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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Timeline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_the_Achaemenid_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_the_Achaemenid_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Origin of the Achaemenid dynasty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_the_Achaemenid_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_and_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_and_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Formation and expansion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_and_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-550s_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#550s_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 550s BC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-550s_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-540s_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#540s_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 540s BC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-540s_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-530s_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#530s_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 530s BC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-530s_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-520s_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#520s_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 520s BC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-520s_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-510s_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#510s_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.5 510s BC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-510s_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-5th_century_BC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#5th_century_BC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.6 5th century BC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-5th_century_BC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greco-Persian_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greco-Persian_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Greco-Persian Wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Persian_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_phase_and_Zoroastrian_reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_phase_and_Zoroastrian_reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Cultural phase and Zoroastrian reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_phase_and_Zoroastrian_reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_conquest_of_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_conquest_of_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Second conquest of Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_conquest_of_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_to_Alexander_III_of_Macedon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_to_Alexander_III_of_Macedon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Fall to Alexander III of Macedon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_to_Alexander_III_of_Macedon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descendants_in_later_Persian_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descendants_in_later_Persian_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Descendants in later Persian dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descendants_in_later_Persian_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Coinage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tax_districts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tax_districts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Tax districts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tax_districts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_and_communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_and_communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Transportation and communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_and_communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Military </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Military subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Ethnic composition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infantry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infantry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Infantry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infantry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cavalry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cavalry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Cavalry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cavalry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Navy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Customs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Customs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Customs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Customs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture_and_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture_and_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Architecture and art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture_and_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tombs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tombs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Tombs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tombs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rulers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rulers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Rulers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rulers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Achaemenid Empire</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 104 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-104" aria-hidden="true" > 104 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenidiese_Ryk" title="Achaemenidiese Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Achaemenidiese Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الأخمينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الأخمينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Aquemenida" title="Imperio Aquemenida – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Aquemenida" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amir%C3%A3ria_Persan%C3%A3" title="Amirãria Persanã – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Amirãria Persanã" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="হাক্হ্মানী সাম্ৰাজ্য – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="হাক্হ্মানী সাম্ৰাজ্য" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_aquem%C3%A9nida" title="Imperiu aqueménida – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu aqueménida" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fh%C9%99m%C9%99nil%C9%99r_d%C3%B6vl%C9%99ti" title="Əhəmənilər dövləti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əhəmənilər dövləti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D8%A4%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="هخامنشیلر دؤولتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هخامنشیلر دؤولتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="হাখমানেশি সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হাখমানেশি সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenes_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Achaemenes Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Achaemenes Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D2%BB%D3%99%D0%BC%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B8%D2%99%D3%99%D1%80_%D0%B4%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Әһәмәниҙәр дәүләте – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Әһәмәниҙәр дәүләте" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Дзяржава Ахеменідаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дзяржава Ахеменідаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Дзяржава Ахемэнідаў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дзяржава Ахемэнідаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Ахеменидско царство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ахеменидско царство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahemenidsko_Carstvo" title="Ahemenidsko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ahemenidsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impalaeriezh_an_Ac%27haemenided" title="Impalaeriezh an Ac'haemenided – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Impalaeriezh an Ac'haemenided" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Aquem%C3%A8nida" title="Imperi Aquemènida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Aquemènida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D3%91%D1%85%D3%97" title="Ахеменидсен патшалӑхӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ахеменидсен патшалӑхӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Persyano" title="Imperyong Persyano – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Imperyong Persyano" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaimenovsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Achaimenovská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Achaimenovská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Ymerodraeth_Achaemenaidd" title="Yr Ymerodraeth Achaemenaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Ymerodraeth Achaemenaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ach%C3%A6menidiske_rige" title="Achæmenidiske rige – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Achæmenidiske rige" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ach%C3%A4menidenreich" title="Achämenidenreich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Achämenidenreich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahhemeniidide_riik" title="Ahhemeniidide riik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ahhemeniidide riik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αχαιμενιδική Αυτοκρατορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αχαιμενιδική Αυτοκρατορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_aquem%C3%A9nida" title="Imperio aqueménida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio aqueménida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C4%A5emenida_Imperio" title="Aĥemenida Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aĥemenida Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akemenestar_Inperioa" title="Akemenestar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Akemenestar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%D9%87%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="شاهنشاهی هخامنشی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شاهنشاهی هخامنشی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ach%C3%A9m%C3%A9nides" title="Achéménides – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Achéménides" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Impireacht_Acaeim%C3%A9ineach" title="An Impireacht Acaeiméineach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Impireacht Acaeiméineach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Aquem%C3%A9nida" title="Imperio Aqueménida – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Aqueménida" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86" title="هخامنشيان – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="هخامنشيان" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%82_Ti-koet" title="Pô-sṳ̂ Ti-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Pô-sṳ̂ Ti-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%BC%80%EB%A9%94%EB%84%A4%EC%8A%A4_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="아케메네스 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아케메네스 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Achaemenid" title="Daular Achaemenid – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Achaemenid" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%84%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աքեմենյան պետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աքեմենյան պետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="हख़ामनी साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हख़ामनी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahemenidsko_Carstvo" title="Ahemenidsko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ahemenidsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Akhemeniyah" title="Kekaisaran Akhemeniyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekaisaran Akhemeniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persaveldi" title="Persaveldi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Persaveldi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_achemenide" title="Impero achemenide – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero achemenide" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הפרסית האחמנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הפרסית האחמנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="აქემენიანთა იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აქემენიანთა იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D3%99%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Ахемен әулеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ахемен әулеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ach%C3%A9m%C3%A9nid" title="Achéménid – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Achéménid" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Hexameni%C5%9F%C3%AE" title="Împeratoriya Hexamenişî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Hexamenişî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B4%D3%A9%D3%A9%D0%BB%D3%A9%D1%82%D2%AF" title="Ахеменилер дөөлөтү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ахеменилер дөөлөтү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imper_achemenid" title="Imper achemenid – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Imper achemenid" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Achaemenidarum" title="Imperium Achaemenidarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperium Achaemenidarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahemen%C4%ABdu_imp%C4%93rija" title="Ahemenīdu impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ahemenīdu impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achemenid%C5%B3_imperija" title="Achemenidų imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Achemenidų imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Acemenan" title="Impero Acemenan – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Acemenan" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93perzsa_Birodalom" title="Óperzsa Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Óperzsa Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Ахеменидско Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ахеменидско Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akemenida" title="Akemenida – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Akemenida" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ഹഖാമനി സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹഖാമനി സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emepaea_Achaemenid" title="Emepaea Achaemenid – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Emepaea Achaemenid" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="हखामनी साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हखामनी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="აქემენიანეფიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აქემენიანეფიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الشاهنشاهيه الاخمينيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الشاهنشاهيه الاخمينيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="هخامنشیون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="هخامنشیون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Hakhamaniyah" title="Empayar Hakhamaniyah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Hakhamaniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Ахеменидын эзэнт гүрэн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ахеменидын эзэнт гүрэн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemeniden" title="Achaemeniden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Achaemeniden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="अखामनी साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अखामनी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B1%E3%83%A1%E3%83%8D%E3%82%B9%E6%9C%9D" title="アケメネス朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アケメネス朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akamenidedynastiet" title="Akamenidedynastiet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Akamenidedynastiet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Aquemenida" title="Empèri Aquemenida – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Aquemenida" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahamoniylar_davlati" title="Ahamoniylar davlati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ahamoniylar davlati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ہخامنشی سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہخامنشی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%8A" title="هخامنشیانو سترواکي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هخامنشیانو سترواکي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Achemenid%C3%B3w" title="Imperium Achemenidów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Imperium Achemenidów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Aquem%C3%AAnida" title="Império Aquemênida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Aquemênida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axamaniyler" title="Axamaniyler – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Axamaniyler" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahameni%C5%9F_%C4%B0mparatorl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Ahameniş İmparatorlığı – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Ahameniş İmparatorlığı" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Ahemenid" title="Imperiul Ahemenid – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Ahemenid" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Держава Ахеменидов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Держава Ахеменидов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="हक्षामणी साम्राज्यम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="हक्षामणी साम्राज्यम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Achaemenid Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Akaemenide" title="Perandoria Akaemenide – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Akaemenide" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Achaemenid Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%AA%D8%A6%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%DA%8A" title="اڪئمنيڊ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اڪئمنيڊ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staroperzsk%C3%A1_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Staroperzská ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroperzská ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahemenidsko_cesarstvo" title="Ahemenidsko cesarstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ahemenidsko cesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%DA%BE%DB%95%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%95%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ھەخامەنشی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ھەخامەنشی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Ахеменидско царство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ахеменидско царство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahemenidska_Monarhija" title="Ahemenidska Monarhija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ahemenidska Monarhija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakaisaran_Ak%C3%A9m%C3%A9niyah" title="Kakaisaran Akéméniyah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kakaisaran Akéméniyah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhaimenidit" title="Akhaimenidit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Akhaimenidit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akemeniderna" title="Akemeniderna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Akemeniderna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Akemenida" title="Imperyong Akemenida – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Imperyong Akemenida" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அகாமனிசியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%C3%A4menid_D%C3%A4wl%C3%A4te" title="Axämenid Däwläte – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Axämenid Däwläte" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94" title="จักรวรรดิอะคีเมนิด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิอะคีเมนิด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D2%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%BE%D2%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D2%B2%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%88%D3%A3" title="Шоҳаншоҳии Ҳахоманишӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Шоҳаншоҳии Ҳахоманишӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahameni%C5%9F_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Ahameniş İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ahameniş İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Імперія Ахеменідів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Імперія Ахеменідів" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ہخامنشی سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہخامنشی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_Achaemenes" title="Đế quốc Achaemenes – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Achaemenes" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Akemenida" title="Imperyo Akemenida – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Akemenida" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%A5%91%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%BC%E5%BE%B7%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="阿契美尼德王朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="阿契美尼德王朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Persian Empire (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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.ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Achaemenid Empire</div><div class="ib-country-names">𐎧𐏁𐏂 Xšāça</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">550 BC–330 BC</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Persia"><img alt="Flag of Persia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg/100px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg/150px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg/200px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a></div> </div> <div><a href="/wiki/Shahbaz_(bird)" title="Shahbaz (bird)">Standard of Cyrus the Great</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent, under the rule of Darius the Great (522–486 BC)[2][3][4][5]"><img alt="The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent, under the rule of Darius the Great (522–486 BC)[2][3][4][5]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg/250px-Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg/375px-Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg/500px-Achaemenid_Empire_500_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3070" data-file-height="1637" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent, under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> (522–486 BC)<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a><a href="#cite_note-EY-7">[6]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a> (Cyrus the Great)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a> (ceremonial)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> (Darius the Great)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> (ceremonial)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a><a href="#inforefa">[a]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Aramaic</a><a href="#inforefb">[b]</a></li></ul></div><hr /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a><a href="#inforefc">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a><a href="#cite_note-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001-10">[9]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a></li><li>see <a href="#Languages">§ Languages</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> (official)<hr /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian religion</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek religion</a></li><li>see <a href="#Religion">§ Religion</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Persia">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Monarchs<a href="#cite_note-13">[b]</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 559–530 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 530–522 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 522–522 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bardiya" title="Bardiya">Bardiya</a> (perhaps <a href="/wiki/Gaumata" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaumata">Gaumata</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 522–486 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 486–465 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 465–424 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 424–424 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_II" title="Xerxes II">Xerxes II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 424–423 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sogdianus" title="Sogdianus">Sogdianus</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 423–405 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 405–358 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 358–338 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 338–336 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arses" class="mw-redirect" title="Arses">Arses</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 336–330 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Persian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Revolt">Persian Revolt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">550 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thymbra" title="Battle of Thymbra">Conquest of Lydia</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">547 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Conquest of Babylon</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">539 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of Indus Valley</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">535–518 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelusium" title="Battle of Pelusium">Conquest of Egypt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">525 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">European Scythian Campaign</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">513 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">499–449 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_revolts_(484_BC)" title="Babylonian revolts (484 BC)">Babylonian Revolts</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">484 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">395–387 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">372–362 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III#Conquest_of_Egypt" title="Artaxerxes III">Second conquest of Egypt</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">343 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Fall to Macedonia</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">330 BC</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">500 BC<a href="#cite_note-Turchin-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taagepera-15">[13]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 500 BC<a href="#cite_note-Dynamics_of_Ancient_Empires-16">[14]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 million to 35 million</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Daric" title="Daric">Daric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siglos" class="mw-redirect" title="Siglos">siglos</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ra_(kingdom)" title="Gandhāra (kingdom)">Gandhāra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>a. <a href="#infoa">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">Official language</a> and native language of the ruling class.</li> <li>b. <a href="#infob">^</a> Official language and <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesehöfer2001119-17">[15]</a></li> <li>c. <a href="#infoc">^</a> Literary language in <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Babylonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Babylonia">Babylonia</a>.</li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavanPayneWeisweiler201617-18">[16]</a> also known as the Persian Empire<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavanPayneWeisweiler201617-18">[16]</a> or First Persian Empire<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius20211-19">[17]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/əˈkiːmənɪd/</a>; <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%A7%F0%90%8F%81%F0%90%8F%82%F0%90%8E%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎶">𐎧𐏁𐏂</a>, Xšāça, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'The Empire'<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> or 'The Kingdom'<a href="#cite_note-auto-21">[19]</a>), was an <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> empire founded by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid dynasty</a> in <a href="/wiki/550_BC" title="550 BC">550 BC</a>. Based in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, it was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires#Timeline_of_largest_empires_to_date" title="List of largest empires">largest empire by that point in history</a>, spanning a total of 5.5 million square kilometres (2.1 million square miles). The empire spanned from the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> in the west, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> as the base, the majority of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> to the northeast, and the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus Valley</a> to the southeast.<a href="#cite_note-Turchin-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taagepera-15">[13]</a> Around the 7th century BC, the region of <a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a> in the southwestern portion of the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> was settled by the <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-book-22">[20]</a> From Persis, Cyrus rose and defeated the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>, marking the establishment of a new imperial polity under the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid dynasty</a>. In the modern era, the Achaemenid Empire has been recognized for its imposition of a successful model of centralized bureaucratic administration, its multicultural policy, building complex infrastructure such as <a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">road systems</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Chapar_Khaneh" title="Chapar Khaneh">organized postal system</a>, the use of official languages across its territories, and the development of civil services, including its possession of <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Army">a large, professional army</a>. Its advancements inspired the implementation of similar styles of governance by a variety of later empires.<a href="#cite_note-schmitt-23">[21]</a> By 330 BC, the Achaemenid Empire was conquered by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, an ardent admirer of Cyrus; the conquest marked a key achievement in the then-ongoing campaign of his <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ulrich-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great">Alexander's death</a> marks the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, when most of the fallen Achaemenid Empire's territory came under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, both of which had emerged as successors to the Macedonian Empire following the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus" title="Partition of Triparadisus">Partition of Triparadisus</a> in 321 BC. Hellenistic rule remained in place for almost a century before the Iranian elites of the central plateau reclaimed power under the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-book-22">[20]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The Achaemenid Empire borrows its name from the ancestor of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the empire, <a href="/wiki/Achaemenes" title="Achaemenes">Achaemenes</a>. The term Achaemenid means "of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes" (<a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8F%83%F0%90%8E%A7%F0%90%8E%A0%F0%90%8E%B6%F0%90%8E%B4%F0%90%8E%A1%F0%90%8F%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁">𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁</a>, romanized: Haxāmaniš;<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> a <a href="/wiki/Bahuvrihi" title="Bahuvrihi">bahuvrihi</a> compound translating to "having a friend's mind").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETavernier200717-27">[25]</a> Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Anshan_(Persia)" title="Anshan (Persia)">Anshan</a> in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-enc-28">[26]</a> Around 850 BC the original nomadic people who began the empire called themselves the Parsa and their constantly shifting territory Parsua, for the most part localized around Persis.<a href="#cite_note-book-22">[20]</a> The name "Persia" is a Greek and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> pronunciation of the native word referring to the country of the people originating from <a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%B1%F0%90%8E%A0%F0%90%8E%BC%F0%90%8E%BF" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿">𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿</a>, romanized: Pārsa).<a href="#cite_note-enc-28">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Persian</a> term 𐎧𐏁𐏂 Xšāça, literally meaning "The Kingdom",<a href="#cite_note-auto-21">[19]</a> was used to refer to the Empire formed by their multinational state.<a href="#cite_note-name-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]</div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_lmffgdiljcqr0f1sqbf62y4snsjb2w9"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Bessus" coords="718,47,803,71" title="Bessus" alt="Bessus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Darius_III" coords="688,22,800,45" title="Darius III" alt="Darius III" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Arses_of_Persia" coords="687,12,765,35" title="Arses of Persia" alt="Arses of Persia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" coords="654,40,793,64" title="Artaxerxes III" alt="Artaxerxes III" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II_of_Persia" coords="581,29,713,52" title="Artaxerxes II of Persia" alt="Artaxerxes II of Persia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Darius_II_of_Persia" coords="518,19,623,42" title="Darius II of Persia" alt="Darius II of Persia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Sogdianus_of_Persia" coords="521,57,619,81" title="Sogdianus of Persia" alt="Sogdianus of Persia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Xerxes_II" coords="517,35,622,59" title="Xerxes II" alt="Xerxes II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" coords="466,42,591,66" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia" alt="Artaxerxes I of Persia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia" coords="416,37,515,61" title="Xerxes I of Persia" alt="Xerxes I of Persia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Darius_I" coords="359,65,457,89" title="Darius I" alt="Darius I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Bardiya" coords="326,49,417,73" title="Bardiya" alt="Bardiya" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" coords="304,41,423,65" title="Cambyses II" alt="Cambyses II" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" coords="277,28,375,51" title="Cyrus the Great" alt="Cyrus the Great" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cambyses_I" coords="199,37,311,61" title="Cambyses I" alt="Cambyses I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cyrus_I" coords="127,37,219,61" title="Cyrus I" alt="Cyrus I" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Teispes_of_Anshan" coords="52,37,143,61" title="Teispes of Anshan" alt="Teispes of Anshan" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Greco%2DPersian_wars" coords="389,5,548,29" title="Greco-Persian wars" alt="Greco-Persian wars" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_lmffgdiljcqr0f1sqbf62y4snsjb2w9" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/lmffgdiljcqr0f1sqbf62y4snsjb2w9.png" /></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent" style="padding-left: 4.5em;">Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_the_Achaemenid_dynasty">Origin of the Achaemenid dynasty</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Origin of the Achaemenid dynasty">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenes" title="Achaemenes">Achaemenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teispids" title="Teispids">Teispids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">Achaemenid family tree</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_lineage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Achaemenid_lineage.jpg/350px-Achaemenid_lineage.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="488" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Achaemenid_lineage.jpg/525px-Achaemenid_lineage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Achaemenid_lineage.jpg/700px-Achaemenid_lineage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="1511" /></a><figcaption>Family tree of the Achaemenid rulers.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here. ... : the <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasargadae (tribe)">Pasargadae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maraphii" title="Maraphii">Maraphii</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maspii" title="Maspii">Maspii</a>, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished; they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, <a href="/wiki/Kerman_Province#History_and_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerman Province">Germanii</a>, all of which are attached to the soil, the remainder—the <a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mardi_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardi (people)">Mardi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dropici" title="Dropici">Dropici</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sagarti" class="mw-redirect" title="Sagarti">Sagarti</a>, being <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a>.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> 1.101 & 125</cite></div></blockquote> The Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>. The Persians were <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian people</a> who arrived in what is today <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BC and settled a region including north-western Iran, the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a> alongside the native <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius20063-30">[28]</a> The Persians were originally <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism" title="Nomadic pastoralism">nomadic pastoralists</a> in the western Iranian Plateau. The Achaemenid Empire may not have been the first Iranian empire, as the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, another group of Iranian people, possibly established a short-lived empire when they played a major role in overthrowing the Assyrians.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> The Achaemenids were initially rulers of the Elamite city of <a href="/wiki/Anshan_(Persia)" title="Anshan (Persia)">Anshan</a> near the modern city of <a href="/wiki/Marvdasht" title="Marvdasht">Marvdasht</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200217-32">[30]</a> the title "King of Anshan" was an adaptation of the earlier Elamite title "King of Susa and Anshan".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius20066-33">[31]</a> There are conflicting accounts of the identities of the earliest Kings of Anshan. According to the <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a> (the oldest extant genealogy of the Achaemenids) the kings of Anshan were <a href="/wiki/Teispes" title="Teispes">Teispes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_I" title="Cyrus I">Cyrus I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_I" title="Cambyses I">Cambyses I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus II</a>, also known as Cyrus the Great, who founded the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200217-32">[30]</a> The later <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a>, written by <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a>, claims that Teispes was the son of <a href="/wiki/Achaemenes" title="Achaemenes">Achaemenes</a> and that Darius is also descended from Teispes through a different line, but no earlier texts mention Achaemenes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200216-34">[32]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>' <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a>, he writes that Cyrus the Great was the son of Cambyses I and <a href="/wiki/Mandane_of_Media" title="Mandane of Media">Mandane of Media</a>, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a>, the king of the Median Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200215-35">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_and_expansion">Formation and expansion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Formation and expansion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Cyrus_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Wars of Cyrus the Great">Wars of Cyrus the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_invasion_of_the_Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="European Scythian campaign of Darius I">European Scythian campaign of Darius I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_(flat_map).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg/340px-Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg/510px-Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg/680px-Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>Map of the expansion process of Achaemenid territories</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="550s_BC">550s BC</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 550s BC">edit</a>]</div> Cyrus revolted against the Median Empire in 553 BC, and in 550 BC succeeded in defeating the Medes, capturing Astyages and taking the Median capital city of <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200231-38">[36]</a> Once in control of Ecbatana, Cyrus styled himself as the successor to Astyages and assumed control of the entire empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200233-39">[37]</a> By inheriting Astyages' empire, he also inherited the territorial conflicts the Medes had with both <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200234-40">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="540s_BC">540s BC</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 540s BC">edit</a>]</div> King <a href="/wiki/Croesus" title="Croesus">Croesus</a> of Lydia sought to take advantage of the new international situation by advancing into what had previously been Median territory in Asia Minor.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200235-42">[40]</a> Cyrus led a counterattack which not only fought off Croesus' armies, but also led to the capture of <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> and the fall of the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200236-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[c]</a> Cyrus placed <a href="/wiki/Pactyes" title="Pactyes">Pactyes</a> in charge of collecting tribute in Lydia and left, but once Cyrus had left Pactyes instigated a rebellion against Cyrus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200237-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> Cyrus sent the Median general <a href="/wiki/Mazares" title="Mazares">Mazares</a> to deal with the rebellion, and Pactyes was captured. Mazares, and after his death <a href="/wiki/Harpagus" title="Harpagus">Harpagus</a>, set about reducing all the cities which had taken part in the rebellion. The subjugation of Lydia took about four years in total.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200237–38-48">[45]</a> When the power in Ecbatana changed hands from the Medes to the Persians, many tributaries to the Median Empire believed their situation had changed and revolted against Cyrus.