–1855). In 1931, the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Exhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Exhibition">Colonial Exhibition</a> in Paris still displayed <a href="/wiki/Kanaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanaks">Kanaks</a> from <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> in the "indigenous village"; it received 24 million visitors in six months, thus demonstrating the popularity of such "human zoos". </p><p>Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form—by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled <i>A Hundred Years of Anthropology</i>. At the time, the field was dominated by 'the comparative method'. It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary 'living fossils' that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesian</a> migrations across the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> for instance—although some of them believed it originated in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Finally, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a> was actively discussed as a way to classify—and rank—human beings based on difference. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="E.B._Tylor_and_James_Frazer">E.B. Tylor and James Frazer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: E.B. Tylor and James Frazer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg/220px-Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Sir E. B. Tylor (1832–1917), nineteenth-century British anthropologist</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JamesGeorgeFrazer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/JamesGeorgeFrazer.jpg/220px-JamesGeorgeFrazer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/JamesGeorgeFrazer.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Sir James George Frazer (1854–1941)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a> (2 October 1832 – 2 January 1917) and <a href="/wiki/James_Frazer" class="mw-redirect" title="James Frazer">James George Frazer</a> (1 January 1854 – 7 May 1941) are generally considered the antecedents to modern <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a> in Britain. Although Tylor undertook a field trip to <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, both he and Frazer derived most of the material for their comparative studies through extensive reading, not <a href="/wiki/Fieldwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Fieldwork">fieldwork</a>, mainly the Classics (literature and history of Greece and Rome), the work of the early European folklorists, and reports from missionaries, travelers, and contemporaneous ethnologists. </p><p>Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diffusionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural diffusionism">cultural diffusionism</a>, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] to another".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> as "that complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by [humans] as [members] of society".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and he generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural development proposed by later anthropologists. </p><p>Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious beliefs in human beings, proposing a theory of <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a> as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.). Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Bough" title="The Golden Bough">The Golden Bough</a></i>, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally. Neither Tylor nor Frazer, however, was particularly interested in fieldwork, nor were they interested in examining how the cultural elements and institutions fit together. The Golden Bough was abridged drastically in subsequent editions after his first. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bronislaw_Malinowski_and_the_British_School">Bronislaw Malinowski and the British School</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bronislaw Malinowski and the British School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Toward the turn of the twentieth century, a number of anthropologists became dissatisfied with this categorization of cultural elements; historical reconstructions also came to seem increasingly speculative to them. Under the influence of several younger scholars, a new approach came to predominate among British anthropologists, concerned with analyzing how societies held together in the present (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synchronic" class="extiw" title="wikt:synchronic">synchronic</a> analysis, rather than <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diachronic" class="extiw" title="wikt:diachronic">diachronic</a> or historical analysis), and emphasizing long-term (one to several years) immersion fieldwork. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a> financed a <a href="/wiki/William_Rivers#Torres_Straits_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rivers">multidisciplinary expedition</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islands" title="Torres Strait Islands">Torres Strait Islands</a> in 1898, organized by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cort_Haddon" title="Alfred Cort Haddon">Alfred Cort Haddon</a> and including a physician-anthropologist, <a href="/wiki/William_Rivers" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rivers">William Rivers</a>, as well as a linguist, a botanist, and other specialists. The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description. </p><p>A decade and a half later, Polish anthropology student <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a> (1884–1942) was beginning what he expected to be a brief period of fieldwork in the old model, collecting lists of cultural items, when the outbreak of the First World War stranded him in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>. As a subject of the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> resident on a British colonial possession, he was effectively confined to New Guinea for several years.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He made use of the time by undertaking far more intensive fieldwork than had been done by <i>British</i> anthropologists, and his classic ethnography, <i><a href="/wiki/Argonauts_of_the_Western_Pacific" title="Argonauts of the Western Pacific">Argonauts of the Western Pacific</a></i> (1922) advocated an approach to <a href="/wiki/Fieldwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Fieldwork">fieldwork</a> that became standard in the field: getting "the native's point of view" through <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a>. Theoretically, he advocated a <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalist</a> interpretation, which examined how social institutions functioned to satisfy individual needs. </p><p>British social anthropology had an expansive moment in the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a>, with key contributions coming from the Polish-British <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/A._R._Radcliffe-Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="A. R. Radcliffe-Brown">A. R. Radcliffe-Brown</a> also published a seminal work in 1922. He had carried out his initial fieldwork in the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a> in the old style of historical reconstruction. However, after reading the work of French sociologists <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>, Radcliffe-Brown published an account of his research (entitled simply <i>The Andaman Islanders</i>) that paid close attention to the meaning and purpose of rituals and myths. Over time, he developed an approach known as <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. (This contrasted with Malinowski's functionalism, and was quite different from the later French <a href="/wiki/Structuralism#Structuralism_in_anthropology_and_sociology" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, which examined the conceptual structures in language and symbolism.) </p><p>Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's influence stemmed from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions that furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for "Social Anthropology" by teaching at universities across the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">British Commonwealth</a>. From the late 1930s until the postwar period appeared a string of monographs and edited volumes that cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology (BSA). Famous ethnographies include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nuer" title="The Nuer">The Nuer</a>,</i> by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Evan_Evans-Pritchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard">Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard</a>, and <i>The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi,</i> by <a href="/wiki/Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a>; well-known edited volumes include <i>African Systems of Kinship and Marriage</i> and <i>African Political Systems.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post_WW_II_trends">Post WW II trends</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Post WW II trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Max_Gluckman" title="Max Gluckman">Max Gluckman</a>, together with many of his colleagues at the <a href="/wiki/Rhodes-Livingstone_Institute" title="Rhodes-Livingstone Institute">Rhodes-Livingstone Institute</a> and students at <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester University">Manchester University</a>, collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_School_(anthropology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchester School (anthropology)">Manchester School</a>, took BSA in new directions through their introduction of explicitly Marxist-informed theory, their emphasis on conflicts and conflict resolution, and their attention to the ways in which individuals negotiate and make use of the social structural possibilities. </p><p>In Britain, anthropology had a great intellectual impact, it "contributed to the erosion of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the growth of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, an awareness of the <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor#Survivals" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">survival</a> of the primitive in modern life, and the replacement of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diachronic" class="extiw" title="wikt:diachronic">diachronic</a> modes of analysis with <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synchronic" class="extiw" title="wikt:synchronic">synchronic</a>, all of which are central to modern culture."<sup id="cite_ref-Heyck1997_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heyck1997-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later in the 1960s and 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a> and his students <a href="/wiki/Mary_Douglas" title="Mary Douglas">Mary Douglas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nur_Yalman" title="Nur Yalman">Nur Yalman</a>, among others, introduced French structuralism in the style of <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a>; while British anthropology has continued to emphasize social organization and economics over purely symbolic or literary topics, differences among British, French, and American sociocultural anthropologies have diminished with increasing dialogue and borrowing of both theory and methods. Today, social anthropology in Britain engages internationally with many other social theories and has branched in many directions. </p><p>In countries of the British Commonwealth, social anthropology has often been institutionally separate from <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">primatology</a>, which may be connected with departments of biology or zoology; and from archaeology, which may be connected with departments of <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>, and the like. In other countries (and in some, particularly smaller, British and North American universities), anthropologists have also found themselves institutionally linked with scholars of <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museology" title="Museology">museum studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Social relations">social relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">ethnic studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social work</a>. </p><p>Anthropology has been used in Britain to provide an alternative explanation for the <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932010" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–2010">Financial crisis of 2007–2010</a> to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory. Dr. <a href="/wiki/Gillian_Tett" title="Gillian Tett">Gillian Tett</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a> trained anthropologist who went on to become a senior editor at the <i><a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a></i> is one of the leaders in this use of anthropology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Canadian anthropology began, as in other parts of the Colonial world, as ethnological data in the records of travellers and missionaries. In Canada, <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> such as Fathers LeClercq, Le Jeune and Sagard, in the 17th century, provide the oldest ethnographic records of native tribes in what was then the Dominion of Canada. The academic discipline has drawn strongly on both the British Social Anthropology and the American Cultural Anthropology traditions, producing a hybrid "Socio-cultural" anthropology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="George_Mercer_Dawson">George Mercer Dawson</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: George Mercer Dawson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>True anthropology began with a <a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">Government department</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Geological_Survey_of_Canada" title="Geological Survey of Canada">Geological Survey of Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Mercer_Dawson" title="George Mercer Dawson">George Mercer Dawson</a> (director in 1895). Dawson's support for anthropology created impetus for the profession in Canada. This was expanded upon by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, who established a Division of Anthropology within the Geological Survey in 1910. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edward_Sapir">Edward Sapir</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Edward Sapir"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropologists were recruited from England and the US, setting the foundation for the unique Canadian style of anthropology. Scholars include the linguist and Boasian <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/220px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marcel_Mauss">Marcel Mauss</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Marcel Mauss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most commentators consider <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> (1872–1950), nephew of the influential sociologist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's <i><a href="/wiki/Ann%C3%A9e_Sociologique" class="mw-redirect" title="Année Sociologique">Année Sociologique</a></i> group. While Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as <a href="/wiki/Henri_Hubert" title="Henri Hubert">Henri Hubert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hertz" title="Robert Hertz">Robert Hertz</a>) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies that were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. </p><p>Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance: <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(Mauss_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Gift (Mauss book)">Essay on the Gift</a>,</i> a seminal analysis of <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">exchange</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">reciprocity</a>, and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">surrealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primitivism_(art_movement)" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitivism (art movement)">primitivism</a>, which drew on ethnography for inspiration. <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Griaule" title="Marcel Griaule">Marcel Griaule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michel_Leiris" title="Michel Leiris">Michel Leiris</a> are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as <i>ethnologie</i> was restricted to museums, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Homme" title="Musée de l'Homme">Musée de l'Homme</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Rivet" title="Paul Rivet">Paul Rivet</a>, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of folklore. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Claude_Lévi-Strauss"><span id="Claude_L.C3.A9vi-Strauss"></span>Claude Lévi-Strauss</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Claude Lévi-Strauss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Above all, <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> helped institutionalize anthropology in France. Along with the enormous influence that his theory of <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a> exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time, he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology, while training influential students such as <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Godelier" title="Maurice Godelier">Maurice Godelier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_H%C3%A9ritier" title="Françoise Héritier">Françoise Héritier</a>. They proved influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally funded research laboratories (<a href="/wiki/Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre national de la recherche scientifique">CNRS</a>) rather than academic departments in universities. </p><p>Other influential writers in the 1970s include <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Clastres" title="Pierre Clastres">Pierre Clastres</a>, who explains in his books on the <a href="/wiki/Guayakis" class="mw-redirect" title="Guayakis">Guayaki</a> tribe in <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> that "primitive societies" actively oppose the institution of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>. These stateless societies are not less evolved than societies with states, but chose to conjure the institution of <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a> as a separate function from society. The <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leader</a> is only a spokesperson for the group when it has to deal with other groups ("international relations") but has no inside authority, and may be violently removed if he attempts to abuse this position.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important French social theorist since <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> and Lévi-Strauss is <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a>, who trained formally in philosophy and sociology and eventually held the Chair of Sociology at the Collège de France. Like Mauss and others before him, he worked on topics both in sociology and anthropology. His fieldwork among the <a href="/wiki/Kabyle_people" title="Kabyle people">Kabyle</a> of Algeria places him solidly in anthropology, while his analysis of the function and reproduction of fashion and cultural capital in European societies places him as solidly in sociology. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG/220px-Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG/330px-Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG/440px-Blumenbach%27s_five_races.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach" title="Johann Friedrich Blumenbach">Blumenbach</a>'s five <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">races</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> From its beginnings in the early 19th century through the early 20th century, anthropology in the United States was influenced by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> societies. </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FranzBoas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/FranzBoas.jpg/220px-FranzBoas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/FranzBoas.jpg/330px-FranzBoas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/FranzBoas.jpg/440px-FranzBoas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a>, one of the pioneers of modern anthropology, often called the "Father of American Anthropology"</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a> in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects. The field was pioneered by staff of the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> and the Smithsonian Institution's <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_American_Ethnology" title="Bureau of American Ethnology">Bureau of American Ethnology</a>, men such as <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Powell" title="John Wesley Powell">John Wesley Powell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Hamilton_Cushing" title="Frank Hamilton Cushing">Frank Hamilton Cushing</a>. </p><p>Late-eighteenth-century ethnology established the scientific foundation for the field, which began to mature in the United States during the presidency of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (1829–1837). Jackson was responsible for implementing the Indian Removal Act, the coerced and forced removal of an estimated 100,000 American Indians during the 1830s to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma; for insuring that the franchise was extended to all white men, irrespective of financial means while denying virtually all black men the right to vote; and, for suppressing abolitionists' efforts to end slavery while vigorously defending that institution. Finally, he was responsible for appointing Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a> who would decide, in Scott v. Sandford (1857), that Negroes were "beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race ... and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect". As a result of this decision, black people, whether free or enslaved, could never become citizens of the United States. </p><p>It was in this context that the so-called American School of Anthropology thrived as the champion of polygenism or the doctrine of multiple origins—sparking a debate between those influenced by the Bible who believed in the unity of humanity and those who argued from a scientific standpoint for the plurality of origins and the antiquity of distinct types. Like the monogenists, these theories were not monolithic and often used words like races, species, hybrid, and mongrel interchangeably. A scientific consensus began to emerge during this period "that there exists a Genus Homo, embracing many primordial types of 'species'". <a href="/wiki/Charles_Caldwell_(physician)" title="Charles Caldwell (physician)">Charles Caldwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton" title="Samuel George Morton">Samuel George Morton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Cartwright" title="Samuel A. Cartwright">Samuel A. Cartwright</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Gliddon" title="George Gliddon">George Gliddon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a>, and even South Carolina Governor <a href="/wiki/James_Henry_Hammond" class="mw-redirect" title="James Henry Hammond">James Henry Hammond</a> were all influential proponents of this school. While some were disinterested scientists, others were passionate advocates who used science to promote slavery in a period of increasing sectional strife. All were complicit in establishing the putative science that justified slavery, informed the Dred Scott decision, underpinned miscegenation laws, and eventually fueled Jim Crow. Samuel G. Morton, for example, claimed to be just a scientist but he did not hesitate to provide evidence of Negro inferiority to John C. Calhoun, the prominent pro-slavery Secretary of State to help him negotiate the annexation of Texas as a slave state. </p><p>The high-water mark of polygenic theories was Josiah Nott and Gliddon's voluminous eight-hundred page tome titled <i>Types of Mankind</i>, published in 1854. Reproducing the work of Louis Agassiz and Samuel Morton, the authors spread the virulent and explicitly racist views to a wider, more popular audience. The first printing sold out quickly and by the end of the century it had undergone nine editions. Although many Southerners felt that all the justification for slavery they needed was found in the Bible, others used the new science to defend slavery and the repression of American Indians. Abolitionists, however, felt they had to take this science on its own terms. And for the first time, African American intellectuals waded into the contentious debate. In the immediate wake of Types of Mankind and during the pitched political battles that led to Civil War, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> (1818–1895), the statesman and persuasive abolitionist, directly attacked the leading theorists of the American School of Anthropology. In an 1854 address, entitled "The Claims of the Negro Ethnologically Considered", Douglass argued that "by making the enslaved a character fit only for slavery, [slaveowners] excuse themselves for refusing to make the slave a freeman.... For let it be once granted that the human race are of multitudinous origin, naturally different in their moral, physical, and intellectual capacities ... a chance is left for slavery, as a necessary institution.... There is no doubt that Messrs. Nott, Glidden, Morton, Smith and Agassiz were duly consulted by our slavery propagating statesmen" (p. 287). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lewis_Henry_Morgan_in_the_United_States">Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a> (1818–1881), a lawyer from <a href="/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York">Rochester</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a>. His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology. Like other scholars of his day (such as <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Tylor">Edward Tylor</a>), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from <i>savagery</i>, to <i>barbarism</i>, to <i>civilization</i>. He focused on understanding how cultures integrated and systematized, and how the various features of one culture indicate an evolutionary status in comparison with other cultures. Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Franz_Boas">Franz Boas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Franz Boas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> established academic anthropology in the United States in opposition to this sort of evolutionary perspective. His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws. For example, Boas studied immigrant children to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable, and that human conduct and behavior resulted from nurture, rather than nature. </p><p>Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct <i>cultures,</i> rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, were not possible. </p><p>In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, blacks, and indigenous peoples of the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular subjects for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and archaic anthropology (e.g. archaeology). Anthropology in the United States continues to be deeply influenced by the Boasian tradition, especially its emphasis on culture. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruth_Benedict.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ruth_Benedict.jpg/220px-Ruth_Benedict.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ruth_Benedict.jpg/330px-Ruth_Benedict.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ruth_Benedict.jpg/440px-Ruth_Benedict.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2108" data-file-height="2636" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a> in 1937</figcaption></figure> <p>Boas used his positions at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">American Museum of Natural History</a> to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lowie" title="Robert Lowie">Robert Lowie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Edward Sapir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a>, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. </p><p>The publication of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a>'s textbook, <i>Anthropology,</i> marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material, Boasians felt a growing urge to generalize. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Ruth Benedict</a>. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. </p><p>Though such works as <i><a href="/wiki/Coming_of_Age_in_Samoa" title="Coming of Age in Samoa">Coming of Age in Samoa</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chrysanthemum_and_the_Sword" title="The Chrysanthemum and the Sword">The Chrysanthemum and the Sword</a></i> remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a>, and Mead was limited to her offices at the <a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="American Museum of Natural History">AMNH</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_countries">Other countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Other countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropology as it emerged amongst the Western colonial powers (mentioned above) has generally taken a different path than that in the countries of southern and central Europe (<a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, and the successors to the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian">Austro-Hungarian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Ottoman empires</a>). In the former, the encounter with multiple, distinct cultures, often very different in organization and language from those of Europe, has led to a continuing emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_comparison" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-cultural comparison">cross-cultural comparison</a> and a receptiveness to certain kinds of cultural relativism.<sup id="cite_ref-Spiro1987_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiro1987-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the successor states of continental Europe, on the other hand, anthropologists often joined with folklorists and linguists in building cultural perspectives on nationalism. Ethnologists in these countries tended to focus on differentiating among local ethnolinguistic groups, documenting local folk culture, and representing the prehistory of what has become a nation through various forms of public education (e.g., museums of several kinds).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this scheme, Russia occupied a middle position. On the one hand, it had a large region (largely east of the Urals) of highly distinct, pre-industrial, often non-literate peoples, similar to the situation in the Americas. On the other hand, Russia also participated to some degree in the nationalist (cultural and political) movements of Central and Eastern Europe. After the Revolution of 1917, views expressed by anthropologists in the USSR, and later the Soviet Bloc countries, were highly shaped by the requirement to conform to Marxist theories of social evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Greece, there was since the 19th century a science of the <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> called <i>laographia</i> (laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Italy, the development of <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a> and related studies did not receive as much attention as other branches of learning,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but nonetheless included important researchers and thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Ernesto_De_Martino" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernesto De Martino">Ernesto De Martino</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some German and Austrian scholars have increased cultural anthropology as both legal anthropology regarding "other" societies and anthropology of Western civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Asian countries and former British colonies like India also developed their own traditions of studying anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In India the Asiatic Society was established on 15 January 1784 in Kolkata by Sir William Jones, a philologist although, anthropology was not separately studied in this pioneering centre of learning in India, the scholars in Asiatic Society studied language, history, arts and the sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next impetus for Anthropology in India came with the Census operations by the British administration in 1881. Indian census data and its publications included huge amount of anthropological information and the first Census Commissioner Sir H.H.Risley (1851–1911) constructed the racial classification of the Indian population in 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus of the Indian census, however changed after the independence of the country. The national government in India became more interested to employ census operations towards the economic development and reconstruction of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first professional journal of anthropology in India was the <i>Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay</i> which was founded in 1886. The founding editor of the journal was Edward Tyrrell Leith, a British national and professor of Law at the Government Law College, Bombay (now Mumbai). This journal continued up to 1973.