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> This forced Cyrus to fight wars against <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> in Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200239-50">[47]</a> During these wars, Cyrus established several <a href="/wiki/Garrison_town" class="mw-redirect" title="Garrison town">garrison towns</a> in Central Asia, including the <a href="/wiki/Cyropolis" title="Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200240-51">[48]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg/170px-Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg/255px-Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg/340px-Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Bible recounts Cyrus's liberation of the Israelites <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">held captive in Babylon</a>, allowing them to resettle and rebuild <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="530s_BC">530s BC</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 530s BC">edit</a>]</div> Nothing is known of Persia–Babylon relations between 547 and 539 BC, but it is likely that there were hostilities between the two empires for several years leading up to the war of 540–539 BC and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200241–43-52">[49]</a> In October 539 BC, Cyrus won a battle against the Babylonians at <a href="/wiki/Opis" title="Opis">Opis</a>, then took <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a> without a fight before finally capturing the city of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> on 12 October, where the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> was taken prisoner.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200241–43-52">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611–12-54">[51]</a> Upon taking control of the city, Cyrus depicted himself in propaganda as restoring the divine order which had been disrupted by <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a>, who had promoted the cult of <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Sin</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Marduk" title="Marduk">Marduk</a>,<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt198385–86-56">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200243–44-57">[54]</a> and he also portrayed himself as restoring the heritage of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> by comparing himself to the Assyrian king <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt198388–89-59">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200243–44-57">[54]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> also unreservedly praises Cyrus for his actions in the conquest of Babylon, referring to him as <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">anointed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200246-60">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> He is credited with freeing the people of <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Province)">Judah</a> from their exile and with authorizing the reconstruction of much of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200246-60">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg/220px-Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg/330px-Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg/440px-Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5996" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">Cyrus the Great's tomb</a>, located at <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="520s_BC">520s BC</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 520s BC">edit</a>]</div> In 530 BC, Cyrus died and was succeeded by his eldest son <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, while his younger son <a href="/wiki/Bardiya" title="Bardiya">Bardiya</a><a href="#cite_note-bardiya-65">[d]</a> received a large territory in Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200249–50-66">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200613-67">[63]</a> By 525 BC, Cambyses had successfully subjugated <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and was making preparations to invade Egypt with the newly created Persian navy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallinga1984406–409-68">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">[65]</a> Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Amasis II</a> had died in 526, and had been succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a>, resulting in the defection of key Egyptian allies to the Persians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">[65]</a> Psamtik positioned his army at <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a>. He was soundly defeated by the Persians in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelusium" title="Battle of Pelusium">Battle of Pelusium</a> before fleeing to <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, where the Persians defeated him and took him prisoner. After attempting a failed revolt, Psamtik III promptly committed suicide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-III.11,13-70">[66]</a> Herodotus depicts Cambyses as openly antagonistic to the Egyptian people and their gods, cults, temples, and priests, in particular stressing the murder of the sacred bull <a href="/wiki/Apis_(deity)" title="Apis (deity)">Apis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a> He says that these actions led to a madness that caused him to kill his brother Bardiya (who Herodotus says was killed in secret),<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> his own sister-wife<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> and Croesus of Lydia.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> He then concludes that Cambyses completely lost his mind,<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> and all later classical authors repeat the themes of Cambyses' impiety and madness. However, this is based on spurious information, as the epitaph of Apis from 524 BC shows that Cambyses participated in the funeral rites of Apis styling himself as pharaoh.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200255–57-76">[72]</a> Following the conquest of Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libyans</a> and the Greeks of <a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barca_(ancient_city)" title="Barca (ancient city)">Barca</a> in present-day eastern Libya (<a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>) surrendered to Cambyses and sent tribute without a fight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-III.11,13-70">[66]</a> Cambyses then planned invasions of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, the oasis of Ammon and <a href="/wiki/Aethiopia" title="Aethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[73]</a> Herodotus claims that the naval invasion of Carthage was canceled because the Phoenicians, who made up a large part of Cambyses' fleet, refused to take up arms against their own people,<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> but modern historians doubt whether an invasion of Carthage was ever planned at all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">[65]</a> However, Cambyses dedicated his efforts to the other two campaigns, aiming to improve the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Meroë</a> and taking strategic positions in the western oases. To this end, he established a garrison at <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a> consisting mainly of Jewish soldiers, who remained stationed at Elephantine throughout Cambyses' reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">[65]</a> The invasions of Ammon and Ethiopia themselves were failures. Herodotus claims that the invasion of Ethiopia was a failure due to the madness of Cambyses and the lack of supplies for his men,<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a> but archaeological evidence suggests that the expedition was not a failure, and a fortress at the <a href="/wiki/Cataracts_of_the_Nile" title="Cataracts of the Nile">Second Cataract of the Nile</a>, on the border between Egypt and Kush, remained in use throughout the Achaemenid period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeidorn1992147–150-80">[76]</a> The events surrounding Cambyses's death and Bardiya's succession are greatly debated as there are many conflicting accounts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200298-64">[61]</a> According to Herodotus, as Bardiya's assassination had been committed in secret, the majority of Persians still believed him to be alive. This allowed two <a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">Magi</a> to rise up against Cambyses, with one of them sitting on the throne able to impersonate Bardiya because of their remarkable physical resemblance and shared name (Smerdis in Herodotus's accounts<a href="#cite_note-bardiya-65">[d]</a>).<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a> writes that when Cambyses had Bardiya killed he immediately put the magus Sphendadates in his place as satrap of Bactria due to a remarkable physical resemblance.<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> Two of Cambyses' confidants then conspired to usurp Cambyses and put Sphendadates on the throne under the guise of Bardiya.<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a>, written by the following king <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a>, a magus named Gaumata impersonated Bardiya and incited a revolution in Persia.<a href="#cite_note-behistunsmerdis-63">[60]</a> Whatever the exact circumstances of the revolt, Cambyses heard news of it in the summer of 522 BC and began to return from Egypt, but he was wounded in the thigh in Syria and died of gangrene, so Bardiya's impersonator became king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200261-84">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[e]</a> The account of Darius is the earliest, and although the later historians all agree on the key details of the story, that a magus impersonated Bardiya and took the throne, this may have been a story created by Darius to justify his own usurpation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002100–101-87">[82]</a> Iranologist <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Pierre Briant</a> hypothesises that Bardiya was not killed by Cambyses, but waited until his death in the summer of 522 BC to claim his legitimate right to the throne as he was then the only male descendant of the royal family. Briant says that although the hypothesis of a deception by Darius is generally accepted today, "nothing has been established with certainty at the present time, given the available evidence".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002101–103-88">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/400px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/600px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg/800px-Achaemenid_Empire_at_its_greatest_extent_according_to_Oxford_Atlas_of_World_History_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC</figcaption></figure> According to the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Behistun inscription">Behistun inscription</a>, Gaumata ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC by <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> (Old Persian Dāryavuš, "who holds firm the good", also known as Darayarahush). The Magi, though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (Gaumata), saw a second pseudo-Smerdis (Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.<a href="#cite_note-89">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> writes<a href="#cite_note-90">[85]</a> that the native leadership debated the best form of government for the empire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="510s_BC">510s BC</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 510s BC">edit</a>]</div> Ever since the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyntas I">Amyntas I</a> surrendered his country to the Persians in about 512–511, Macedonians and Persians were strangers no more as well. The subjugation of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a> was part of Persian military operations initiated by <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> (521–486) in 513—after immense preparations—a huge Achaemenid army invaded the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="European Scythian campaign of Darius I">tried to defeat</a> the European <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> roaming to the north of the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> river.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-91">[86]</a> Darius' army subjugated several <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracian people</a>, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, such as parts of modern <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, before it returned to <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-91">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[87]</a> Darius left in Europe one of his commanders named <a href="/wiki/Megabazus" title="Megabazus">Megabazus</a> whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-91">[86]</a> The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, the coastal Greek cities, and defeated and conquered the powerful <a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-91">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoweReames2008239-94">[89]</a> Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas, demanding acceptance of Persian domination, which the Macedonians did. The Balkans provided many soldiers for the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army. Many of the Macedonian and Persian elite intermarried, such as the Persian official <a href="/wiki/Bubares" title="Bubares">Bubares</a> who married Amyntas' daughter, Gygaea. Family ties that the Macedonian rulers Amyntas and Alexander enjoyed with Bubares ensured them good relations with the Persian kings Darius and <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes the Great">Xerxes I</a>, who was also known as Xerxes the Great. The Persian invasion led indirectly to Macedonia's rise in power and Persia had some common interests in the Balkans; with Persian aid, the Macedonians stood to gain much at the expense of some Balkan tribes such as the Paeonians and Greeks. All in all, the Macedonians were "willing and useful Persian allies. Macedonian soldiers fought against Athens and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> in Xerxes I's army.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-91">[86]</a> The Persians referred to both Greeks and Macedonians as <a href="/wiki/Yona" title="Yona">Yauna</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Ionian_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian Greeks">Ionians</a>", their term for "Greeks"), and to Macedonians specifically as Yaunã Takabara or "Greeks with hats that look like shields", possibly referring to the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Kausia" title="Kausia">kausia</a> hat.<a href="#cite_note-95">[90]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_prince%27s_head_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Achaemenid_prince%27s_head_1.jpg/220px-Achaemenid_prince%27s_head_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Achaemenid_prince%27s_head_1.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_prince%27s_head_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Achaemenid_prince%27s_head_1.jpg/440px-Achaemenid_prince%27s_head_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>The Persian queen <a href="/wiki/Atossa" title="Atossa">Atossa</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, sister-wife of <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a>'s wife, and mother of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes the Great">Xerxes the Great</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="5th_century_BC">5th century BC</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 5th century BC">edit</a>]</div> By the 5th century BC, the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Plateau">Persian Plateau</a> and all of the territories formerly held by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Egypt">Egypt</a>), but beyond this, all of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Caucasus">Southern Caucasus</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Paeonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a> to the north and west, most of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coastal regions, parts of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> as far as the <a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Amu_Darya" title="Amu Darya">Oxus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syr_Darya" title="Syr Darya">Jaxartes</a> to the north and north-east, the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> and the western <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus basin</a> (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>) to the far east, parts of northern <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> to the south, and parts of eastern <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Libya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>) to the south-west, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, China, and the <a href="/wiki/UAE" class="mw-redirect" title="UAE">UAE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-livius.org-96">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-behi-97">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-c_ramirez-faria-100">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt20132-101">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Persian_Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Greco-Persian Wars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/280px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/420px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/560px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek-Persian_duel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/220px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/330px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/440px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="859" /></a><figcaption>Greek <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient <a href="/wiki/Kylix_(drinking_cup)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kylix (drinking cup)">kylix</a>, 5th century BC</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> in 499 BC, and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus, and Caria, were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, <a href="/wiki/Histiaeus" title="Histiaeus">Histiaeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristagoras" title="Aristagoras">Aristagoras</a>. In 499 BC, the then-tyrant of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer <a href="/wiki/Naxos_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxos (island)">Naxos</a>, in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus, both financially and in terms of prestige. The mission was a debacle, and sensing his imminent removal as a tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king, Darius I, who was commonly known as Darius the Great.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Persians continued to reduce the cities along the west coast that still held out against them, before finally imposing a peace settlement in 493 BC on Ionia that was generally considered to be both just and fair. The <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire, and as such represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the revolt.<a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a> Moreover, seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, he decided to embark on the conquest of all of Greece. The first campaign of the invasion was to bring the territories in the <a href="/wiki/Balkan" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan">Balkan</a> peninsula back within the empire.<a href="#cite_note-A_companion_to_Ancient_Macedonia-104">[99]</a> The Persian grip over these territories had loosened following the Ionian Revolt. In 492 BC, the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> re-subjugated <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and made <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a> a fully <a href="/wiki/Subordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinate">subordinate</a> part of the empire; it had been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC but retained a great deal of autonomy.<a href="#cite_note-A_companion_to_Ancient_Macedonia-104">[99]</a> However, in 490 BC the Persian forces were defeated by the Athenians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a> and Darius I would die before having the chance to launch an invasion of Greece.<a href="#cite_note-105">[100]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites,_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_(composite).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg/495px-Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg/660px-Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1366" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>Achaemenid king fighting hoplites, seal and seal holder, <a href="/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimmerian Bosporus">Cimmerian Bosporus</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> (485–465 BC, Old Persian Xšayārša "Hero Among Kings"), son of <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a>, vowed to complete the job. He organized a massive invasion aiming to conquer <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>. His army entered Greece from the north in the spring of 480 BC, meeting little or no resistance through <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">Macedonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a>, but was delayed by a small Greek force for three days at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a>. A simultaneous naval battle at Artemisium was tactically indecisive as large storms destroyed ships from both sides. The battle was stopped prematurely when the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. The battle was a tactical victory for the Persians, giving them uncontested control of Artemisium and the Aegean Sea.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Following his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a>, Xerxes sacked the evacuated city of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and prepared to meet the Greeks at the strategic <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Saronic_Gulf" title="Saronic Gulf">Saronic Gulf</a>. In 480 BC the Greeks won a decisive victory over the Persian fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a> and forced Xerxes to retire to <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-106">[101]</a> The land army which he left in Greece under <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> retook Athens but was eventually destroyed in 479 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>. The final defeat of the Persians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a> encouraged the Greek cities of Asia to revolt, and the Persians lost all of their territories in Europe with Macedonia once again becoming independent.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-91">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_of_Persia" title="Artabanus of Persia">Artabanus</a>, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a>, Aspamitres.<a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a> The exact year and date of Xerxes' assassination is disputed among historians. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_phase_and_Zoroastrian_reforms">Cultural phase and Zoroastrian reforms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cultural phase and Zoroastrian reforms">edit</a>]</div> After <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> was assassinated, he was succeeded by his eldest surviving son <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a>. It was during his reign that <a href="/wiki/Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite">Elamite</a> ceased to be the language of government,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and Aramaic gained in importance. It was probably during this reign that the solar calendar was introduced as the national calendar. Under Artaxerxes I, <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> became the de facto religion of the empire.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After Persia had been defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Battle of Eurymedon</a> (469 or 466 BC<a href="#cite_note-108">[103]</a>), military action between Greece and Persia was halted. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> from the island of <a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a> to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_in_Cyprus_(450_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Salamis in Cyprus (450 BC)">Battle of Cyprus</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a>'s failure to attain much in this expedition, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Callias" title="Peace of Callias">Peace of Callias</a> was agreed between <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> in 449 BC.<a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a> Artaxerxes offered <a href="/wiki/Political_asylum" class="mw-redirect" title="Political asylum">asylum</a> to <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a>, who was the winner of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>, after Themistocles was <a href="/wiki/Ostracized" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostracized">ostracized</a> from <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. Also, Artaxerxes gave him <a href="/wiki/Magnesia_on_the_Maeander" title="Magnesia on the Maeander">Magnesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myus" title="Myus">Myus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lampsacus" title="Lampsacus">Lampsacus</a> to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave him <a href="/wiki/Palaescepsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaescepsis">Palaescepsis</a> to provide him with clothes, and he also gave him <a href="/wiki/Percote" title="Percote">Percote</a> with bedding for his house.<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_gold_ornaments,70.142.6-.11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Achaemenid_gold_ornaments%2C70.142.6-.11.jpg/220px-Achaemenid_gold_ornaments%2C70.142.6-.11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Achaemenid_gold_ornaments%2C70.142.6-.11.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_gold_ornaments%2C70.142.6-.11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Achaemenid_gold_ornaments%2C70.142.6-.11.jpg/440px-Achaemenid_gold_ornaments%2C70.142.6-.11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Achaemenid gold ornaments, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> When Artaxerxes died in 424 BC at <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>, his body was taken to the tomb already built for him in the <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> Necropolis. It was Persian tradition that kings begin constructing their own tombs while they were still alive. Artaxerxes I was immediately succeeded by his eldest and only legitimate son, <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_II" title="Xerxes II">Xerxes II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt2013880-112">[107]</a> However, after a few days on the throne, he was assassinated while drunk by Pharnacyas and Menostanes on the orders of his illegitimate brother <a href="/wiki/Sogdianus" title="Sogdianus">Sogdianus</a>, who apparently had gained the support of his regions. Sogdianus reigned for six months and fifteen days before being captured by his half-brother, <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Ochus</a>, who had rebelled against him. Sogdianus was executed by being <a href="/wiki/Suffocation_in_ash" title="Suffocation in ash">suffocated in ash</a> because Ochus had promised he would not die by the sword, by poison or by hunger.<a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a> Ochus then took the royal name Darius II. Darius' ability to defend his position on the throne ended the short power vacuum.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] From 412 BC <a href="/wiki/Darius_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius II of Persia">Darius II</a>, at the insistence of <a href="/wiki/Tissaphernes" title="Tissaphernes">Tissaphernes</a>, gave support first to Athens, then to Sparta, but in 407 BC, Darius' son <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Younger" title="Cyrus the Younger">Cyrus the Younger</a> was appointed to replace Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which finally defeated Athens in 404 BC. In the same year, Darius fell ill and died in Babylon. His death gave an Egyptian rebel named <a href="/wiki/Amyrtaeus" title="Amyrtaeus">Amyrtaeus</a> the opportunity to throw off <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Persian control over Egypt</a>. At his death bed, Darius' Babylonian wife <a href="/wiki/Parysatis" title="Parysatis">Parysatis</a> pleaded with him to have her second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Darius refused. Queen Parysatis favoured Cyrus more than her eldest son <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> relates (probably on the authority of <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias</a>) that the displaced Tissaphernes came to the new king on his coronation day to warn him that his younger brother Cyrus (the Younger) was preparing to assassinate him during the ceremony. Artaxerxes had Cyrus arrested and would have had him executed if their mother Parysatis had not intervened. Cyrus was then sent back as Satrap of Lydia, where he prepared an armed rebellion. Cyrus assembled a large army, including a contingent of <a href="/wiki/Ten_Thousand_Greek_mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries">Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries</a>, and made his way deeper into Persia. The army of Cyrus was stopped by the royal Persian army of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Cunaxa</a> in 401 BC, where Cyrus was killed. The <a href="/wiki/Ten_Thousand_Greek_Mercenaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Thousand Greek Mercenaries">Ten Thousand Greek Mercenaries</a> including <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> were now deep in Persian territory and were at risk of attack. So they searched for others to offer their services to but eventually had to return to Greece.<a href="#cite_note-:0-106">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid kings and it was during this 45-year period of relative peace and stability that many of the monuments of the era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back to <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, which he greatly extended. Also, the summer capital at <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a> was lavishly extended with gilded columns and roof tiles of silver and copper.<a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a> The extraordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrines can also be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this period that Zoroastrianism spread from <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. The construction of temples, though serving a religious purpose, was not a purely selfless act, as they also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids adopted the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest to their land or another source of income.<a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Achaemenid_Empire.gif/330px-Achaemenid_Empire.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Achaemenid_Empire.gif/495px-Achaemenid_Empire.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Achaemenid_Empire.gif/660px-Achaemenid_Empire.gif 2x" data-file-width="1359" data-file-height="1035" /></a><figcaption>Persian Empire timeline including important events and territorial evolution – 550–323 BC</figcaption></figure> Artaxerxes II became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies, the <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartans</a>, who, under <a href="/wiki/Agesilaus_II" title="Agesilaus II">Agesilaus II</a>, invaded <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. To redirect the Spartans' attention to Greek affairs, Artaxerxes II subsidized their enemies: in particular the <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinthians</a>. These subsidies helped to engage the <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartans</a> in what would become known as the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a>. In 387 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, and in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Antalcidas" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Antalcidas">Treaty of Antalcidas</a> he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a> on the Anatolian coast to the Persians while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. In 385 BC he <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes%27_II_Cadusian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes' II Cadusian Campaign">campaigned against the Cadusians</a>. Although successful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes II had more trouble with the <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptians</a>, who had successfully revolted against him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC was completely unsuccessful, but in his waning years the Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to conquer <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Phoenicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>. He quashed the <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Satraps" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolt of the Satraps">Revolt of the Satraps</a> in 372–362 BC. He is reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife was <a href="/wiki/Stateira_(wife_of_Artaxerxes_II)" title="Stateira (wife of Artaxerxes II)">Stateira</a>, until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes II's mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Another chief wife was a Greek woman of <a href="/wiki/Phocaea" title="Phocaea">Phocaea</a> named Aspasia (not the same as the concubine of <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a>). Artaxerxes II is said to have had more than 115 sons from 350 wives.<a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a> In 358 BC Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>. In 355 BC, Artaxerxes III forced <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> to conclude a peace which required the city's forces to leave <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.<a href="#cite_note-118">[113]</a> Artaxerxes started a campaign against the rebellious <a href="/wiki/Cadusii" title="Cadusii">Cadusians</a>, but he managed to appease both of the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian throne as <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Artaxerxes III then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt.<a href="#cite_note-PersianArmy-119">[114]</a> The order was however ignored by <a href="/wiki/Artabazos_II_of_Phrygia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artabazos II of Phrygia">Artabazos II of Phrygia</a>, who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance to <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Orontid_dynasty#Orontid_Kings_and_satraps_of_Armenia" title="Orontid dynasty">Orontes of Mysia</a> also supported Artabazos and the combined forces managed to defeat the forces sent by Artaxerxes III in 354 BC. However, in 353 BC, they were defeated by Artaxerxes III's army and were disbanded. Orontes was pardoned by the king, while Artabazos fled to the safety of the court of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>. In <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 351 BC, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father, Artaxerxes II. At the same time, a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor, which, being supported by <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>, threatened to become serious. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes <a href="/wiki/Second_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">invaded Egypt</a> and engaged in fighting with <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a>. After a year of fighting the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a>, Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius.<a href="#cite_note-Miller1986-120">[115]</a> Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt. Soon after this defeat, there were rebellions in <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Phoenicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Anatolia#Achaemenid_Empire" title="History of Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Cyprus#Persian_period" title="Ancient history of Cyprus">Cyprus</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Darius vase</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:146px;max-width:146px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_vase_Napoli_Museum_without_background.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Darius_vase_Napoli_Museum_without_background.jpg/144px-Darius_vase_Napoli_Museum_without_background.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Darius_vase_Napoli_Museum_without_background.jpg/216px-Darius_vase_Napoli_Museum_without_background.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Darius_vase_Napoli_Museum_without_background.jpg/288px-Darius_vase_Napoli_Museum_without_background.jpg 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="1504" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The "<a href="/wiki/Darius_Vase" title="Darius Vase">Darius Vase</a>" at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Naples" title="National Archaeological Museum, Naples">Archaeological Museum of Naples</a>. c. 340–320 BC.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_detail_on_the_Darius_vase.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Darius_detail_on_the_Darius_vase.jpg/190px-Darius_detail_on_the_Darius_vase.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Darius_detail_on_the_Darius_vase.jpg/285px-Darius_detail_on_the_Darius_vase.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Darius_detail_on_the_Darius_vase.jpg/380px-Darius_detail_on_the_Darius_vase.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Detail of <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius</a>, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name.</div></div></div></div></div> In 343 BC, Artaxerxes committed responsibility for the suppression of the Cyprian rebels to <a href="/wiki/Idrieus" title="Idrieus">Idrieus</a>, prince of <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, who employed 8,000 Greek mercenaries and forty <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">triremes</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Phocion" title="Phocion">Phocion</a> the Athenian, and Evagoras, son of the elder <a href="/wiki/Evagoras_I" title="Evagoras I">Evagoras</a>, the Cypriot monarch.<a href="#cite_note-121">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Persianempire-122">[117]</a> Idrieus succeeded in reducing Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> by commanding <a href="/wiki/Belesys" class="mw-redirect" title="Belesys">Belesys</a>, satrap of Syria, and <a href="/wiki/Mazaeus" title="Mazaeus">Mazaeus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia (satrapy)">satrap of Cilicia</a>, to invade the city and to keep the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a> and commanded by <a href="/wiki/Mentor_of_Rhodes" title="Mentor of Rhodes">Mentor of Rhodes</a>. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Persianempire-122">[117]</a> After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men against <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>. Artaxerxes' army comprised 300,000-foot soldiers, 30,000 <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, 300 triremes, and 500 transports or provision ships. After gathering this army, he sought assistance from the Greeks. Though refused aid by <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>, he succeeded in obtaining a thousand Theban heavy-armed hoplites under Lacrates, three thousand Argives under Nicostratus, and six thousand Æolians, <a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionians</a>, and Dorians from the Greek cities of Asia Minor. This Greek support was numerically small, amounting to no more than 10,000 men, but it formed, together with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went over to him afterward, the force on which he placed his chief reliance, and to which the ultimate success of his expedition was mainly due. The approach of Artaxerxes sufficiently weakened the resolution of Tennes that he endeavoured to purchase his own pardon by delivering up 100 principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian king and then admitting Artaxerxes within the defences of the town. Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens transfixed with javelins, and when 500 more came out as supplicants to seek his mercy, Artaxerxes consigned them to the same fate. Sidon was then burnt to the ground, either by Artaxerxes or by the Sidonian citizens. Forty thousand people died in the conflagration.<a href="#cite_note-Persianempire-122">[117]</a> Artaxerxes sold the ruins at a high price to speculators, who calculated on reimbursing themselves by the treasures which they hoped to dig out from among the ashes.<a href="#cite_note-123">[118]</a> Tennes was later put to death by Artaxerxes.<a href="#cite_note-Lovetoknow-124">[119]</a> Artaxerxes later sent Jews who supported the revolt to <a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a> on the south coast of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_conquest_of_Egypt">Second conquest of Egypt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Second conquest of Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg/170px-HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg/255px-HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg/340px-HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="4800" /></a><figcaption>Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity <a href="/wiki/Amun-Ra_Kamutef" class="mw-redirect" title="Amun-Ra Kamutef">Amun-Ra Kamutef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hibis" title="Temple of Hibis">Temple of Hibis</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg/170px-Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg/255px-Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg/340px-Darius_I_statue_list_of_subject_countries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1459" data-file-height="2300" /></a><figcaption>The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius, on the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_statue_of_Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian statue of Darius I">Egyptian statue of Darius I</a>.</figcaption></figure> The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the invasion of Egypt. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes III, in addition to his 330,000 Persians, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor: 4,000 under <a href="/wiki/Mentor_of_Rhodes" title="Mentor of Rhodes">Mentor</a>, consisting of the troops that he had brought to the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3,000 sent by Argos; and 1,000 from Thebes. He divided these troops into three bodies, and placed at the head of each a Persian and a Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes, <a href="/wiki/Mentor_of_Rhodes" title="Mentor of Rhodes">Mentor of Rhodes</a> and Nicostratus of Argos while the Persians were led by Rhossaces, Aristazanes, and <a href="/wiki/Bagoas" title="Bagoas">Bagoas</a>, the chief of the eunuchs. <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a> resisted with an army of 100,000 of whom 20,000 were Greek mercenaries. Nectanebo II occupied the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> and its various branches with his large navy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The character of the country, intersected by numerous canals and full of strongly fortified towns, was in his favour and Nectanebo II might have been expected to offer a prolonged, if not even a successful resistance. However, he lacked good generals, and, over-confident in his own powers of command, he was out-maneuvered by the Greek mercenary generals, and his forces were eventually defeated by the combined Persian armies. After his defeat, Nectanebo hastily fled to <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, leaving the fortified towns to be defended by their garrisons. These garrisons consisted of partly <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> and partly Egyptian troops; between whom jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the Persian leaders. As a result, the Persians were able to rapidly reduce numerous towns across Lower Egypt and were advancing upon Memphis when Nectanebo decided to quit the country and flee southwards to <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Persianempire-122">[117]</a> The Persian army completely routed the Egyptians and occupied the Lower Delta of the Nile. Following Nectanebo fleeing to Ethiopia, all of Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes. The Jews in Egypt were sent either to <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> or to the south coast of the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, the same location that the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> had earlier been sent.