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropology, first under the name of Ethnography was included as a section in the first <a href="/wiki/Indian_Science_Congress_Association" title="Indian Science Congress Association">Indian Science Congress Association</a> meeting held in 1914 and since then the subject continued to be included in the Indian Science Congress and the pioneering Indian anthropologists, like B.S.Guha, S.S.Sarkar, N.K.Bose, D.N.Majumdar, Irawati Karve, Surajit Sinha, Pranab Ganguly and many eminent scholars delivered their presidential lectures in the Anthropology section of the Indian Science Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Department of Anthropology was established at Calcutta University in 1920 by the famous Indian Vice-Chancellor, Sir Asutosh Mukhopadhyay and Ananthakrishna Ayer (a pioneering Indian anthropologist) was its Head of the Department.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Famous Indian anthropologists, some of them trained outside India, were the founder teachers in the Department.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saratchandra Mitra (1863–1938), who was the first professor of Anthropology in the first department of Anthropology in India at the University of Calcutta in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ramaprasad Chanda (1873–1942),<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haran Chandra Chakladar (1874–1958),<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Panchanan Mitra (1892–1936),<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> B.S. Guha (1894–1961),<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> K.P. Chattppadhaya (1897–1963),<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> T.C. Das (1898–1964),<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> N.K. Bose (1901–1972),<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Irawati Karve (1905–1970),<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> D. Sen (1909–1980),<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> S.S. Sarkar (1908–1969),<sup id="cite_ref-INSA_::_Deceased_Fellow_Detail_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INSA_::_Deceased_Fellow_Detail-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many others (including Varrier Elwin (1902–1964)<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and D.N. Majumdar (1903–1960)<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed a strong empirical tradition of Anthropology in India characterised by ethnographic fieldwork<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in social-cultural anthropology and anthropometry<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in physical anthropology. The thrust on a holistic approach was the cardinal feature of anthropology in India. The second professional journal of anthropology, which has completed one hundred year in 2021 named <i>Man in India</i> was established by Sarat Chandra Roy,(1871–1942) a pioneering Indian anthropologist, in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his landmark article published in the first volume of <i>Man in India</i> Roy elaborately discussed the origin of professional anthropological research in India.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roy not only critically evaluated the major theories developed in the then western anthropology, like evolutionism, diffusionism and functionalism with much skepticism but he also made a novel attempt to synthesize the ideas of ancient Indian philosophers with western anthropological concepts. Panchanan Mitra, (1892–1936) who was a professor of ancient Indian history, culture and anthropology during 1919–1929 and 1930–1936 at the University of Calcutta,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a contemporary of S.C. Roy also held similar views as regards the importance of the Indian philosophy towards the development of an Indian anthropological tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Panchanan Mitra was among the first Indians to study at Yale University and conducted several anthropological expeditions in India and abroad. He was the head of the department of anthropology of the University of Calcutta and is mostly known for his pioneering book, <i>Prehistoric India</i>, as early as 1923. Another notable Indian anthropologist of the pre-independence period was Bhupendranath Datta (1880–1961) who was the younger brother of the famous Hindu revivalist social reformer Swami Vivekananda. He joined the anti-British struggle and sent to prison by the colonial government in India, and later earned an M.A. in sociology from Brown University, US and a PhD in anthropology from the University of Hamburg, Germany in 1923. His books <i>Dialectics of Hindu Ritualism</i> (1950) and <i>Studies in Indian Social Polity</i> (1963) although published much later, can be regarded as pioneering works on Indian society and culture from a Marxist perspective. Datta's scholarship was not limited to his specialised area in biological anthropology in which he did his doctorate but was as vast as to include sociology, history, law, philosophy, statistics and literature. Some of his remarkable books were <i>Bharater Ditiya Swadhinatar Sangram</i> (1949), <i>Bharatiyo Samaj Padhyati</i> (1958), <i>Amar Amerikar Abhijnata</i> (1933), <i>Baishnab Sahitye Samajtatta</i> (1945), <i>Banglar Itihas</i> (1963), <i>Hindu Law of Inheritance</i> (1957), <i>Dialectics of Land Economics of India</i> (1952) and <i>Swami Vivekananda: Patriot-Prophet—a study</i> (1954).<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gradually, universities in Lucknow,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Delhi,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madras,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pune,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ranchi<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also developed strong traditions of anthropological research and teaching and the largest governmental organisation, the Anthropological Survey of India was established by Dr. B.S. Guha which also began with the holistic framework of anthropology and added interdisciplinary collaborations with other biological and social sciences, like biochemistry, geography and linguistics.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A report of the University Grants Commission(UGC) of India in 2001 revealed that anthropology as an independent discipline of teaching and research emerged in colonial India and before 1960 there were only nine anthropology departments in the country. The report further observed that more than 60 percent of anthropology departments were created after 1960 and they were mainly established in those states where there was higher concentration of tribal population, which included Eastern and North Eastern regions. The process of opening new departments of anthropology continues even today. In more than 90 percent of the universities anthropology departments are having an integrated course outline where all sub-disciplines of anthropology are being taught.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropology and anthropologists in India played important roles in the Annual Conferences of the Indian Science Congress Association in pre-independence and post-independence periods. Notable sectional presidential lectures were delivered by B.S. Guha (1938),<sup id="cite_ref-Social_Anthropology_of_B.S._Guha_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Social_Anthropology_of_B.S._Guha-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> T.C. Das (1941),<sup id="cite_ref-Social_Anthropology_of_B.S._Guha_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Social_Anthropology_of_B.S._Guha-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> S.S. Sarkar (1951),<sup id="cite_ref-INSA_::_Deceased_Fellow_Detail_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INSA_::_Deceased_Fellow_Detail-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> D.N. Majumdar (1946)<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and N.K. Bose (1963)<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who highlighted the contributions of both Indian and foreign anthropologists in all the sub-disciplines of the subject. </p><p> In contrast to Europe, Indian anthropologists paid more importance to the collection of data from the field rather than on building theories.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context the seminal contributions of S.R.K. Chopra (1931–1984) of Panjab University deserve mention. Professor Chopra discovered pre-hominid fossils from the Siwalik hills, which documented the important stages of human evolution and also designed an instrument known as 'pelvimeter' for measuring angles of the pelvis in primates including humans.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nirmal Kumar Bose after joining the Anthropological Survey of India in 1959 as Director involved all researchers in a mega project to collect data on the socio-economic and cultural aspects of villages covering 311 districts of India out of 322 and the results of this survey was published in a volume entitled <i>Peasant life in India: A Study in Indian Unity and Diversity</i> in 1961.The plethora of data on the material and ideological aspects of rural India contained in the book is one of the best works done by the anthropologists in the government department. This is a book which has tremendous contemporary policy relevance at least for three important reasons. First this book revealed with empirical information that peasant life in India cannot be improved without understanding its material diversity. Second, it showed the real value of collecting first hand information from the peasants, which should be the guiding principle behind planning and policy formulation from below, not from the top. Third, peasant life in India has an underlying cultural unity of non-competitive tolerance and peaceful coexistence, which shaped the ambition and aspiration of the peasants throughout the centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of his life N.K. Bose in his posthumous article spoke out on the role of anthropologists in nation building in unequivocal terms:</p><blockquote><p>"An anthropologist does not merely play the part of an observer in a game of chess. He has a greater and deeper commitment, namely, that in India he has to draw a lesson from what he observes, so that he can utilize his knowledge in the attainment of the egalitarian ideal which our nation has set before itself as its goal. If he also accepts this ideal, then, with his superior analytical apparatus, and the use of comparisons and synthetic thinking, he can suggest many modifications in the ways in which the government or leaders of society are trying to bring about justice where injustice prevails today. And this is where anthropology has a very significant role to play and a heavy responsibility to bear" (Bose 1974: iv).<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>The empirical tradition of Indian anthropology was continued by the People of India project launched by the Anthropological Survey of India by its Director General Dr. K.S. Singh.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The People of India project started in October 1985 and its objectives were to (i) generate a brief, descriptive anthropological profile of all the communities of India and (ii) the impact on them of change and development processes and the links that bring them together. From 1985 to 1992 as many as 4635 communities in all the states and union territories of India were identified and described out of the 6748 listed initially. As many as 600 scholars participated in this project, including 19 from 26 institutions. About 100 workshops and rounds of discussions were held in all the states and union territories, and in these about 3000 scholars participated. The outputs of this project have already been published under several volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the post-independence period the Indian anthropologists also became interested in the task of nation building, which was evident in the notable works done by T.C. Das on Bengal famine and B.S. Guha, the founder director of the Anthropological Survey of India on the social tensions among the Bengali refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan in an UNESCO project.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of T.C. Das who was a teacher at the Department of Anthropology, Calcutta University on the Great Bengal Famine was published in 1949. This was a unique study which depicted the misery of the famine affected people of Bengal through the anthropological method of fieldwork and was published by the University of Calcutta in 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much later, T.C. Das's firsthand empirical information on Bengal famine was profusely used by the Nobel Laureate economist Amartya Sen and the American historian Mark Tauger to build their own theoretical formulations on famine and Bengali society and culture under acutely critical conditions<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Das's another earlier study on the Purum Kuki tribe of the north-east India also became well-known at the national and international levels since the data presented by Das in his book <i>The Purums: An Old Kuki tribe of Manipur</i> published in 1945 by the Calcutta University became one of the major sources of database in the acrimonious debate on descent versus alliance theories on kinship in Anglo-American Anthropology which involved mavericks like Claude Levi-Strauss, George Homans, David Schneider, Rodney Needham, Floyd Lounsbury and others. The Indian anthropologists too continued their ethnographic enterprise on the Purum on behalf of the premier governmental institution of the country, the Anthropological Survey of India. A team of anthropologists were sent to the field area where Das conducted his ethnographic observations during 1931–1936 and a book was published entitled <i>Proceedings of the Symposium on Purum (Chote) Revisited</i> in 1985 as an outcome of a symposium in which about 20 anthropologists, two educated members of the tribe participated and presented their views/papers on the Purums (Das Gupta et.al. 1985).<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important anthropological study on the social impact assessment of the resettlement of the refugees in the Anadaman islands from the then East Pakistan was done by Surajit Sinha in 1951.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resettlement of displaced people by mega development projects (dams and industries) under the five year plans was also studied by the anthropologists in the post-independence period. Irawati Karve,<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who contributed profusely in both Physical and Social Anthropology conducted a study with Jai Nimbkar published in a book entitled <i>A Survey of the People Displaced Through the Koyna Dam</i> (1969) was the first of its kind on displacement caused by a big dam in India.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1960 B.K. Roy Burman,<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an anthropologist appointed as Assistant Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, Government of India undertook an anthropological study on the problems of the tribal and other populations who were displaced by the establishment of the huge public sector steel factory at Rourkela in Orissa. On his suggestion the study of the "Social Processes in the Industrialization of Rourkela" was taken up as a project for being investigated by the Census Organization. The study was carried out by a team under the leadership of Roy Burman and the results were published by him under the Monograph Series of the Census of India, 1961. It is not only the first social impact assessment research on industrialisation in India but one of the pioneering studies on development caused displacement and resettlement at the global level.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The application of anthropological knowledge for the development and welfare of the tribal populations in the post-independence period became a major thrust area of study for the anthropologists and notable contributions in this field were made by Verrier Elwin, Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf, L.P. Vidyarthi, B.N. Sahay, Sachchidananda, B.K. RoyBurman and others.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The physical anthropologists in India have also contributed immensely not only in the study of the classification of human groups on the basis of the biological characters but also in the bio-social fields of human growth, nutrition and health in the context of society and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colonial "Physical Anthropology" (represented by H.H. Risley and his classification of the Indian population into "Races") gradually transformed into much wider "Human Biology", which devoted itself to the task of building a healthy nation.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/World_Anthropologies" class="mw-redirect" title="World Anthropologies">world anthropologies</a> has followed different trajectories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th-century_developments">20th-century developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 20th-century developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the mid-20th century, American anthropology began to study its own history more systematically. In 1967 <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a> published his <i>The Rise of Anthropological Theory</i>, presenting argumentative examinations of anthropology's historical developments, and <a href="/wiki/George_W._Stocking,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Stocking, Jr.">George W. Stocking, Jr.</a>, established the historicist school, examining the historical contexts of anthropological movements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">History of archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropologists" title="List of anthropologists">List of anthropologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Homme" title="Musée de l'Homme">Musée de l'Homme</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Rivet" title="Paul Rivet">Paul Rivet</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=-logy&allowed_in_frame=0">"-logy"</a>. <i>Online Etymological Dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymological+Dictionary&rft.atitle=-logy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3D-logy%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">"-logy". <i>Webster's Third New International Dictionary Unabridged and Seven Language Dictionary</i>. Vol. II H to R. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1986.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=-logy&rft.btitle=Webster%27s+Third+New+International+Dictionary+Unabridged+and+Seven+Language+Dictionary&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dlo%2Fgos">logos</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunt1863">Hunt 1863</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*a%3Aentry+group%3D178%3Aentry%3Da%29nqrwpolo%2Fgos">anthropologos</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1940">Liddell & Scott 1940</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?type=end&lookup=logia&lang=greek">logia</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuck1933">Buck 1933</a>, p. 359</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Appendix I: Indo-European Roots". <i>leg-</i>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> (4th ed.). 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=leg-&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.edition=4th&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBuck1933">Buck 1933</a>, p. 347</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harris1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harris1_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris1_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2001">Harris 2001</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">There is currently some regional and traditional equivocation about whether it should be called culture history, as in <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>; i.e., <a href="/wiki/Culture-historical_archaeology" title="Culture-historical archaeology">Culture-historical archaeology</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social history</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a>, or the compromise, <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology">sociocultural anthropology</a>. Different theorists have different practices, the distinctions being mainly verbal.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2001">Harris 2001</a>, p. 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2001">Harris 2001</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2001">Harris 2001</a>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1991">Harris 1991</a>, pp. xii–xiii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1991">Harris 1991</a>, p. xiv</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1999">Harris 1999</a>, p. 52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1999">Harris 1999</a>, p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris2001">Harris 2001</a>, pp. 75–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1999">Harris 1999</a>, p. 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEriksenNielsen1013" class="citation book cs1">Eriksen, Thomas Hylland; Nielsen, Finn Sivert (1013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150919130323/http://hyllanderiksen.net/History2.pdf"><i>A History of Anthropology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Anthropology, Culture and Society Series (2nd ed.). London: Pluto Press. pp. 10–12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hyllanderiksen.net/History2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Anthropology&rft.place=London&rft.series=Anthropology%2C+Culture+and+Society+Series&rft.pages=10-12&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=1013&rft.aulast=Eriksen&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Hylland&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+Finn+Sivert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhyllanderiksen.net%2FHistory2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1993" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jonathan Z. (1993). <i>Map is Not Territory: Studies in the History of Religions</i>. Chicage: University of Chicago Press. p. 245.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Map+is+Not+Territory%3A+Studies+in+the+History+of+Religions&rft.place=Chicage&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartog1988" class="citation book cs1">Hartog, François (1988). <i>The mirror of Herodotus : the representation of the other in the writing of history</i>. New historicism, 5. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 379.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+mirror+of+Herodotus+%3A+the+representation+of+the+other+in+the+writing+of+history&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=New+historicism%2C+5.&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Hartog&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedfield1985" class="citation journal cs1">Redfield, James M. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.cit.cornell.edu/class3676/secure/Redfield.pdf">"Herodotus the Tourist"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Classical Philology</i>. <b>80</b> (2): 97–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F366908">10.1086/366908</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162300677">162300677</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=Herodotus+the+Tourist&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=97-118&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F366908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162300677%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Redfield&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.cit.cornell.edu%2Fclass3676%2Fsecure%2FRedfield.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Rankov_Radosavljevich1919" class="citation book cs1">Paul Rankov Radosavljevich (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=clQ5AAAAMAAJ"><i>Who are the Slavs?: A Contribution to Race Psychology</i></a>. Vol. 1. R. G. Badger. p. 469<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2023</span>. <q>[...] as resident on the southern coast of the Baltic, Slavic forefathers were known to Tacitus, who in observing them there, asked himself whether to classify them among Asiatics or among Europeans. He answers thus: Among the latter, for they build houses, wear shields, and fight on foot, all of which is quite contrary to the actions of the Sarmatians [...]. Thus the famous history writer [...] anticipated the statements of anthropology [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+are+the+Slavs%3F%3A+A+Contribution+to+Race+Psychology&rft.pages=469&rft.pub=R.+G.+Badger&rft.date=1919&rft.au=Paul+Rankov+Radosavljevich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DclQ5AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ahmed-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmed_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ahmed_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed1984" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". <i>RAIN</i>. <b>60</b> (60): 9–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3033407">10.2307/3033407</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3033407">3033407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RAIN&rft.atitle=Al-Beruni%3A+The+First+Anthropologist&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=60&rft.pages=9-10&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3033407&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3033407%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Akbar+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tapper1995-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tapper1995_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tapper1995_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTapper1995" class="citation journal cs1">Tapper, Richard (1995). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Islamic Anthropology' and the 'Anthropology of Islam'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Anthropological Quarterly</i>. <b>68</b> (3): 185–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3318074">10.2307/3318074</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3318074">3318074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropological+Quarterly&rft.atitle=%27Islamic+Anthropology%27+and+the+%27Anthropology+of+Islam%27&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=185-193&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3318074&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3318074%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tapper&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalbridge1998" class="citation journal cs1">Walbridge, J. T. (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam". <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>59</b> (3): 389–403. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjhi.1998.0030">10.1353/jhi.1998.0030</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170321617">170321617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Explaining+Away+the+Greek+Gods+in+Islam&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=389-403&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjhi.1998.0030&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170321617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Walbridge&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorq.org/Articles/article.aspx?d=2002&x=arabviews">"West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era"</a>. <i>www.colorq.org</i>. 15 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.colorq.org&rft.atitle=West+Asian+views+on+black+Africans+during+the+medieval+era&rft.date=2023-07-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorq.org%2FArticles%2Farticle.aspx%3Fd%3D2002%26x%3Darabviews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121231041925/http://www.timothyjpmason.com/WebPages/Publications/Source_pages/AnthroHist.htm">"Resources for a History of Anthropology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timothyjpmason.com/WebPages/Publications/Source_pages/AnthroHist.htm">the original</a> on 31 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resources+for+a+History+of+Anthropology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timothyjpmason.com%2FWebPages%2FPublications%2FSource_pages%2FAnthroHist.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tk421.net/essays/polo.html">"Marco Polo's Asia"</a>. <i>www.tk421.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.tk421.net&rft.atitle=Marco+Polo%27s+Asia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tk421.net%2Fessays%2Fpolo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaanet.org/sections/gad/history/011rowe.pdf">The Renaissance Foundations of Anthropology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120904194548/http://www.aaanet.org/sections/gad/history/011rowe.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-09-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=8407"><i>The Anthropology of the Enlightenment | Edited by Larry Wolff and Marco Cipolloni</i></a>. Stanford University Press. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804752022" title="Special:BookSources/9780804752022"><bdi>9780804752022</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropology+of+the+Enlightenment+%26%23124%3B+Edited+by+Larry+Wolff+and+Marco+Cipolloni&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780804752022&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sup.org%2Fbooks%2Ftitle%2F%3Fid%3D8407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Foucault, Michel. "Introduction" to his 1961 translation of Kant's work, reprinted, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.generation-online.org/p/fpfoucault1.htm">Generation-online.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacobs, Brian, and Kain, Patrick (eds.), Essays on Kant's Anthropology, Cambridge University Press, 2003, 278pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79038-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79038-7">0-521-79038-7</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVotruba" class="citation web cs1">Votruba, Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pitt.edu/~votruba/sstopics/slovaklawsonlanguage/Herder_on_Language.pdf">"Herder on Language"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Slovak Studies Program</i>. University of Pittsburgh.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slovak+Studies+Program&rft.atitle=Herder+on+Language&rft.aulast=Votruba&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pitt.edu%2F~votruba%2Fsstopics%2Fslovaklawsonlanguage%2FHerder_on_Language.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stocking, George W. (1968) Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology. London: The Free Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStocking1963" class="citation journal cs1">Stocking, George W. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1963.65.4.02a00010">"Matthew Arnold, E. B. Tylor, and the Uses of Invention"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>65</b> (4): 783–799. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1963.65.4.02a00010">10.1525/aa.1963.65.4.02a00010</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/668930">668930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Matthew+Arnold%2C+E.+B.+Tylor%2C+and+the+Uses+of+Invention&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=783-799&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1963.65.4.02a00010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F668930%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stocking&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1963.65.4.02a00010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tylor, E. B. (1865) <i>Researches into the early history of mankind the development of civilization.</i> London: John Murray.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tylor, E. B. (1871) <i>Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom</i>. 2 vols. London, John Murray.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malinowski, Bronisław (1967) <i>A diary in the strict sense of the term</i>. New York, Harcourt, Brace & World [1967]<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoody1995" class="citation book cs1">Goody, Jack (1995). <i>The Expansive Moment: The Rise of Social Anthropology in Britain and Africa 1918-1970</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45666-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45666-1"><bdi>978-0-521-45666-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Expansive+Moment%3A+The+Rise+of+Social+Anthropology+in+Britain+and+Africa+1918-1970&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45666-1&rft.aulast=Goody&rft.aufirst=Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heyck1997-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heyck1997_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeyckStockingGoody1997" class="citation journal cs1">Heyck, Thomas William; Stocking, George W.; Goody, Jack (December 1997). "After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888-1951". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>102</b> (5): 1486. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2171126">10.2307/2171126</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2171126">2171126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=After+Tylor%3A+British+Social+Anthropology+1888-1951&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1486&rft.date=1997-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2171126&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2171126%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Heyck&rft.aufirst=Thomas+William&rft.au=Stocking%2C+George+W.&rft.au=Goody%2C+Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMauss1938" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mauss, Marcel (1938). "Une Catégorie de L'Esprit Humain: La Notion de Personne Celle de 'Moi'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>" [A Category of the Human Spirit: The Notion of Person That of 'Me']. <i>The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i> (in French). <b>68</b>: 263–281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2844128">10.2307/2844128</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844128">2844128</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Royal+Anthropological+Institute+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.atitle=Une+Cat%C3%A9gorie+de+L%27Esprit+Humain%3A+La+Notion+de+Personne+Celle+de+%27Moi%27&rft.volume=68&rft.pages=263-281&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2844128&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2844128%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mauss&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bartholomew Dean "Critical Re-vision: Clastres' Chronicle and the optic of <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">primitivism</a>", 2002 In <i>Best of Anthropology Today, 1974–2000</i>, ed. J. Benthall, with a preface by M. Sahlins. London: Routledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0415262550">Amazon.com</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stocking, George W. (1968) <i>Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology</i>. London: The Free Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spiro1987-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spiro1987_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpiro2020" class="citation book cs1">Spiro, Melford E. (2020). "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason". <i>Culture and Human Nature</i>. pp. 32–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429336812-3">10.4324/9780429336812-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-33681-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-33681-2"><bdi>978-0-429-33681-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216446331">216446331</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Some+Reflections+on+Cultural+Determinism+and+Relativism+with+Special+Reference+to+Emotion+and+Reason&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Human+Nature&rft.pages=32-58&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216446331%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780429336812-3&rft.isbn=978-0-429-33681-2&rft.aulast=Spiro&rft.aufirst=Melford+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gellner, Ernest. (1998) <i>Language and solitude: Wittgenstein, Malinowski, and the Habsburg dilemma</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gellner, Ernest, ed. (1980) <i>Soviet and Western anthropology</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geneviève Zoïa, "L'anthropologie en Grèce", Terrain, Numéro 14—L'incroyable et ses preuves (mars 1990), [En ligne], mis en ligne le 7 octobre 2005, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://terrain.revues.org/document3641.html">Terrain.revues.org</a>, Consulté le 15 juin 2007. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrottanelliAusendaBernardiBianchi1977" class="citation journal cs1">Grottanelli, Vinigi; Ausenda, Giorgio; Bernardi, Bernardo; Bianchi, Ugo; Bodemann, Y. Michal; Goody, Jack; Jablonko, Allison; Kertzer, David I.; Lanternari, Vittorio; Marazzi, Antonio; Miller, Roy A.; Minelli, Laura Laurencich; Moss, David M.; Moss, Leonard W.; Denmark, H. R. H. Prince Peter of Greece and; Pinto, Diana; Scotti, Pietro; Tentori, Tullio (1977). "Ethnology and/or Cultural Anthropology in Italy: Traditions and Developments [and Comments and Reply]". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>18</b> (4): 593–614. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F201970">10.1086/201970</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2741501">2741501</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146232744">146232744</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Ethnology+and%2For+Cultural+Anthropology+in+Italy%3A+Traditions+and+Developments+%5Band+Comments+and+Reply%5D&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=593-614&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146232744%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2741501%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F201970&rft.aulast=Grottanelli&rft.aufirst=Vinigi&rft.au=Ausenda%2C+Giorgio&rft.au=Bernardi%2C+Bernardo&rft.au=Bianchi%2C+Ugo&rft.au=Bodemann%2C+Y.+Michal&rft.au=Goody%2C+Jack&rft.au=Jablonko%2C+Allison&rft.au=Kertzer%2C+David+I.&rft.au=Lanternari%2C+Vittorio&rft.au=Marazzi%2C+Antonio&rft.au=Miller%2C+Roy+A.&rft.au=Minelli%2C+Laura+Laurencich&rft.au=Moss%2C+David+M.&rft.au=Moss%2C+Leonard+W.&rft.au=Denmark%2C+H.+R.+H.+Prince+Peter+of+Greece+and&rft.au=Pinto%2C+Diana&rft.au=Scotti%2C+Pietro&rft.au=Tentori%2C+Tullio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bookrags.com/research/de-martino-ernesto-eorl-04/"><i>De Martino, Ernesto Summary</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Martino%2C+Ernesto+Summary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bookrags.com%2Fresearch%2Fde-martino-ernesto-eorl-04%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolfgang Fikentscher: "Law and Anthropology: Outlines, Issues, and Suggestions", Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, C.H. Beck 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7696-0977-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7696-0977-6">978-3-7696-0977-6</a>; Axel Montenbruck: "Zivilisation. Eine Rechtsanthropologie. Staat und Mensch, Gewalt und Recht, Kultur und Natur", 2. Auflage, 2010. Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin, open access, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://edocs.fu-berlin.de/docs/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDOCS_derivate_000000001228/Zivilisation_2__Aufl__ORIGINAL_21_9.pdf?hosts=">http://edocs.fu-berlin.de/docs/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDOCS_derivate_000000001228/Zivilisation_2__Aufl__ORIGINAL_21_9.pdf?hosts=</a>; Axel Montenbruck: <i>Western Anthropology: Democracy and Dehumanization</i>. 2nd edition 2010, Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin. open access, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://edocs.fu-berlin.de/docs/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDOCS_derivate_000000001194/Western_Anthropology,_2nd_ed.pdf?hosts=">http://edocs.fu-berlin.de/docs/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/FUDOCS_derivate_000000001194/Western_Anthropology,_2nd_ed.pdf?hosts=</a>; Peter Sack, Carl P. Wellman, Mitsukuni Yasaki (Hrsg.): <i>Monismus oder Pluralismus der Rechtskulturen? Anthropologische und ethnologische Grundlagen traditioneller und moderner Rechtssysteme / Monistic or Pluralistic Legal Culture? Anthropological and Ethnological Foundations of Traditional and Modern Legal Systems</i>. Vorwort von / Preface by Ota Weinberger. 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-428-07193-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-428-07193-7">978-3-428-07193-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/anthropology/World-anthropology#ref236855">"Anthropology - World anthropology | Britannica"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anthropology+-+World+anthropology+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fanthropology%2FWorld-anthropology%23ref236855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asiaticsocietykolkata.org/history">"About us | Asiatic Society"</a>. <i>www.asiaticsocietykolkata.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.asiaticsocietykolkata.org&rft.atitle=About+us+%26%23124%3B+Asiatic+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asiaticsocietykolkata.org%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisley1908" class="citation web cs1">Risley, Herbert Hope (18 July 1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/peopleindia00rislgoog">"The people of India"</a>. Calcutta, Thacker, Spink & Co.; London, W. Thacker & Co<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+people+of+India&rft.pub=Calcutta%2C+Thacker%2C+Spink+%26+Co.%3B+London%2C+W.+Thacker+%26+Co.&rft.date=1908-07-18&rft.aulast=Risley&rft.aufirst=Herbert+Hope&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeopleindia00rislgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220706165844/https://elearning.skbu.ac.in/files/5C1F414516087060666.pdf">E-learning pages</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah2014" class="citation journal cs1">Shah, A.M. (2014). "Anthropology in Bombay, 1886-1936". <i>Sociological Bulletin</i>. <b>63</b> (3): 355–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0038022920140302">10.1177/0038022920140302</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43854979">43854979</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164875955">164875955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Anthropology+in+Bombay%2C+1886-1936&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=355-367&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164875955%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43854979%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0038022920140302&rft.aulast=Shah&rft.aufirst=A.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencecongress.nic.in/introduction.php">"Government of India, Indian Science Congress"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Government+of+India%2C+Indian+Science+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencecongress.nic.in%2Fintroduction.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120316084320/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b82_109.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.new.dli.ernet.in</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b82_109.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.new.dli.ernet.in&rft.atitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.new.dli.ernet.in%2Frawdataupload%2Fupload%2Finsa%2FINSA_1%2F20005b82_109.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay1974" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Shyamal Kumar (1974). <i>Bibliographies of eminent Indian anthropologists, with life-sketches</i>. Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2423245">2423245</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:182424319">182424319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bibliographies+of+eminent+Indian+anthropologists%2C+with+life-sketches&rft.pub=Anthropological+Survey+of+India%2C+Govt.+of+India&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2423245&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A182424319%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Shyamal+Kumar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sen Gupta, S., Folklorists of Bengal, Calcutta: Indian Publications, 1965</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98610/page/n83/mode/2up?view=theater">"Folklorists of Bengal"</a>. 1965.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Folklorists+of+Bengal&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.98610%2Fpage%2Fn83%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/42225080">"Late Rai Bahadur Ramaprasad Chanda"</a>. <i>Journal of the Indian Anthropological Institute</i>. <b>I</b> (1–2): i–iii. 1938.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Indian+Anthropological+Institute&rft.atitle=Late+Rai+Bahadur+Ramaprasad+Chanda&rft.volume=I&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=i-iii&rft.date=1938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F42225080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha1929" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Abhijit (January 1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/88937379">"Social Life in Ancient India: « Studies in Vatsyayana's * Kamasutra"</a>. <i>Book</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Book&rft.atitle=Social+Life+in+Ancient+India%3A+%C2%AB+Studies+in+Vatsyayana%27s+%2A+Kamasutra&rft.date=1929-01&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F88937379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBose2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bose, Kaushik (10 December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9847557">"Panchanan Mitra"</a>. <i>Current Science</i>. <b>91</b> (11).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Science&rft.atitle=Panchanan+Mitra&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=11&rft.date=2006-12-10&rft.aulast=Bose&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9847557&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinhaCoon1963" class="citation journal cs1">Sinha, D. P.; Coon, Carleton S. (1963). "Biraja Sankar Guha, 1894-1961". <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>65</b> (2): 382–387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1963.65.2.02a00120">10.1525/aa.1963.65.2.02a00120</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/667451">667451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Biraja+Sankar+Guha%2C+1894-1961&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=382-387&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1963.65.2.02a00120&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F667451%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=D.+P.&rft.au=Coon%2C+Carleton+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton1963" class="citation journal cs1">Hutton, J. H. (1963). "193. K. P. Chattopadhyay: 1898-1963". <i>Man</i>. <b>63</b>: 155–156. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2795702">2795702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=193.+K.+P.+Chattopadhyay%3A+1898-1963&rft.volume=63&rft.pages=155-156&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2795702%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2013" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Abhijit (March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3729599">"Tarak Chandra das: Contributions and Contemporary Relevance"</a>. <i>Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society</i>. <b>48</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Indian+Anthropological+Society&rft.atitle=Tarak+Chandra+das%3A+Contributions+and+Contemporary+Relevance&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2013-03&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3729599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDate/Time" class="citation web cs1">Date/Time. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ignca.gov.in/divisionss/kalakosa/kalasamalocana/nirmal-kumar-bose-memorial-lecture/">"Nirmal Kumar Bose Memorial Lecture"</a>. IGNCA<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nirmal+Kumar+Bose+Memorial+Lecture&rft.pub=IGNCA&rft.au=Date%2FTime&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fignca.gov.in%2Fdivisionss%2Fkalakosa%2Fkalasamalocana%2Fnirmal-kumar-bose-memorial-lecture%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2009" class="citation book cs1">Gupta, Arvind (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4290555">"Irawati Karve (1905-1970)"</a>. <i>Bright Sparks: Inspiring Indian Scientists from the Past</i>. Indian National Science Academy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Irawati+Karve+%281905-1970%29&rft.btitle=Bright+Sparks%3A+Inspiring+Indian+Scientists+from+the+Past&rft.pub=Indian+National+Science+Academy&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Arvind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4290555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020031709/http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/519/1/PDF%204.11HISTORY_OF_ANTHROPOLOGY_IN_INDIA01.pdf">History of anthropology in India</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (January 2022)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-INSA_::_Deceased_Fellow_Detail-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-INSA_::_Deceased_Fellow_Detail_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-INSA_::_Deceased_Fellow_Detail_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=N59-0703">"INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=INSA+%3A%3A+Deceased+Fellow+Detail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insaindia.res.in%2Fdetail.php%3Fid%3DN59-0703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMandelbaum1965" class="citation journal cs1">Mandelbaum, David G. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1965.67.2.02a00140">"Verrier Elwin 1902–1964"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>67</b> (2): 448–452. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1965.67.2.02a00140">10.1525/aa.1965.67.2.02a00140</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Verrier+Elwin+1902%E2%80%931964&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=448-452&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1965.67.2.02a00140&rft.aulast=Mandelbaum&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1965.67.2.02a00140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/majumdar-d-n">"Majumdar, D. N."</a> <i>www.encyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Majumdar%2C+D.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fsocial-sciences%2Fapplied-and-social-sciences-magazines%2Fmajumdar-d-n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ethnography">"Ethnography | Definition, Types, Examples, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. 8 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethnography+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+Types%2C+Examples%2C+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2023-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fethnography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/anthropometry">"Anthropometry | Human Body Measurement & Analysis"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Anthropometry+%26%23124%3B+Human+Body+Measurement+%26+Analysis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fanthropometry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/man-india-1">"Man in India"</a>. <i>INDIAN CULTURE</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=INDIAN+CULTURE&rft.atitle=Man+in+India&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indianculture.gov.in%2Febooks%2Fman-india-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy1921" class="citation journal cs1">Roy, S.C. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/42204318">"Anthropological Research in India"</a>. <i>Man in India</i>. <b>1</b>: 11–55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man+in+India&rft.atitle=Anthropological+Research+in+India&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=11-55&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=S.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F42204318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bulletin of Yale University 1941:295-296 & Nature 1936:750</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitra1933" class="citation journal cs1">Mitra, Panchanan (1933). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/42182714">"Research leads in Indian anthropology"</a>. <i>Man in India</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 1–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man+in+India&rft.atitle=Research+leads+in+Indian+anthropology&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Mitra&rft.aufirst=Panchanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F42182714&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy1938" class="citation journal cs1">Roy, Rai Bahadur Sarat Chandra (1938). "172. An Indian Outlook on Anthropology". <i>Man</i>. <b>38</b>: 146–150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2793210">10.2307/2793210</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2793210">2793210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=172.+An+Indian+Outlook+on+Anthropology&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=146-150&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2793210&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2793210%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Rai+Bahadur+Sarat+Chandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2019" class="citation web cs1">Guha, Abhijit (December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337935435">"Bhupendranath Datta: An Unnoticed Indian Anthropologist"</a> – via <a href="/wiki/ResearchGate" title="ResearchGate">ResearchGate</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bhupendranath+Datta%3A+An+Unnoticed+Indian+Anthropologist&rft.date=2019-12&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F337935435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://udrc.lkouniv.ac.in/Department/DepartmentDetail/History?dept=2">Department detail</a> lkouniv.ac.in <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoshi2015" class="citation journal cs1">Joshi, P.C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/25209815">"Advent of Anthropology and the birth of Social Anthropology in Delhi University"</a>. <i>Eastern Anthropologist</i>. <b>68</b> (1): 35–41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eastern+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Advent+of+Anthropology+and+the+birth+of+Social+Anthropology+in+Delhi+University&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-41&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Joshi&rft.aufirst=P.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F25209815&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/deptpage&deptid=7">"Welcome to University of Madras"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome+to+University+of+Madras&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unom.ac.in%2Findex.php%3Froute%3Ddepartment%2Fdepartment%2Fdeptpage%26deptid%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unipune.ac.in/dept/mental_moral_and_social_science/anthropology/default.htm">"Department of Anthropology : Savitribai Phule Pune University"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Anthropology+%3A+Savitribai+Phule+Pune+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unipune.ac.in%2Fdept%2Fmental_moral_and_social_science%2Fanthropology%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ranchiuniversity.ac.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=103&Itemid=287">"Anthropology - Official Website of Ranchi University, Ranchi"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anthropology+-+Official+Website+of+Ranchi+University%2C+Ranchi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ranchiuniversity.ac.in%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D103%26Itemid%3D287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElwin1948" class="citation journal cs1">Elwin, Verrier (1948). "The Anthropological Survey of India: Part I, History and Recent Development". <i>Man</i>. <b>48</b>: 68–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2793255">10.2307/2793255</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2793255">2793255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=The+Anthropological+Survey+of+India%3A+Part+I%2C+History+and+Recent+Development&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=68-69&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2793255&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2793255%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Elwin&rft.aufirst=Verrier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Department of Anthropology, Government of India". <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>50</b> (3): 576–581. 1948. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1948.50.3.02a00250">10.1525/aa.1948.50.3.02a00250</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/664314">664314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Department+of+Anthropology%2C+Government+of+India&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=576-581&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1948.50.3.02a00250&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F664314%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211108200040/https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/modelcurriculum/anthro.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/modelcurriculum/anthro.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ugc.ac.in%2Foldpdf%2Fmodelcurriculum%2Fanthro.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Social_Anthropology_of_B.S._Guha-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Social_Anthropology_of_B.S._Guha_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Social_Anthropology_of_B.S._Guha_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2018" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Abhijit (2018). "Social Anthropology of B.S. Guha: An Exploration". <i>Indian Anthropologist</i>. <b>48</b> (1): 1–12. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26633108">26633108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Social+Anthropology+of+B.S.+Guha%3A+An+Exploration&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26633108%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=N40-0428">"INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=INSA+%3A%3A+Deceased+Fellow+Detail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insaindia.res.in%2Fdetail.php%3Fid%3DN40-0428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha" class="citation web cs1">Guha, Abhijit. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37456368">"Progress of Anthropology and Archaeology in India by Nirmal Kumar Bose"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Progress+of+Anthropology+and+Archaeology+in+India+by+Nirmal+Kumar+Bose&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F37456368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ansi.gov.in/profile/">"Profile | Anthropological Survey of India"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Profile+%26%23124%3B+Anthropological+Survey+of+India&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fansi.gov.in%2Fprofile%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBharati1980" class="citation journal cs1">Bharati, Agehananda (1980). "Rise of Anthropology in India. Vol. 1, The Tribal Dimensions. Vol. 2, The Rural, Urban and Other Dimensions. L. P. Vidyarthi". <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>82</b> (1): 215–216. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1980.82.1.02a00960">10.1525/aa.1980.82.1.02a00960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Rise+of+Anthropology+in+India.+Vol.+1%2C+The+Tribal+Dimensions.+Vol.+2%2C+The+Rural%2C+Urban+and+Other+Dimensions.+L.+P.+Vidyarthi.&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=215-216&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1980.82.1.02a00960&rft.aulast=Bharati&rft.aufirst=Agehananda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=N84-0165">"INSA :: Deceased Fellow Detail"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=INSA+%3A%3A+Deceased+Fellow+Detail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insaindia.res.in%2Fdetail.php%3Fid%3DN84-0165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210917205414/http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/519/1/PDF%204.11HISTORY_OF_ANTHROPOLOGY_IN_INDIA01.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/519/1/PDF%204.11HISTORY_OF_ANTHROPOLOGY_IN_INDIA01.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnsdl.niscair.res.in%2Fjspui%2Fbitstream%2F123456789%2F519%2F1%2FPDF%25204.11HISTORY_OF_ANTHROPOLOGY_IN_INDIA01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ignca.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/NKBose001.pdf">"Nirmal Kumar Bose Memorial Lecture First (1993)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ignca.gov.in</i>. July 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ignca.gov.in&rft.atitle=Nirmal+Kumar+Bose+Memorial+Lecture+First+%281993%29&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fignca.gov.in%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F07%2FNKBose001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bose, N.K. (1974).Anthropology after fifty years. In D.Sen (Ed.) Indian Anthropology Today (pp. i-iv). Calcutta: Department of Anthropology, Calcutta University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.downtoearth.org.in/interviews/tribals-conserve-to-survive-25422">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Tribals conserve to survive"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>www.downtoearth.org.in</i>. 29 February 1996<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.downtoearth.org.in&rft.atitle=%22Tribals+conserve+to+survive%22&rft.date=1996-02-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.downtoearth.org.in%2Finterviews%2Ftribals-conserve-to-survive-25422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ansi.gov.in/people-of-india/">"People of India | Antropological Survey of India"</a>. <i>ansi.gov.in</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ansi.gov.in&rft.atitle=People+of+India+%26%23124%3B+Antropological+Survey+of+India&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fansi.gov.in%2Fpeople-of-india%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha1954" class="citation book cs1">Guha, B.S., ed. (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28062310"><i>Studies in Social Tensions among the refugees from eastern Pakistan</i></a>. Memoirs. Vol. 1. Delhi: The Manager of Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Social+Tensions+among+the+refugees+from+eastern+Pakistan&rft.place=Delhi&rft.series=Memoirs&rft.pub=The+Manager+of+Publications&rft.date=1954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28062310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatterjee1954" class="citation book cs1">Chatterjee, B. K. (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28062296">"Part I: JIRAT"</a>. In Guha, B.S. (ed.). <i>Studies in Social Tensions among the refugees from eastern Pakistan</i>. Memoirs. Vol. 1. Delhi: The Manager of Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+I%3A+JIRAT&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Social+Tensions+among+the+refugees+from+eastern+Pakistan&rft.place=Delhi&rft.series=Memoirs&rft.pub=The+Manager+of+Publications&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Chatterjee&rft.aufirst=B.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28062296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChatterjee1954" class="citation book cs1">Chatterjee, B. K. (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28061604">"Part II: AZADGARH"</a>. In Guha, B.S. (ed.). <i>Studies in Social Tensions among the refugees from eastern Pakistan</i>. Memoirs. Vol. 1. Delhi: The Manager of Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+II%3A+AZADGARH&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Social+Tensions+among+the+refugees+from+eastern+Pakistan&rft.place=Delhi&rft.series=Memoirs&rft.pub=The+Manager+of+Publications&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Chatterjee&rft.aufirst=B.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28061604&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2018" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Abhijit (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38354579">"Social anthropology of B.S. Guha: An Exploration"</a>. <i>Indian Anthropologist</i>: 1–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Social+anthropology+of+B.S.+Guha%3A+An+Exploration&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F38354579&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2021" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Abhijit (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/50251486">"Nation Building on the Margins: How the Anthropologists of India Contributed?"</a>. <i>Sociological Bulletin</i>. <b>70</b> (1): 59–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0038022920956753">10.1177/0038022920956753</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225121400">225121400</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Nation+Building+on+the+Margins%3A+How+the+Anthropologists+of+India+Contributed%3F&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-75&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0038022920956753&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225121400%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F50251486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2022" class="citation book cs1">Guha, Abhijit (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003341581/nation-building-indian-anthropology-abhijit-guha"><i>Nation-Building in Indian Anthropology: Beyond the Colonial Encounter</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003341581">10.4324/9781003341581</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781003341581" title="Special:BookSources/9781003341581"><bdi>9781003341581</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252881003">252881003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nation-Building+in+Indian+Anthropology%3A+Beyond+the+Colonial+Encounter&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252881003%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003341581&rft.isbn=9781003341581&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Fmono%2F10.4324%2F9781003341581%2Fnation-building-indian-anthropology-abhijit-guha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDas1949" class="citation journal cs1">Das, Tarakchandra (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/5768071">"Bengal Famine (1943): As revealed in a survey of the destitutes of Calcutta"</a>. <i>Bengal Famine (1943): As Revealed in a Survey of the Destitutes of Calcutta.1949.Calcutta University: Calcutta</i>. University of Calcutta.