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After this victory over the Egyptians, Artaxerxes had the city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set about looting all the temples. <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> gained a significant amount of wealth from this looting. Artaxerxes also raised high taxes and attempted to weaken <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> enough that it could never revolt against Persia. For the 10 years that Persia controlled Egypt, believers in the native religion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen.<a href="#cite_note-Egyptloot-127">[122]</a> Before Artaxerxes returned to Persia, he appointed Pherendares as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Achaemenid_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Achaemenid Egypt">satrap of Egypt</a>. With the wealth gained from his reconquering Egypt, Artaxerxes was able to amply reward his mercenaries. He then returned to his capital having successfully completed his invasion of Egypt.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After his success in Egypt, Artaxerxes returned to Persia and spent the next few years effectively quelling insurrections in various parts of the Empire so that a few years after his conquest of Egypt, the Persian Empire was firmly under his control. Egypt remained a part of the Persian Empire from then until <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s conquest of Egypt.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] After the conquest of Egypt, there were no more revolts or rebellions against Artaxerxes. Mentor and <a href="/wiki/Bagoas" title="Bagoas">Bagoas</a>, the two generals who had most distinguished themselves in the Egyptian campaign, were advanced to posts of the highest importance. Mentor, who was governor of the entire Asiatic seaboard, was successful in reducing to subjection many of the chiefs who during the recent troubles had rebelled against Persian rule. In the course of a few years, Mentor and his forces were able to bring the whole Asian Mediterranean coast into complete submission and dependence.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Bagoas went back to the Persian capital with Artaxerxes, where he took a leading role in the internal administration of the Empire and maintained tranquillity throughout the rest of the Empire. During the last six years of the reign of Artaxerxes III, the Persian Empire was governed by a vigorous and successful government.<a href="#cite_note-Persianempire-122">[117]</a> The Persian forces in <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> regained control of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and took over much of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>' former island empire. In response, <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a> of Athens started giving speeches calling for a 'crusade against the barbarians' but there was not enough strength left in any of the Greek city-states to answer his call.<a href="#cite_note-conspiracy-128">[123]</a> Although there were no rebellions in the Persian Empire itself, the growing power and territory of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> (against which <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> was in vain warning the Athenians) attracted the attention of Artaxerxes. In response, he ordered that Persian influence was to be used to check and constrain the rising power and influence of the Macedonian kingdom. In 340 BC, a Persian force was dispatched to assist the <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thracian prince</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cersobleptes" title="Cersobleptes">Cersobleptes</a>, to maintain his independence. Sufficient effective aid was given to the city of <a href="/wiki/Perinthus" title="Perinthus">Perinthus</a> that the numerous and well-appointed army with which Philip had commenced his siege of the city was compelled to give up the attempt.<a href="#cite_note-Persianempire-122">[117]</a> By the last year of Artaxerxes' rule, Philip II already had plans in place for an invasion of the Persian Empire, which would crown his career, but the Greeks would not unite with him.<a href="#cite_note-129">[124]</a> In 338 BC Artaxerxes was poisoned by <a href="/wiki/Bagoas" title="Bagoas">Bagoas</a> with the assistance of a physician.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002769-130">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_to_Alexander_III_of_Macedon">Fall to Alexander III of Macedon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fall to Alexander III of Macedon">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_2013-05-16_16-25-06_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_2013-05-16_16-25-06_BW.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_2013-05-16_16-25-06_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_2013-05-16_16-25-06_BW.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_2013-05-16_16-25-06_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_2013-05-16_16-25-06_BW.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_2013-05-16_16-25-06_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3562" data-file-height="2133" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> on horseback to the left, and <a href="/wiki/Darius_III_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius III of Persia">Darius III</a> in the chariot to the right, represented in a Pompeii <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> dated 1st century BC – <a href="/wiki/Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Naples National Archaeological Museum">Naples National Archaeological Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander%E2%80%99s_first_victory_over_Darius,_the_Persian_king.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Alexander%E2%80%99s_first_victory_over_Darius%2C_the_Persian_king.jpg/220px-Alexander%E2%80%99s_first_victory_over_Darius%2C_the_Persian_king.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Alexander%E2%80%99s_first_victory_over_Darius%2C_the_Persian_king.jpg/330px-Alexander%E2%80%99s_first_victory_over_Darius%2C_the_Persian_king.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Alexander%E2%80%99s_first_victory_over_Darius%2C_the_Persian_king.jpg/440px-Alexander%E2%80%99s_first_victory_over_Darius%2C_the_Persian_king.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption>Alexander's first victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in medieval European style in the 15th century romance The History of Alexander's Battles</figcaption></figure> Artaxerxes III was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_IV_Arses" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes IV Arses">Artaxerxes IV Arses</a>, who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas. Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Arses' children, but many of the other princes of the land. Bagoas then placed <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>, a nephew of Artaxerxes IV, on the throne. Darius III, previously the <a href="/wiki/Orontid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Orontid Dynasty">Satrap of Armenia</a>, personally forced Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334 BC, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt again, Alexander and his battle-hardened troops <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">invaded Asia Minor</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (Alexander III of Macedon) defeated the Persian armies at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Granicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Granicus">Granicus</a> (334 BC), followed by <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a> (333 BC), and lastly at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Gaugamela</a> (331 BC). Afterwards, he marched on <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> which surrendered in early 330 BC. From Persepolis, Alexander headed north to <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a>, where he visited the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">tomb of Cyrus</a>, the man whom he had heard of from the <a href="/wiki/Cyropaedia" title="Cyropaedia">Cyropaedia</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the ensuing chaos created by Alexander's invasion of Persia, Cyrus's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which it had been treated, and questioned the Magi, putting them on trial.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland-131">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a> By some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more an attempt to undermine their influence and display his own power than a show of concern for Cyrus's tomb.<a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a> Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior, showing respect for Cyrus.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland-131">[126]</a> From there he headed to <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a>, where Darius III had sought refuge.<a href="#cite_note-crystalinks.com-134">[129]</a> Darius III was taken prisoner by <a href="/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a>, his <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men murder Darius III and then declared himself Darius' successor, as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia leaving Darius' body in the road to delay Alexander, who brought it to Persepolis for an honourable funeral. Bessus would then create a coalition of his forces, to create an army to defend against Alexander. Before Bessus could fully unite with his confederates at the eastern part of the empire,<a href="#cite_note-135">[130]</a> Alexander, fearing the danger of Bessus gaining control, found him, put him on trial in a Persian court under his control, and ordered his execution in a "cruel and barbarous manner."<a href="#cite_note-136">[131]</a> Alexander generally kept the original Achaemenid administrative structure, leading some scholars to dub him as "the last of the Achaemenids".<a href="#cite_note-137">[132]</a> Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals, the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a>, resulting in a number of smaller states. The largest of these, which held sway over the Iranian plateau, was the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, ruled by Alexander's general <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a>. Native Iranian rule would be restored by the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a> of northeastern Iran over the course of the 2nd century BC through the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descendants_in_later_Persian_dynasties">Descendants in later Persian dynasties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Descendants in later Persian dynasties">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>"Frataraka" of the Seleucid Empire</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KINGS_of_PERSIS._V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_(Autophradates)_I._3rd_century_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/KINGS_of_PERSIS._V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_%28Autophradates%29_I._3rd_century_BC.jpg/220px-KINGS_of_PERSIS._V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_%28Autophradates%29_I._3rd_century_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/KINGS_of_PERSIS._V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_%28Autophradates%29_I._3rd_century_BC.jpg/330px-KINGS_of_PERSIS._V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_%28Autophradates%29_I._3rd_century_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/KINGS_of_PERSIS._V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_%28Autophradates%29_I._3rd_century_BC.jpg/440px-KINGS_of_PERSIS._V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_%28Autophradates%29_I._3rd_century_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka</a> dynasty ruler <a href="/wiki/Vadfradad_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Vadfradad I">Vadfradad I</a> (Autophradates I). 3rd century BC. Istakhr (Persepolis) mint.<a href="#cite_note-139">[134]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka</a></div> Several later Persian rulers, forming the <a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka</a> dynasty, are known to have acted as representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a> in the region of <a href="/wiki/F%C4%81rs" class="mw-redirect" title="Fārs">Fārs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EI-140">[135]</a> They ruled from the end of the 3rd century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and <a href="/wiki/Vahbarz" class="mw-redirect" title="Vahbarz">Vahbarz</a> or <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81dfrad%C4%81d_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Vādfradād I">Vādfradād I</a> obtained independence <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 BC, when Seleucid power waned in the areas of southwestern Persia and the Persian Gulf region.<a href="#cite_note-EI-140">[135]</a> <dl><dt>Kings of Persis under the Parthian Empire</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KINGS_of_PERSIS._D%C4%81r%C4%93v_(Darios)_I._2nd_century_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/KINGS_of_PERSIS._D%C4%81r%C4%93v_%28Darios%29_I._2nd_century_BC.jpg/220px-KINGS_of_PERSIS._D%C4%81r%C4%93v_%28Darios%29_I._2nd_century_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/KINGS_of_PERSIS._D%C4%81r%C4%93v_%28Darios%29_I._2nd_century_BC.jpg/330px-KINGS_of_PERSIS._D%C4%81r%C4%93v_%28Darios%29_I._2nd_century_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/KINGS_of_PERSIS._D%C4%81r%C4%93v_%28Darios%29_I._2nd_century_BC.jpg/440px-KINGS_of_PERSIS._D%C4%81r%C4%93v_%28Darios%29_I._2nd_century_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81r%C4%93v_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Dārēv I">Dārēv I</a> (Darios I) used for the first time the title of mlk (King). 2nd century BC.</figcaption></figure> During an apparent transitional period, corresponding to the reigns of Vādfradād II and another uncertain king, no titles of authority appeared on the reverse of their coins. The earlier title prtrk' zy alhaya (Frataraka) had disappeared. Under <a href="/wiki/D%C4%81r%C4%93v_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Dārēv I">Dārēv I</a> (Darios I) however, the new title of mlk, or king, appeared, sometimes with the mention of prs (Persis), suggesting that the kings of Persis had become independent rulers.<a href="#cite_note-CNG-141">[136]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsacid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid">Arsacid</a> king <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> (c. 171–138 BC) took control of <a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a>, he left the Persian dynasts in office, known as the <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a>, and they were allowed to continue minting coins with the title of mlk ("King").<a href="#cite_note-EI-140">[135]</a> <dl><dt>Sasanian Empire</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></div> With the reign of Šābuhr, the son of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81pag" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāpag">Pāpag</a>, the kingdom of Persis then became a part of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>. Šābuhr's brother and successor, Ardaxšir (Artaxerxes) V, defeated the last legitimate Parthian king, <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_V_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artabanus V of Parthia">Artabanos V</a> in 224 AD, and was crowned at <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> as <a href="/wiki/Ardax%C5%A1ir_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ardaxšir I">Ardaxšir I</a> (Ardashir I), šāhanšāh ī Ērān, becoming the first king of the new <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CNG-141">[136]</a> <dl><dt>Kingdom of Pontus</dt></dl> The Achaemenid line would also be carried on through the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a>, based in the <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a> region of northern <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. This Pontic Kingdom, a state of <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> origin,<a href="#cite_note-142">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-145">[140]</a> may even have been directly related to <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-145">[140]</a> It was founded by <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Pontus" title="Mithridates I of Pontus">Mithridates I</a> in 281 BC and lasted until its conquest by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> in 63 BC. The kingdom grew to its largest extent under <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithridates VI">Mithridates VI</a> the Great, who conquered <a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, the Greek colonies of the <a href="/wiki/Chersonesus_Taurica" class="mw-redirect" title="Chersonesus Taurica">Tauric Chersonesos</a> and for a brief time the Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a>. Thus, this Persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic world">Hellenistic world</a> while the main Persian Empire had fallen.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Despite Greek influence on the Kingdom of Pontus, Pontics continued to maintain their Achaemenid lineage.<a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-145">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg/170px-Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg/255px-Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg/340px-Sphinx_Darius_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="877" /></a><figcaption>Winged <a href="/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">sphinx</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">Palace of Darius in Susa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a> museum</figcaption></figure> Both the later dynasties of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a> would on occasion claim Achaemenid descent. Recently there has been some corroboration for the Parthian claim to Achaemenid ancestry via the possibility of an inherited disease (<a href="/wiki/Neurofibromatosis" title="Neurofibromatosis">neurofibromatosis</a>) demonstrated by the physical descriptions of rulers and from the evidence of familial disease on ancient coinage.<a href="#cite_note-146">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Achaemenid_Imperial_Satraps_(English_Version).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Map_of_Achaemenid_Imperial_Satraps_%28English_Version%29.png/350px-Map_of_Achaemenid_Imperial_Satraps_%28English_Version%29.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Map_of_Achaemenid_Imperial_Satraps_%28English_Version%29.png/525px-Map_of_Achaemenid_Imperial_Satraps_%28English_Version%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Map_of_Achaemenid_Imperial_Satraps_%28English_Version%29.png/700px-Map_of_Achaemenid_Imperial_Satraps_%28English_Version%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3308" data-file-height="1648" /></a><figcaption>Satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire showing their ancient names and the extent of their territory.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> founded the empire as a multi-<a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> empire, governed from four capital cities: <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a>. The Achaemenids allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrapy</a> system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A '<a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a>' (governor) was the governor who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government. At differing times, there were between 20 and 30 satrapies. Cyrus the Great created an organized army including the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Immortals" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Immortals">Immortals</a> unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002261-147">[142]</a> Cyrus also formed an innovative <a href="/wiki/Postal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Postal system">postal system</a> throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called <a href="/wiki/Chapar_Khaneh" title="Chapar Khaneh">Chapar Khaneh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives" title="Persepolis Administrative Archives">Persepolis Administrative Archives</a> provide many insights into the Achaemenid government system. Found at <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> in the 1930s, they are mostly in ancient <a href="/wiki/Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite">Elamite</a>; the remains of more than 10,000 of these cuneiform documents have been uncovered. <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> is represented by about 1,000 or more original records.<a href="#cite_note-149">[144]</a> Only one tablet in <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> has been identified so far.<a href="#cite_note-150">[145]</a> Also, many seals and seal impressions are found in these Persepolis archives. These documents represent administrative activity and flow of data in Persepolis over more than fifty consecutive years (509–457 BC). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage">Coinage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Coinage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_coinage" title="Achaemenid coinage">Achaemenid coinage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Double_daric_330-300_obverse_CdM_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Double_daric_330-300_obverse_CdM_Paris.jpg/220px-Double_daric_330-300_obverse_CdM_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Double_daric_330-300_obverse_CdM_Paris.jpg/330px-Double_daric_330-300_obverse_CdM_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Double_daric_330-300_obverse_CdM_Paris.jpg/440px-Double_daric_330-300_obverse_CdM_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daric" title="Daric">Daric</a> of Artaxerxes II</figcaption></figure> The Persian <a href="/wiki/Daric" title="Daric">daric</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Gold_coin" title="Gold coin">gold coin</a> which, along with a similar silver coin, the <a href="/wiki/Siglos" class="mw-redirect" title="Siglos">siglos</a>, introduced the bimetallic <a href="/wiki/Monetary_standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary standard">monetary standard</a> of the Achaemenids, which has continued until today.<a href="#cite_note-iranica-151">[146]</a> This was accomplished by <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, who reinforced the empire and expanded <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> as a ceremonial capital;<a href="#cite_note-152">[147]</a> he revolutionized the economy by placing it on the silver and gold coinage. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tax_districts">Tax districts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Tax districts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Districts of the Achaemenid Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tribute_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Tribute_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/330px-Tribute_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Tribute_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/495px-Tribute_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Tribute_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/660px-Tribute_in_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Volume of annual tribute per district</a>, in the Achaemenid Empire, according to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HIII-153">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-ZA-154">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Iranica_-_Achaemenid_Relations-155">[150]</a></figcaption></figure> Darius also introduced a regulated and sustainable tax system that was precisely tailored to each satrapy, based on their supposed productivity and their economic potential. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> was assessed for the highest amount and for a startling mixture of commodities – 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">silver talents</a>, four months' supply of food for the army. <a href="/wiki/Hindush" title="Hindush">India</a> was clearly already fabled for its gold; <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> was known for the wealth of its crops; it was to be the granary of the Persian Empire (as later of Rome's) and was required to provide 120,000 measures of grain in addition to 700 talents of silver. This was exclusively a tax levied on subject peoples.<a href="#cite_note-historyworld.net-156">[151]</a> There is evidence that conquered and rebellious enemies could be sold into slavery.<a href="#cite_note-157">[152]</a> Alongside its other innovations in administration and taxation, the Achaemenids may have been the first government in the ancient Near East to register private slave sales and tax them using an early form of <a href="/wiki/Sales_tax" title="Sales tax">sales tax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[153]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abax_from_Darius_Vase.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Abax_from_Darius_Vase.jpg/220px-Abax_from_Darius_Vase.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Abax_from_Darius_Vase.jpg/330px-Abax_from_Darius_Vase.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Abax_from_Darius_Vase.jpg/440px-Abax_from_Darius_Vase.jpg 2x" data-file-width="933" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption>Achaemenid tax collector, calculating on an <a href="/wiki/Abax" class="mw-redirect" title="Abax">Abax</a> or <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">Abacus</a>, according to the <a href="/wiki/Darius_Vase" title="Darius Vase">Darius Vase</a> (340–320 BC).<a href="#cite_note-159">[154]</a></figcaption></figure> Other accomplishments of Darius' reign included the codification of the dāta (a universal legal system which would become the basis of later Iranian law), and the construction of a new capital at <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_and_communication">Transportation and communication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Transportation and communication">edit</a>]</div> Under the Achaemenids, trade was extensive and there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. Tariffs on trade, along with agriculture and tribute, were major sources of revenue for the empire.<a href="#cite_note-historyworld.net-156">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA_6F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA_6F.jpg/220px-Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA_6F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA_6F.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA_6F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA_6F.jpg/440px-Khalili_Collection_Aramaic_Documents_IA_6F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3333" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>Letter from the Satrap of Bactria to the governor of Khulmi, concerning camel keepers, 353 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh_Road_(2022).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh_Road_%282022%29.jpg/220px-Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh_Road_%282022%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh_Road_%282022%29.jpg/330px-Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh_Road_%282022%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh_Road_%282022%29.jpg/440px-Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh_Road_%282022%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption>Part of the royal road that connected Ekbatan to Anatolia, this road is still in use today</figcaption></figure> The satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a> from <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>, built by command of Darius I. It featured stations and <a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">caravanserais</a> at specific intervals. The relays of mounted couriers (the <a href="/wiki/Angarium" title="Angarium">angarium</a>) could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Herodotus observes that "there is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays these courageous couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds."<a href="#cite_note-163">[158]</a> Despite the relative local independence given by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king", toured the empire and reported on local conditions.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Another highway of commerce was the <a href="/wiki/Khurasan_Road" title="Khurasan Road">Great Khorasan Road</a>, an informal mercantile route that originated in the fertile lowlands of Mesopotamia and snaked through the Zagros highlands, through the Iranian plateau and Afghanistan into the Central Asian regions of <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fergana_Valley" title="Fergana Valley">Ferghana</a>, allowing for the construction of frontier cities like <a href="/wiki/Cyropolis" title="Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a>. Following Alexander's conquests, this highway allowed for the spread of cultural syncretic fusions like <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> into Central Asia and China, as well as empires like the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> to profit from trade between East and West. This route was greatly rehabilitated and formalized during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, during which it developed into a major component of the famed <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> Despite its humble origins in Persis, the empire reached an enormous size under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>. Cyrus created a multi-state empire where he allowed regional rulers, <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satraps</a>, to rule as his proxy over a certain designated area of his empire called a <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapy</a>. The basic rule of governance was based upon loyalty and obedience of each satrapy to the central power, or the king, and compliance with tax laws.<a href="#cite_note-cyv-165">[160]</a> Due to the ethno-cultural diversity of the subject nations under the rule of Persia, its enormous geographic size, and the constant struggle for power by regional competitors,<a href="#cite_note-book-22">[20]</a> the creation of a professional army was necessary for both maintenance of the peace and to enforce the authority of the king in cases of rebellion and foreign threat.<a href="#cite_note-schmitt-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant2002261-147">[142]</a> Cyrus managed to create a strong land army, using it to advance in his campaigns in <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian empire">Babylonia</a>, Lydia, and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, which after his death was used by his son <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> against <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a>. Cyrus would die battling a local Iranian insurgency in the empire, before he could have a chance to develop a naval force.<a href="#cite_note-166">[161]</a> That task would fall to <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a>, who would officially give Persians their own royal navy to allow them to engage their enemies on multiple seas of this vast empire, from the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_composition">Ethnic composition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ethnic composition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/330px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/495px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/660px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4770" data-file-height="2335" /></a><figcaption>Relief of throne-bearing soldiers in their native clothing at the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>, demonstrating the satrapies under his rule.</figcaption></figure> The empire's great armies were, like the empire itself, very diverse, having:<a href="#cite_note-168">[f]</a> <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-84-169">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-91">[86]</a> European <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thracians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paionia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paionia">Paeonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, Achaean <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khuzistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzistan">Cissians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyrcanians">Hyrcanians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-62-170">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-63-171">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sacae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacae">Sacae</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-64-172">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Arians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albanians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Chaumont-173">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Khwarezm" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezm">Chorasmians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandarans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daradas" title="Daradas">Dadicae</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-66-174">[168]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caspians" title="Caspians">Caspians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Sarangae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun people">Pactyes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-67-175">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Utians" title="Utians">Utians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maka_(satrapy)" title="Maka (satrapy)">Mycians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Judeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii=89-176">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_Cypriots" title="Greek Cypriots">Cyprians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-90-177">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorians" title="Dorians">Dorians</a> of Asia, <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Carians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean islanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolians</a>, Greeks from <a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balochistan (Pakistan)">Paricanians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-68-178">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopians of Africa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-69-179">[173]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Sistan and Baluchestan Province">Ethiopians of Baluchistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-70-180">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libyans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-71-181">[175]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kutaisi" title="Kutaisi">Ligyes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matiene" title="Matiene">Matieni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Mariandyni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-72-182">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-73-183">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-74-184">[178]</a> Asian <a href="/wiki/Bithyni" title="Bithyni">Thracians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-75-185">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Lasonii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Milyae</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-77-186">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mushki" title="Mushki">Moschi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabal_(state)" title="Tabal (state)">Tibareni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrones" title="Macrones">Macrones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mossynoeci" title="Mossynoeci">Mossynoeci</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-78-187">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Mares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Alarodians</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Kurdish people">Saspirians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii=79-188">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> islanders,<a href="#cite_note-vii-80-189">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sagartians" title="Sagartians">Sagartians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-85-190">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hindush" title="Hindush">Hindush</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vii-65-191">[185]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eordea" title="Eordea">Eordi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bottiaea" title="Bottiaea">Bottiaei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalkidiki" title="Chalkidiki">Chalcidians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bryges" title="Bryges">Brygians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pieres" title="Pieres">Pierians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perrhaebi" title="Perrhaebi">Perrhaebi</a>, Enienes, Dolopes, and <a href="/wiki/Magnesia_Prefecture" title="Magnesia Prefecture">Magnesians</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infantry">Infantry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Infantry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg/220px-Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg/440px-Achaemenid_king_killing_a_Greek_hoplite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>Achaemenid king killing a Greek <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a>. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_soldiers_against_Scythians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Achaemenid_soldiers_against_Scythians.jpg/220px-Achaemenid_soldiers_against_Scythians.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Achaemenid_soldiers_against_Scythians.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_soldiers_against_Scythians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Achaemenid_soldiers_against_Scythians.jpg/440px-Achaemenid_soldiers_against_Scythians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1098" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Persian soldiers (left) fighting against Scythians. <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">Cylinder seal</a> impression.<a href="#cite_note-192">[186]</a></figcaption></figure> The Achaemenid infantry consisted of three groups: the <a href="/wiki/Immortals_(Persian_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortals (Persian Empire)">Immortals</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sparabara" title="Sparabara">Sparabara</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Takabara" title="Takabara">Takabara</a>, though in the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, a fourth group, the <a href="/wiki/Cardaces" title="Cardaces">Cardaces</a>, were introduced.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Immortals_(Persian_empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortals (Persian empire)">Immortals</a> were described by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> as being heavy <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Hydarnes_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydarnes II">Hydarnes II</a>, that were kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He claimed that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded, or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the numbers and cohesion of the unit.<a href="#cite_note-livius.org2-193">[187]</a> They had wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, and bow and arrows. Underneath their robes they wore <a href="/wiki/Scale_armour" title="Scale armour">scale armour</a> coats. The spear counterbalances of the common soldiery were of silver; to differentiate commanding ranks, the officers' spear butt-spikes were golden.<a href="#cite_note-livius.org2-193">[187]</a> Surviving Achaemenid colored glazed bricks and carved reliefs represent the Immortals as wearing elaborate robes, hoop earrings and gold jewellery, though these garments and accessories were most likely worn only for ceremonial occasions.<a href="#cite_note-194">[188]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_infantry_on_Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Achaemenid_infantry_on_Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg/170px-Achaemenid_infantry_on_Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Achaemenid_infantry_on_Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg/255px-Achaemenid_infantry_on_Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Achaemenid_infantry_on_Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg/340px-Achaemenid_infantry_on_Alexander_Sarcophagus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="990" /></a><figcaption>Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a> (end of 4th century BC).</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Sparabara" title="Sparabara">Sparabara</a> were usually the first to engage in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy. Although not much is known about them today, it is believed that they were the backbone of the Persian army who formed a <a href="/wiki/Shield_wall" title="Shield wall">shield wall</a> and used their two-metre-long spears to protect more vulnerable troops such as <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archers</a> from the enemy. The Sparabara were taken from the full members of Persian society, were trained from childhood to be soldiers and when not called out to fight on campaigns in distant lands they practised hunting on the vast plains of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. However, when all was quiet and the Pax Persica held true, the Sparabara returned to normal life farming the land and grazing their herds. Because of this, they lacked true professional quality on the battlefield, yet they were well trained and courageous to the point of holding the line in most situations long enough for a counter-attack. They were armoured with quilted <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a> and carried large rectangular <a href="/wiki/Wicker" title="Wicker">wicker</a> shields as a form of light maneuverable defence. This, however, left them at a severe disadvantage against heavily armoured opponents such as the <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a>, and their two-metre-long spear was not able to give the Sparabara ample range to plausibly engage a trained <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a>. The wicker shields were able to effectively stop arrows but not strong enough to protect the soldier from spears. However, the Sparabara could deal with most other infantry, including trained units from the East.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Achaemenids relied heavily on <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">archery</a>. Major contributing nations were the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamites</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Composite_bow" title="Composite bow">composite bow</a> was used by the Persians and Medes, who adopted it from the Scythians and transmitted it to other nations, including the Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-195">[189]</a> Achaemenid armies typically used socketed, three-bladed (also known as trilobate or Scythian) <a href="/wiki/Arrowheads" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrowheads">arrowheads</a>. These arrowheads were cast from leaded tin-bronze, which made them amenable to mass-production unlike the wrought iron arrowheads of the period that had to be individually forged.<a href="#cite_note-196">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[194]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Takabara" title="Takabara">Takabara</a> were a rare unit who were a tough type of <a href="/wiki/Peltasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Peltasts">peltasts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[195]</a> They tended to fight with their own native weapons which would have included a crescent-shaped light wickerwork <a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">shield</a> and <a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axes</a> as well as light linen cloth and <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a>. The Takabara were recruited from territories that incorporated modern Iran. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cavalry">Cavalry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cavalry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Darius_seal._Darius_stands_in_a_royal_chariot_below_Ahura_Mazda_and_shoots_arrows_at_a_rampant_lion._From_Thebes,_Egypt._6th-5th_century_BCE._British_Museum_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/The_Darius_seal._Darius_stands_in_a_royal_chariot_below_Ahura_Mazda_and_shoots_arrows_at_a_rampant_lion._From_Thebes%2C_Egypt._6th-5th_century_BCE._British_Museum_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/The_Darius_seal._Darius_stands_in_a_royal_chariot_below_Ahura_Mazda_and_shoots_arrows_at_a_rampant_lion._From_Thebes%2C_Egypt._6th-5th_century_BCE._British_Museum_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/The_Darius_seal._Darius_stands_in_a_royal_chariot_below_Ahura_Mazda_and_shoots_arrows_at_a_rampant_lion._From_Thebes%2C_Egypt._6th-5th_century_BCE._British_Museum_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption>Seal of <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%A0%F0%90%8E%AD%F0%90%8E%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐎠𐎭𐎶">𐎠𐎭𐎶</a>𐏐<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%AD%F0%90%8E%A0%F0%90%8E%BC%F0%90%8E%B9%F0%90%8E%BA%F0%90%8E%A2%F0%90%8F%81%F0%90%8E%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴">𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8F%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐏋">𐏋</a>, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), as well as in <a href="/wiki/Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite">Elamite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Babylonian</a>. The word "great" only appears in Babylonian. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[197]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The armoured Persian horsemen and their death dealing chariots were invincible. No man dared face them<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></cite></div></blockquote> The Persian cavalry was crucial for conquering nations and maintained its importance in the Achaemenid army to the last days of the Achaemenid Empire. The cavalry was separated into four groups. The <a href="/wiki/Chariot_archer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chariot archer">chariot archers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horse_cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse cavalry">horse cavalry</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Camel_cavalry" title="Camel cavalry">camel cavalry</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Persian_war_elephants" title="Persian war elephants">war elephants</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_cavalry_in_Asia_Minor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Achaemenid_cavalry_in_Asia_Minor.jpg/220px-Achaemenid_cavalry_in_Asia_Minor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Achaemenid_cavalry_in_Asia_Minor.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_cavalry_in_Asia_Minor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Achaemenid_cavalry_in_Asia_Minor.jpg/440px-Achaemenid_cavalry_in_Asia_Minor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1826" data-file-height="1509" /></a><figcaption>Achaemenid cavalryman in the satrapy of <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus" title="Altıkulaç Sarcophagus">Altıkulaç Sarcophagus</a>, early 4th century BC.</figcaption></figure> In the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, the chariot archer had become merely a ceremonial part of the Persian army, yet in the early years of the Empire, their use was widespread. The chariot archers were armed with lances, bows, arrows, swords, and <a href="/wiki/Scale_armour" title="Scale armour">scale armour</a>. The horses were also suited with scale armour similar to scale armour of the <a href="/wiki/Sassanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian">Sassanian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphracts</a>. The chariots would contain imperial symbols and decorations. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_%28detail%29.jpg/220px-Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_%28detail%29.jpg/330px-Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_%28detail%29.jpg/440px-Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4182" data-file-height="2647" /></a><figcaption>Armoured cavalry: Achaemenid Dynast of <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a> attacking a Greek <a href="/wiki/Psiloi" title="Psiloi">psiloi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alt%C4%B1kula%C3%A7_Sarcophagus" title="Altıkulaç Sarcophagus">Altıkulaç Sarcophagus</a>, early 4th century BC.</figcaption></figure> The horses used by the Achaemenids for cavalry were often suited with scale armour, like most cavalry units. The riders often had the same armour as Infantry units, wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, bow and arrow, and scale armour coats. The camel cavalry was different, because the camels and sometimes the riders, were provided little protection against enemies, yet when they were offered protection, they would have lances, swords, bow, arrow, and scale armour. The camel cavalry was first introduced into the Persian army by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thymbra" title="Battle of Thymbra">Battle of Thymbra</a>. The elephant was most likely introduced into the Persian army by <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> after his <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_invasion_of_the_Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley">conquest of the Indus Valley</a>. Elephants may have been used in Greek campaigns by Darius and <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>, but Greek accounts only mention 15 of them being used at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navy">Navy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Navy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid navy</a></div> Since its foundation by Cyrus, the Persian empire had been primarily a land empire with a strong army but void of any actual naval forces. By the 5th century BC, this was to change, as the empire came across Greek and Egyptian forces, each with their own maritime traditions and capabilities. <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a> was the first Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian fleet.<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> Even by then no true "imperial navy" had existed either in Greece or Egypt. Persia would become the first empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the first regular imperial navy.<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> Despite this achievement, the personnel for the imperial navy would not come from Iran, but were often <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> (mostly from <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>), <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greeks</a> chosen by Darius the Great to operate the empire's combat vessels.<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg/220px-BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg/330px-BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg/440px-BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="351" /></a><figcaption>Reconstitution of Persian landing ships at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a>.</figcaption></figure> At first the ships were built in Sidon by the Phoenicians; the first Achaemenid ships measured about 40 meters in length and 6 meters in width, able to transport up to 300 Persian <a href="/wiki/Persian_Immortals" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Immortals">troops</a> at any one trip. Soon, other states of the empire were constructing their own ships, each incorporating slight local preferences. The ships eventually found their way to the Persian Gulf<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> and Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence there. Persians also had ships often of a capacity 100 to 200 troops patrolling the empire's various rivers including the <a href="/wiki/Karun" title="Karun">Karun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> in the west, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ship_dashed_against_ship,_till_the_Persian_Army_dead_strewed_the_deep_like_flowers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ship_dashed_against_ship%2C_till_the_Persian_Army_dead_strewed_the_deep_like_flowers.jpg/170px-Ship_dashed_against_ship%2C_till_the_Persian_Army_dead_strewed_the_deep_like_flowers.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ship_dashed_against_ship%2C_till_the_Persian_Army_dead_strewed_the_deep_like_flowers.jpg/255px-Ship_dashed_against_ship%2C_till_the_Persian_Army_dead_strewed_the_deep_like_flowers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Ship_dashed_against_ship%2C_till_the_Persian_Army_dead_strewed_the_deep_like_flowers.jpg/340px-Ship_dashed_against_ship%2C_till_the_Persian_Army_dead_strewed_the_deep_like_flowers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1750" data-file-height="2453" /></a><figcaption>Greek ships against Achaemenid ships at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Achaemenid navy established bases located along the Karun, and in Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet was not only used for peace-keeping purposes along the Karun but also opened the door to trade with India via the Persian Gulf.<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> Darius's navy was in many ways a world power at the time, but it would be <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> who in the summer of 397 BC would build a formidable navy, as part of a rearmament which would lead to his decisive victory at <a href="/wiki/Knidos" title="Knidos">Knidos</a> in 394 BC, re-establishing Achaemenid power in <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>. Artaxerxes II would also use his navy to later on quell a rebellion in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-navi-205">[199]</a> The construction material of choice was wood, but some armoured Achaemenid ships had metallic blades on the front, often meant to slice enemy ships using the ship's momentum. Naval ships were also equipped with hooks on the side to grab enemy ships, or to negotiate their position. The ships were propelled by sails or manpower. The ships the Persians created were unique. As far as maritime engagement, the ships were equipped with two <a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">mangonels</a> that would launch projectiles such as stones, or flammable substances.<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a> describes his eyewitness account of a massive military bridge created by joining 37 Persian ships across the Tigris. The Persians used each boat's buoyancy to support a connected bridge above which supply could be transferred.<a href="#cite_note-navy-204">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> also gives many accounts of the Persians using ships to build bridges.<a href="#cite_note-206">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[201]</a> Darius I, in an attempt to subdue the <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythian</a> horsemen north of the Black Sea, crossed over at the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a>, using an enormous bridge made by connecting Achaemenid boats, then marched up to the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, crossing it by means of a second boat bridge.<a href="#cite_note-208">[202]</a> The bridge over the Bosphorus essentially connected the nearest tip of Asia to Europe, encompassing at least some 1000 meters of open water if not more. Herodotus describes the spectacle, and calls it the "bridge of Darius":<a href="#cite_note-209">[203]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Strait called Bosphorus, across which the bridge of Darius had been thrown, is hundred and twenty <a href="/wiki/Furlong" title="Furlong">furlongs</a> in length, reaching from the <a href="/wiki/Euxine" class="mw-redirect" title="Euxine">Euxine</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Propontis" class="mw-redirect" title="Propontis">Propontis</a>. The Propontis is five hundred furlongs across and fourteen hundred long. Its waters flow into the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a>, the length of which is four hundred furlongs ...</blockquote> Years later, a similar boat bridge would be constructed by <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>, in his invasion of Greece. Although the Persians failed to capture the Greek city-states completely, the tradition of maritime involvement was carried down by the Persian kings, most notably Artaxerxes II. Years later, when Alexander invaded Persia and during his advancement into India, he took a page from the Persian art of war, by having <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> construct a similar boat-bridge at the Indus river in India in the spring of 327 BC.<a href="#cite_note-210">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:344px;max-width:344px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Corner_of_the_Apadana_Darius_the_Great_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Corner_of_the_Apadana_Darius_the_Great_inscription.jpg/198px-Corner_of_the_Apadana_Darius_the_Great_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Corner_of_the_Apadana_Darius_the_Great_inscription.jpg/297px-Corner_of_the_Apadana_Darius_the_Great_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Corner_of_the_Apadana_Darius_the_Great_inscription.jpg/396px-Corner_of_the_Apadana_Darius_the_Great_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="416" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the <a href="/wiki/Apadana_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Apadana Palace">Apadana Palace</a>, in their original stone box. The <a href="/wiki/Apadana_hoard" title="Apadana hoard">Apadana coin hoard</a> had been deposited underneath <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 510 BC.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:137px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Deposition_plate_of_Darius_I_in_Persepolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Deposition_plate_of_Darius_I_in_Persepolis.jpg/138px-Deposition_plate_of_Darius_I_in_Persepolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Deposition_plate_of_Darius_I_in_Persepolis.jpg/207px-Deposition_plate_of_Darius_I_in_Persepolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Deposition_plate_of_Darius_I_in_Persepolis.jpg/276px-Deposition_plate_of_Darius_I_in_Persepolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="958" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription).<a href="#cite_note-211">[205]</a></div></div></div></div></div> During the reign of Cyrus II and Darius I, and as long as the seat of government was still at <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, the language of the chancellery was <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a>. This is primarily attested in the <a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Fortification_Tablets" class="mw-redirect" title="Persepolis Fortification Tablets">Persepolis fortification and treasury tablets</a> that reveal details of the day-to-day functioning of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-EIR_Dandamayev_Elamite-212">[206]</a> In the grand rock-face inscriptions of the kings, the Elamite texts are always accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> (Babylonian dialect) and <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> inscriptions, and it appears that in these cases that the Elamite texts are translations of the Old Persian ones. It is then likely that although Elamite was used by the capital government in Susa, it was not a standardized language of government everywhere in the empire. The use of Elamite is not attested after 458 BC.<a href="#cite_note-213">[207]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg/220px-BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg/330px-BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg/440px-BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="841" /></a><figcaption>A section of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Persian language">Old Persian</a> part of the trilingual <a href="/wiki/Behistun_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Behistun inscription">Behistun inscription</a>. Other versions are in <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian language">Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aramaic_translation_of_the_behistun_inscripton.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Aramaic_translation_of_the_behistun_inscripton.png/220px-Aramaic_translation_of_the_behistun_inscripton.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Aramaic_translation_of_the_behistun_inscripton.png/330px-Aramaic_translation_of_the_behistun_inscripton.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Aramaic_translation_of_the_behistun_inscripton.png/440px-Aramaic_translation_of_the_behistun_inscripton.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Behistun_papyrus" title="Behistun papyrus">Behistun papyrus</a>, a copy of the Behistun inscription in <a href="/wiki/Official_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Official Aramaic">Aramaic</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>. Aramaic was the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the empire.</figcaption></figure> Following the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Official_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Official Aramaic">Aramaic</a> language (as used in that territory) was adopted as a "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed "Official Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic", can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did."<a href="#cite_note-214">[208]</a> In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "<a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a>", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.<a href="#cite_note-215">[209]</a> Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the Achaemenid empire, suggesting that the use of Aramaic language in Achaemenid empire was more widespread than generally thought. Many centuries after the fall of the empire, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic script">Aramaic script</a> and—as <a href="/wiki/Huzvarishn" class="mw-redirect" title="Huzvarishn">ideograms</a>—Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi writing system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[210]</a> Although Old Persian also appears on some seals and art objects, that language is attested primarily in the Achaemenid inscriptions of Western Iran, suggesting then that Old Persian was the common language of that region. However, by the reign of Artaxerxes II, the grammar and orthography of the inscriptions was so "far from perfect"<a href="#cite_note-217">[211]</a> that it has been suggested that the scribes who composed those texts had already largely forgotten the language, and had to rely on older inscriptions, which they to a great extent reproduced verbatim.<a href="#cite_note-218">[212]</a> When the occasion demanded, Achaemenid administrative correspondence was conducted in <a href="/wiki/Old_Greek" title="Old Greek">Greek</a>, making it a widely used <a href="/wiki/Bureaucratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureaucratic">bureaucratic</a> language.<a href="#cite_note-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001-10">[9]</a> Even though the Achaemenids had extensive contacts with the Greeks and vice versa, and had conquered many of the Greek-speaking areas both in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> during different periods of the empire, the native Old Iranian sources provide no indication of Greek linguistic influence.<a href="#cite_note-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001-10">[9]</a> However, there is plenty of evidence (in addition to the accounts of Herodotus) that Greeks, apart from being deployed and employed in the core regions of the empire, also evidently lived and worked in the heartland of the Achaemenid Empire, namely Iran.<a href="#cite_note-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001-10">[9]</a> For example, Greeks were part of the various ethnicities that constructed <a href="/wiki/Darius%27_palace_in_Susa" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius' palace in Susa">Darius' palace in Susa</a>, apart from the Greek inscriptions found nearby there, and one short Persepolis tablet written in Greek.<a href="#cite_note-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001-10">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Customs">Customs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Customs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persia_-_Achaemenian_Vessels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Persia_-_Achaemenian_Vessels.jpg/220px-Persia_-_Achaemenian_Vessels.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Persia_-_Achaemenian_Vessels.jpg/330px-Persia_-_Achaemenian_Vessels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Persia_-_Achaemenian_Vessels.jpg/440px-Persia_-_Achaemenian_Vessels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2260" data-file-height="1688" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Lion_Rhyton" title="Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton">Achaemenid rhyton</a>, or drinking vessel</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> mentions that the Persians were invited to great <a href="/wiki/Birthday" title="Birthday">birthday</a> feasts (Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> 8), which would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. He also observed that the Persians drank wine in large quantities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on important affairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside.<a href="#cite_note-219">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a><a href="#cite_note-Malandra1983-220">[214]</a> was worshipped;<a href="#cite_note-Briant2002-221">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dandamaev1989-222">[216]</a> his temples and symbols were the most widespread,<a href="#cite_note-Bivar1998-223">[217]</a> most people bore names related to him<a href="#cite_note-AdrychBraceyDalglish2017-224">[218]</a> and most festivals were dedicated to him.