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bengal+Famine+%281943%29%3A+As+Revealed+in+a+Survey+of+the+Destitutes+of+Calcutta.1949.Calcutta+University%3A+Calcutta&rft.atitle=Bengal+Famine+%281943%29%3A+As+revealed+in+a+survey+of+the+destitutes+of+Calcutta&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Tarakchandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F5768071&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2019" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Abhijit (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/50027688">"A Forgotten Book by a Marginalised Anthropologist"</a>. <i>Social Change</i>. <b>49</b> (3): 493. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0049085719863892">10.1177/0049085719863892</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204395389">204395389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Change&rft.atitle=A+Forgotten+Book+by+a+Marginalised+Anthropologist&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=493&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0049085719863892&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A204395389%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F50027688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sen, A. (1999). Poverty and Famines: An essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tauger, M.(2009). ‘The Indian Famine Crises of World War II’. British Scholar, Vol.I, Issue 2,166-96, March, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Das Gupta, B.K., Basu, A., Raychaudhuri, B., Gupta, P. (1985). <i>Proceedings of the Symposium on Purum (Chote) Revisited</i>. Anthropological Survey of India. Department of Culture, Govt. of India. Calcutta.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1955" class="citation journal cs1">Sinha, Surajit Chandra (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/43081120">"Resettlement of East Pakistani Refugees in Andaman Islands by Surajit Sinha"</a>. <i>Government Report</i>. Government of West Bengal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Government+Report&rft.atitle=Resettlement+of+East+Pakistani+Refugees+in+Andaman+Islands+by+Surajit+Sinha&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Surajit+Chandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F43081120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundar2010" class="citation book cs1">Sundar, Nandini (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/53293396">"In the Cause of Anthropology: The Life and Work of Irawati Karve"</a>. In P. Uberoi; N. Sundar; S. Deshpande (eds.). <i>Anthropology in the East: Founders of Indian Sociology and Anthropology</i>. Ranikhet: Permanent Black. pp. 360–416.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=In+the+Cause+of+Anthropology%3A+The+Life+and+Work+of+Irawati+Karve&rft.btitle=Anthropology+in+the+East%3A+Founders+of+Indian+Sociology+and+Anthropology&rft.place=Ranikhet&rft.pages=360-416&rft.pub=Permanent+Black&rft.date=2010-01&rft.aulast=Sundar&rft.aufirst=Nandini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F53293396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrawati_KarveJai_Nimbkar" class="citation book cs1">Irawati Karve; Jai Nimbkar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28000266"><i>A survey of the people displaced from Koyna dam by Irwati Karve Jai Nimbakar PART I</i></a>. Building Centenary and Silver Jubilee Series. Vol. 61. Deccan College.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+survey+of+the+people+displaced+from+Koyna+dam+by+Irwati+Karve+Jai+Nimbakar+PART+I&rft.series=Building+Centenary+and+Silver+Jubilee+Series&rft.pub=Deccan+College&rft.au=Irawati+Karve&rft.au=Jai+Nimbkar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28000266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrawati_KarveJai_Nimbkar" class="citation book cs1">Irawati Karve; Jai Nimbkar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28000306"><i>A survey of the people displaced from Koyna dam by Irwati Karve Jai Nimbakar PART II</i></a>. Building Centenary and Silver Jubilee Series. Vol. 61. Deccan College.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+survey+of+the+people+displaced+from+Koyna+dam+by+Irwati+Karve+Jai+Nimbakar+PART+II&rft.series=Building+Centenary+and+Silver+Jubilee+Series&rft.pub=Deccan+College&rft.au=Irawati+Karve&rft.au=Jai+Nimbkar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28000306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/roy-burman-passes-away/article3573771.ece">"Roy Burman passes away"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. 27 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Roy+Burman+passes+away&rft.date=2012-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindu.com%2Fnews%2Fnational%2Froy-burman-passes-away%2Farticle3573771.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCernea1995" class="citation journal cs1">Cernea, Michael. M (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/624861468739784522/pdf/multi0page.pdf">"Social integration and population displacement: the contribution of social science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Social Science Journal</i>. <b>143</b> (1): 91–112. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/895509648">895509648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Social+Science+Journal&rft.atitle=Social+integration+and+population+displacement%3A+the+contribution+of+social+science&rft.volume=143&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=91-112&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F895509648&rft.aulast=Cernea&rft.aufirst=Michael.+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocuments1.worldbank.org%2Fcurated%2Fen%2F624861468739784522%2Fpdf%2Fmulti0page.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.S._TandonP._N._SaxenaB._K._Roy_BurmanA._Mitra1968" class="citation journal cs1">J.S. Tandon; P. N. Saxena; B. K. Roy Burman; A. Mitra (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/52884791">"Census of India 1961, Part XI E: Social Processes in the Industrialization of Rourkela"</a>. <i>Monograph</i>. Monograph Series. <b>1</b>. Office of the Registrar General, India.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monograph&rft.atitle=Census+of+India+1961%2C+Part+XI+E%3A+Social+Processes+in+the+Industrialization+of+Rourkela&rft.volume=1&rft.date=1968&rft.au=J.S.+Tandon&rft.au=P.+N.+Saxena&rft.au=B.+K.+Roy+Burman&rft.au=A.+Mitra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F52884791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSachchidananda1973" class="citation journal cs1">Sachchidananda (1973). "Planning, Development and Applied Anthropology in India". <i>Indian Anthropologist</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 1–16. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41919227">41919227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Planning%2C+Development+and+Applied+Anthropology+in+India&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41919227%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Sachchidananda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVIDYARTHI1972" class="citation journal cs1">VIDYARTHI, L.P. (1972). "Problems and Prospects of Tribal Development in India". <i>Indian Anthropologist</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 80–93. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41919217">41919217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Problems+and+Prospects+of+Tribal+Development+in+India&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=80-93&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41919217%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=VIDYARTHI&rft.aufirst=L.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurman1989" class="citation journal cs1">Burman, B. K. Roy (1989). "Problems and Prospects of Tribal Development in North-East India". <i>Economic and Political Weekly</i>. <b>24</b> (13): 693–697. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4394606">4394606</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+and+Political+Weekly&rft.atitle=Problems+and+Prospects+of+Tribal+Development+in+North-East+India&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=693-697&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4394606%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Burman&rft.aufirst=B.+K.+Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanguly1974" class="citation journal cs1">Ganguly, Pranab (1974). "Variation in physique in North India in relation to urbanization and economic status". <i>Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 3–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbmsap.1974.2087">10.3406/bmsap.1974.2087</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletins+et+M%C3%A9moires+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+d%27anthropologie+de+Paris&rft.atitle=Variation+in+physique+in+North+India+in+relation+to+urbanization+and+economic+status&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-43&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fbmsap.1974.2087&rft.aulast=Ganguly&rft.aufirst=Pranab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">file:///C:/Users/AG/Downloads/CurrSC1993641.pdf <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211112215021/http://library.isical.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10263/950/1/CA-11-1-1987-P233-250.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.isical.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10263/950/1/CA-11-1-1987-P233-250.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.isical.ac.in%3A8080%2Fjspui%2Fbitstream%2F10263%2F950%2F1%2FCA-11-1-1987-P233-250.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha1974" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Abhijit (January 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/32149234">"An Anthropologist in search of a purpose by Amitabha Basu"</a>. <i>Indian Museum Bulletin</i>. <b>9</b> (2) (published July 1974).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Museum+Bulletin&rft.atitle=An+Anthropologist+in+search+of+a+purpose+by+Amitabha+Basu&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1974-01&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Abhijit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F32149234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of important publications in anthropology">List of important publications in anthropology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fieldnotes_and_memoirs_of_anthropologists">Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Fieldnotes and memoirs of anthropologists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarley1983" class="citation book cs1">Barley, Nigel (1983). <i>he innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut</i>. London: British Museum Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=he+innocent+anthropologist%3A+notes+from+a+mud+hut&rft.place=London&rft.pub=British+Museum+Publications&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Barley&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeertz1995" class="citation book cs1">Geertz, Clifford (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afterfacttwocoun00geer"><i>After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674008717" title="Special:BookSources/9780674008717"><bdi>9780674008717</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+fact%3A+two+countries%2C+four+decades%2C+one+anthropologist&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780674008717&rft.aulast=Geertz&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafterfacttwocoun00geer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967" class="citation book cs1">Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967). <i>Tristes tropiques</i>. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tristes+tropiques&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atheneum&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vi-Strauss&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalinowski1967" class="citation book cs1">Malinowski, Bronislaw (1967). <i>A diary in the strict sense of the term</i>. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+diary+in+the+strict+sense+of+the+term&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace+%26+World&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Malinowski&rft.aufirst=Bronislaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinow1977" class="citation book cs1">Rabinow, Paul (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L0Xpj6gSY6gC"><i>Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+Fieldwork+in+Morocco&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Rabinow&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL0Xpj6gSY6gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_anthropology">History of anthropology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: History of anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsad1973" class="citation book cs1">Asad, Talal, ed. (1973). <i>Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter</i>. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthropology+%26+the+Colonial+Encounter&rft.place=Atlantic+Highlands%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Humanities+Press&rft.date=1973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarthGingrichParkin2005" class="citation book cs1">Barth, Fredrik; Gingrich, Andre; Parkin, Robert (2005). <i>One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Discipline%2C+Four+Ways%3A+British%2C+German%2C+French%2C+and+American+anthropology&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=Fredrik&rft.au=Gingrich%2C+Andre&rft.au=Parkin%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuck1933" class="citation book cs1">Buck, Carl Darling (1933). <i>Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin</i>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Grammar+of+Greek+and+Latin&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Buck&rft.aufirst=Carl+Darling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cerroni-Long, E. L., ed. (1999) <i>Anthropological Theory in North America</i>. Westport: Berin & Garvey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110419231431/http://www.anthro.ucsd.edu/~rdandrad/Sadstory">download</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarnell2001" class="citation book cs1">Darnell, Regna. (2001). <i>Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology</i>. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invisible+Genealogies%3A+A+History+of+Americanist+Anthropology&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+NE&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Darnell&rft.aufirst=Regna.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hamilton, Michelle A. (2010) <i>Collections and Objections: Aboriginal Material Culture in Southern Ontario.</i> Montreal: MQUP.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1991" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Marvin (1991) [1977]. <i>Cannibals and kings : origins of cultures</i>. New York; Toronto: Vintage Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cannibals+and+kings+%3A+origins+of+cultures&rft.place=New+York%3B+Toronto&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1999" class="citation book cs1">—— (1999). <i>Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times</i>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+Culture+in+Postmodern+Times&rft.place=Walnut+Creek%2C+CA&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2001" class="citation book cs1">—— (2001) [1968]. <i>The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture</i>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+of+anthropological+theory%3A+a+history+of+theories+of+culture&rft.place=Walnut+Creek%2C+CA&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Marvin.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hinsley, Curtis M. and David R. Wilcox, eds. <i>Coming of Age in Chicago: The 1893 World's Fair and the Coalescence of American Anthropology</i> (University of Nebraska Press, 2016). xliv, 574 pp.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt1863" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, James (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pzYpAQAAIAAJ">"Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology"</a>. <i>The Anthropological Review</i>. <b>I</b>. London: Trübner & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Anthropological+Review&rft.atitle=Introductory+Address+on+the+Study+of+Anthropology&rft.volume=I&rft.date=1863&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpzYpAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehoe1998" class="citation book cs1">Kehoe, Alice B. (1998). <i>The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology</i>. New York; London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Land+of+Prehistory%3A+A+Critical+History+of+American+Archaeology&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Kehoe&rft.aufirst=Alice+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Killan, Gerald. (1983) <i>David Boyle: From Artisan to Archaeologist.</i> Toronto: UTP.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott1940" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>. Revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie. Oxford, UK; Medford, MA: Clarendon Press; Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK%3B+Medford%2C+MA&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press%3B+Perseus+Digital+Library&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelsSalemink2000" class="citation book cs1">Pels, Peter; Salemink, Oscar, eds. (2000). <i>Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+Subjects%3A+Essays+on+the+Practical+History+of+Anthropology&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Redman, Samuel J. Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2016.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSera-Shriar2013" class="citation book cs1">Sera-Shriar, Efram (2013). <i>The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871</i>. Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18. London; Vermont: Pickering and Chatto.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+British+Anthropology%2C+1813%E2%80%931871&rft.place=London%3B+Vermont&rft.series=Science+and+Culture+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%2C+18&rft.pub=Pickering+and+Chatto&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Sera-Shriar&rft.aufirst=Efram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStocking1968" class="citation book cs1">Stocking, George Jr. (1968). <i>Race, Culture and Evolution</i>. New York: Free Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Culture+and+Evolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Stocking&rft.aufirst=George+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiedmanMartinez2021" class="citation book cs1">Wiedman, Dennis W.; Martinez, Iveris L. (2021). "Anthropologists in Medical Education in the United States: 1890s to the Present". <i>Anthropology in Medical Education</i>. pp. 13–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-62277-0_2">10.1007/978-3-030-62277-0_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-62276-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-62276-3"><bdi>978-3-030-62276-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234104348">234104348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anthropologists+in+Medical+Education+in+the+United+States%3A+1890s+to+the+Present&rft.btitle=Anthropology+in+Medical+Education&rft.pages=13-51&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234104348%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-62277-0_2&rft.isbn=978-3-030-62276-3&rft.aulast=Wiedman&rft.aufirst=Dennis+W.&rft.au=Martinez%2C+Iveris+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120508171536/http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/anthropology/?ar_a=1">"Encyclopedic Entry: Anthropology"</a>. <i>Education</i>. National Geographic. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/anthropology/?ar_a=1">the original</a> on 8 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Education&rft.atitle=Encyclopedic+Entry%3A+Anthropology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feducation.nationalgeographic.com%2Feducation%2Fencyclopedia%2Fanthropology%2F%3Far_a%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130621091228/http://www.insticeagestudies.com/library/historical-trends-in-anthropological-thought-2.shtml">"Historical Trends in Anthropological Thought"</a>. Institute for Ice Age Studies. 12 January 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.insticeagestudies.com/library/historical-trends-in-anthropological-thought-2.shtml">the original</a> on 21 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+Trends+in+Anthropological+Thought&rft.pub=Institute+for+Ice+Age+Studies&rft.date=2008-01-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.insticeagestudies.com%2Flibrary%2Fhistorical-trends-in-anthropological-thought-2.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElwell2007" class="citation web cs1">Elwell, Frank W. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faculty.rsu.edu/users/f/felwell/www/Theorists/Essays/Harris1.htm">"Harris on the Universal Structure of Societies"</a>. Socio-cultural Systems.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harris+on+the+Universal+Structure+of+Societies&rft.pub=Socio-cultural+Systems&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Elwell&rft.aufirst=Frank+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faculty.rsu.edu%2Fusers%2Ff%2Ffelwell%2Fwww%2FTheorists%2FEssays%2FHarris1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historyscoper.com/anthropologistscope.html">The Historyscoper</a></li> <li>BEROSE International Encyclopaedia of the Histories of Anthropology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.berose.fr/?lang=en">https://www.berose.fr/?lang=en</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_anthropology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_anthropology" title="Template:History of anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_anthropology" title="Template talk:History of anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_anthropology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of anthropology</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of anthropology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By decade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1870s_in_anthropology" title="1870s in anthropology">1870s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880s_in_anthropology" title="1880s in anthropology">1880s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1890s_in_anthropology" title="1890s in anthropology">1890s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900s_in_anthropology" title="1900s in anthropology">1900s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1910s_in_anthropology" title="1910s in anthropology">1910s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920s_in_anthropology" title="1920s in anthropology">1920s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1930s_in_anthropology" title="1930s in anthropology">1930s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940s_in_anthropology" title="1940s in anthropology">1940s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1950s_in_anthropology" title="1950s in anthropology">1950s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960s_in_anthropology" title="1960s in anthropology">1960s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970s_in_anthropology" title="1970s in anthropology">1970s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980s_in_anthropology" title="1980s in anthropology">1980s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_in_anthropology" title="1990s in anthropology">1990s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_in_anthropology" title="2000s in anthropology">2000s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_in_anthropology" title="2010s in anthropology">2010s</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_science" title="Template:History of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Theories and sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/80px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/120px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/160px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5880" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">Ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Argentina" title="History of science and technology in Argentina">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="History of science and technology in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Mexico" title="History of science and technology in Mexico">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Russia">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="History of science and technology in Spain">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_natural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="History of natural science">Natural sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences#History_of_Earth_science" title="Outline of Earth sciences">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">Algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_combinatorics" title="History of combinatorics">Combinatorics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">Geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_probability" title="History of probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_statistics" title="History of statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry">Trigonometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">Social sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_science" title="History of political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Human medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_veterinary_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neurology_and_neurosurgery" title="History of neurology and neurosurgery">Neurology and neurosurgery </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pathology" title="History of pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines#Science" title="List of timelines">Timelines</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">Portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science" title="Category:History of science">Category</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&oldid=1253265697">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&oldid=1253265697</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_social_sciences" title="Category:History of social sciences">History of social sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2022" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2022">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:Articles with French-language sources (fr)">Articles with French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">CS1 maint: archived copy as title</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_self-published_sources" title="Category:All articles with self-published sources">All articles with self-published sources</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_self-published_sources_from_January_2022" title="Category:Articles with self-published sources from January 2022">Articles with self-published sources from January 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_February_2022" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from February 2022">Articles with dead external links from February 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_January_2022" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2022">Articles with dead external links from January 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2023">Use dmy dates from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2011" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2011">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2013" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_that_may_contain_original_research" title="Category:All articles that may contain original research">All articles that may contain original research</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_that_may_contain_original_research_from_June_2024" title="Category:Articles that may contain original research from June 2024">Articles that may contain original research from June 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_title" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing title">CS1 errors: missing title</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 October 2024, at 03:40<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_anthropology&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-84779d6bf6-wmcb5","wgBackendResponseTime":146,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.313","walltime":"1.600","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10242,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":271771,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":11941,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":410633,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1394.913 1 -total"," 56.16% 783.392 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.71% 191.284 16 Template:Fix"," 13.38% 186.706 34 Template:Cite_web"," 11.13% 155.288 37 Template:Cite_journal"," 10.43% 145.423 10 Template:Page_needed"," 9.67% 134.933 24 Template:Delink"," 9.48% 132.267 34 Template:Cite_book"," 7.30% 101.804 3 Template:Lang"," 7.27% 101.388 1 Template:Anthropology"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.848","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":17637053,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAhmed1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsad1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarley1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarthGingrichParkin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBharati1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBose2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuck1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurman1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCernea1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChatterjee1954\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDarnell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDas1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDate/Time\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElwell2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElwin1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEriksenNielsen1013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGanguly1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeertz1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoody1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrottanelliAusendaBernardiBianchi1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGuha2019\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGuha2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartog1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeyckStockingGoody1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutton1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrawati_KarveJai_Nimbkar\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJ.S._TandonP._N._SaxenaB._K._Roy_BurmanA._Mitra1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoshi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKehoe1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalinowski1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMandelbaum1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMauss1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitra1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Rankov_Radosavljevich1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelsSalemink2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabinow1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedfield1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRisley1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSachchidananda1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSera-Shriar2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShah2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinha1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinhaCoon1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpiro2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStocking1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStocking1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSundar2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTapper1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVIDYARTHI1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVotruba\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalbridge1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiedmanMartinez2021\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 34,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 34,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History Of Anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 16,\n [\"History of anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"History of science\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Original research inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 10,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Self-published inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-5dc468848-lnq6l","timestamp":"20241124164149","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of anthropology","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_anthropology","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3136952","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3136952","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-03-31T23:30:24Z","dateModified":"2024-10-25T03:40:43Z","headline":"18th- and 19th-century study of man"}</script> </body> </html>