<a href="#cite_note-Perrot2013-225">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-StojanovStoyanov2000-226">[220]</a> <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">Religious toleration</a> has been described as a "remarkable feature" of the Achaemenid Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-227">[221]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> reports that Persian king <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> released the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish people</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a> in 539–530 BC and <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">permitted them to return to their homeland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[222]</a> Cyrus the Great assisted in the restoration of the sacred places of various cities.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-227">[221]</a> It was during the Achaemenid period that <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> reached southwestern Iran, where it came to be accepted by the rulers and through them became a defining element of Persian culture. The religion was not only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts and divinities of the traditional Iranian <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(gods)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantheon (gods)">pantheon</a> but also introduced several novel ideas, including that of <a href="/wiki/Free_will_in_theology" title="Free will in theology">free will</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[224]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:201312_iran_Shiraz_72_(12475982935).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/201312_iran_Shiraz_72_%2812475982935%29.jpg/220px-201312_iran_Shiraz_72_%2812475982935%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/201312_iran_Shiraz_72_%2812475982935%29.jpg/330px-201312_iran_Shiraz_72_%2812475982935%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/201312_iran_Shiraz_72_%2812475982935%29.jpg/440px-201312_iran_Shiraz_72_%2812475982935%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Bas-relief of <a href="/wiki/Farvahar" class="mw-redirect" title="Farvahar">Farvahar</a> at Persepolis</figcaption></figure> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a>, the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> wrote: "[the Persians] have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">as the Greeks imagine</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Herodotus,_I.131-231">[225]</a> He claims the Persians offer sacrifice to: "the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period, they began the worship of <a href="/wiki/Urania" title="Urania">Urania</a>, which they borrowed from the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mullissu" title="Mullissu">Mylitta</a> is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, to whom the Persians referred as <a href="/wiki/Anahita" title="Anahita">Anahita</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Herodotus,_I.131-231">[225]</a> The Babylonian scholar and priest <a href="/wiki/Berossus" title="Berossus">Berosus</a> records—although writing over seventy years after the reign of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a>—that the emperor had been the first to make cult statues of divinities and have them placed in temples in many of the major cities of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-232">[226]</a> Berosus also substantiates Herodotus when he says the Persians knew of no images of gods until Artaxerxes II erected those images. On the means of sacrifice, Herodotus adds "they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations."<a href="#cite_note-Herodotus,_I.132-233">[227]</a> Herodotus also observed that "no prayer or offering can be made without a <a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">magus</a> present".<a href="#cite_note-Herodotus,_I.132-233">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Women">edit</a>]</div> The position of women in the Achaemenid Empire differed depending on which culture they belonged to and therefore varied depending on the region. The position of Persian women in actual Persia has traditionally been described from mythological Biblical references and the sometimes biased Ancient Greek sources, neither of them fully reliable as sources, but the most reliable references are the archeological Persepolis Fortification Tablets (PFT), which describes women in connection to the royal court in Persepolis, from royal women to female laborers who were recipients of food rations at Persepolis.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> The hierarchy of the royal women at the Persian court was ranked with the king's mother first, followed by the queen and the king's daughters, the king's concubines, and the other women of the royal palace.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> The king normally married a female member of the royal family or a Persian noblewoman related to a satrap or another important Persian man; it was permitted for members of the royal family to marry relatives, but there is no evidence for marriage between closer family members than half-siblings.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> The king's concubines were often either slaves, sometimes prisoners of war, or foreign princesses, whom the king did not marry because they were foreigners, and whose children did not have the right to inherit the throne.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> Greek sources accuse the king of having hundreds of concubines secluded in a <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a>, but there is no archeological evidence supporting the existence of a harem, or the seclusion of women from contact with men, at the Persian court.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> The royal women joined the king at breakfast and dinner and accompanied him on his journeys.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> They may have participated in the royal hunt, as well as during the royal banquets; <a href="/wiki/Herodotos" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodotos">Herodotus</a> relates how the Persian envoys at the Macedonian court demanded the presence of women during a banquet because it was the custom for women to participate in the banquets in their own country.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> The queen may have attended the king's audience, and archeological evidence shows that she gave her own audiences, at least for female supplicants.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> Royal women and noblewomen at court could furthermore travel on their own, accompanied by both male and female staff, own and manage their own fortune, land, and business.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> Depictions of Persian women show them with long dresses and veils which did not cover their faces nor their hair, only flowing down over their neck at the back of the head as an ornament.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> Royal and aristocratic Achaemenid women were given an education in subjects that did not appear compatible with seclusions, such as horsemanship and archery.<a href="#cite_note-235">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[230]</a> Royal and aristocratic women held and managed vast estates and workshops and employed large numbers of servants and professional laborers.<a href="#cite_note-237">[231]</a> Royal and aristocratic women do not seem to have lived in seclusion from men, since it is known that they appeared in public<a href="#cite_note-Brosius,_Maria_1996._pp._83-93-238">[232]</a> and traveled with their husbands,<a href="#cite_note-Brosius,_Maria_1996._pp._83-93-238">[232]</a> participated in hunting<a href="#cite_note-239">[233]</a> and in feasts:<a href="#cite_note-240">[234]</a> at least the chief wife of a royal or aristocratic man did not live in seclusion, as it is clearly stated that wives customarily accompanied their husbands at dinner banquets, although they left the banquet when the "women entertainers" came in and the men began "merrymaking".<a href="#cite_note-241">[235]</a> No woman ever ruled the Achaemenid Empire, as <a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">monarch</a> or as <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a>, but some queen's consorts are known to have had influence over the affairs of state, notably <a href="/wiki/Atossa" title="Atossa">Atossa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parysatis" title="Parysatis">Parysatis</a>. There are no evidence of any women being employed as an official in the administration or within religious service, however, there are plenty of archeological evidence of women being employed as free labourers in Persepolis, where they worked alongside men.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> Women could be employed as the leaders of their workforce, known by the title arraššara pašabena, which were then given a higher salary than the male workers of their workforce;<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> and while female laborers were given less than men, qualified workers within the crafts were given equal pay regardless of their sex.<a href="#cite_note-Maria_Brosius-234">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture_and_art">Architecture and art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Architecture and art">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_History_Travel_from_Shiraz_to_Isfahan,_Iran_(26376451617).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/History_History_Travel_from_Shiraz_to_Isfahan%2C_Iran_%2826376451617%29.jpg/220px-History_History_Travel_from_Shiraz_to_Isfahan%2C_Iran_%2826376451617%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/History_History_Travel_from_Shiraz_to_Isfahan%2C_Iran_%2826376451617%29.jpg/330px-History_History_Travel_from_Shiraz_to_Isfahan%2C_Iran_%2826376451617%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/History_History_Travel_from_Shiraz_to_Isfahan%2C_Iran_%2826376451617%29.jpg/440px-History_History_Travel_from_Shiraz_to_Isfahan%2C_Iran_%2826376451617%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2999" data-file-height="1999" /></a><figcaption>The ruins of Persepolis</figcaption></figure> Achaemenid architecture included large cities, temples, palaces, and <a href="/wiki/Mausoleums" class="mw-redirect" title="Mausoleums">mausoleums</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">tomb of Cyrus the Great</a>. The quintessential feature of Persian architecture was its eclectic nature with elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek all incorporated, yet maintaining a unique Persian identity seen in the finished products.<a href="#cite_note-242">[236]</a> Its influence pervades the regions ruled by the Achaemenids, from the Mediterranean shores to India, especially with its emphasis on monumental stone-cut design and gardens subdivided by water-courses.<a href="#cite_note-243">[237]</a> Achaemenid art includes <a href="/wiki/Frieze" title="Frieze">frieze</a> reliefs, metalwork such as the <a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a>, decoration of palaces, glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and gardening. Although the Persians took artists, with their styles and techniques, from all corners of their empire, they did not just produce a combination of styles, but a synthesis of a new unique Persian style.<a href="#cite_note-244">[238]</a> One of the most remarkable examples of both Achaemenid architecture and art is the grand palace of <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, and its detailed workmanship, coupled with its grand scale. In describing the construction of his <a href="/wiki/Palace_at_Susa" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace at Susa">palace at Susa</a>, Darius I records that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Yaka timber was brought from <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandara</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Carmania_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carmania (satrapy)">Carmania</a>. The gold was brought from <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> ... the precious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian ... was brought from <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>. The turquoise from <a href="/wiki/Chorasmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chorasmia">Chorasmia</a>, the silver and ebony from <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the ornamentation from <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>, the ivory from <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> and from <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone were Ionians and <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardians</a>. The goldsmiths were <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a>. The men who wrought the wood were Sardinians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</blockquote> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_Egypt,_Chaldea,_Syria,_Babylonia_and_Assyria_(1903)_(14584070300).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reconstruction of the Palace of Darius at Susa. The palace served as a model for Persepolis."><img alt="Reconstruction of the Palace of Darius at Susa. The palace served as a model for Persepolis." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/History_of_Egypt%2C_Chaldea%2C_Syria%2C_Babylonia_and_Assyria_%281903%29_%2814584070300%29.jpg/120px-History_of_Egypt%2C_Chaldea%2C_Syria%2C_Babylonia_and_Assyria_%281903%29_%2814584070300%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/History_of_Egypt%2C_Chaldea%2C_Syria%2C_Babylonia_and_Assyria_%281903%29_%2814584070300%29.jpg/180px-History_of_Egypt%2C_Chaldea%2C_Syria%2C_Babylonia_and_Assyria_%281903%29_%2814584070300%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/History_of_Egypt%2C_Chaldea%2C_Syria%2C_Babylonia_and_Assyria_%281903%29_%2814584070300%29.jpg/240px-History_of_Egypt%2C_Chaldea%2C_Syria%2C_Babylonia_and_Assyria_%281903%29_%2814584070300%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="532" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_at_Susa" class="mw-redirect" title="Palace of Darius at Susa">Palace of Darius at Susa</a>. The palace served as a model for <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace, Louvre"><img alt="Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace, Louvre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg/120px-Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg/180px-Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg/240px-Lion_Darius_Palace_Louvre_Sb3298.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1262" data-file-height="980" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Lion on a decorative panel from <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I the Great">Darius I the Great</a>'s palace, <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nowruz_Zoroastrian.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iconic relief of lion and bull fighting, Apadana of Persepolis"><img alt="Iconic relief of lion and bull fighting, Apadana of Persepolis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nowruz_Zoroastrian.jpg/120px-Nowruz_Zoroastrian.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nowruz_Zoroastrian.jpg/180px-Nowruz_Zoroastrian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Nowruz_Zoroastrian.jpg/240px-Nowruz_Zoroastrian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1523" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Iconic relief of lion and bull fighting, <a href="/wiki/Apadana_of_Persepolis" class="mw-redirect" title="Apadana of Persepolis">Apadana of Persepolis</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Achaemenid golden bowl with lioness imagery of Mazandaran, National Museum of Iran"><img alt="Achaemenid golden bowl with lioness imagery of Mazandaran, National Museum of Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg/120px-Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg/180px-Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg/240px-Gold_cup_kalardasht.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="475" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Achaemenid golden bowl with lioness imagery of <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran">Mazandaran</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Iran" title="National Museum of Iran">National Museum of Iran</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tombs">Tombs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Tombs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iran,_Persepolis,_Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Iran%2C_Persepolis%2C_Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III.jpg/220px-Iran%2C_Persepolis%2C_Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Iran%2C_Persepolis%2C_Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III.jpg/330px-Iran%2C_Persepolis%2C_Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Iran%2C_Persepolis%2C_Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III.jpg/440px-Iran%2C_Persepolis%2C_Tomb_of_Artaxerxes_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Tomb of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> in <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a></figcaption></figure> Many Achaemenid rulers built tombs for themselves. The most famous, <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a>, is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km north-west of <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, with the tombs of four of the kings of the dynasty are carved in this mountain: <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Darius I">Darius I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a>. Other kings constructed their own tombs elsewhere. <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> preferred to carve their tombs beside their spring capital <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, the left tomb belonging to <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> and the right tomb belonging to <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>, the last Achaemenid king to have a tomb. The tomb of the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, was built in <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a> (now a world heritage site).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_maussolleion_model_dsc02711-miniaturk_nevit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_maussolleion_model_dsc02711-miniaturk_nevit.jpg/220px-The_maussolleion_model_dsc02711-miniaturk_nevit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_maussolleion_model_dsc02711-miniaturk_nevit.jpg/330px-The_maussolleion_model_dsc02711-miniaturk_nevit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_maussolleion_model_dsc02711-miniaturk_nevit.jpg/440px-The_maussolleion_model_dsc02711-miniaturk_nevit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus" title="Mausoleum at Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_wonders_of_the_ancient_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven wonders of the ancient world">Seven wonders of the ancient world</a>, was built by Greek architects for the local Persian <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrap</a> of <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mausolus" title="Mausolus">Mausolus</a> (Scale model)</figcaption></figure> The Achaemenid Empire left a lasting impression on the heritage and cultural identity of Asia and the Middle East, and influenced the development and structure of future <a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">empires</a>. In fact, the Greeks, and later on the Romans, adopted the best features of the Persian method of governing an empire.<a href="#cite_note-245">[239]</a> The Persian model of governance was particularly formative in the expansion and maintenance of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, whose rule is widely considered the period of the '<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>'. Like the ancient Persians, the Abbasid dynasty centered their vast empire in Mesopotamia (at the newly founded cities of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, close to the historical site of Babylon), derived much of their support from Persian aristocracy and heavily incorporated the Persian language and architecture into Islamic culture.<a href="#cite_note-Hovannisian-246">[240]</a> The Achaemenid Empire is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">Greek city-states</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> and for the emancipation of the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Jewish exiles in Babylon</a>. The historical mark of the empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. For example, many <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athenians</a> adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange,<a href="#cite_note-247">[241]</a> some being employed by or allied to the Persian kings. The impact of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Cyrus" title="Edict of Cyrus">Edict of Cyrus</a> is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, and the empire was instrumental in the spread of <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> as far east as China. The empire also set the tone for the <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, heritage and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (also known as Persia).<a href="#cite_note-248">[242]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Arnold_J._Toynbee" title="Arnold J. Toynbee">Arnold Toynbee</a> regarded Abbasid society as a "reintegration" or "reincarnation" of Achaemenid society, as the synthesis of Persian, Turkic and Islamic modes of governance and knowledge allowed for the spread of <a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate culture</a> over a wide swath of Eurasia through the Turkic-origin <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> empires.<a href="#cite_note-Hovannisian-246">[240]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> wrote that <blockquote>The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i-Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna. [...] By the time of the great Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century, Iranian Islam had become not only an important component; it had become a dominant element in Islam itself, and for several centuries the main centers of the Islamic power and civilization were in countries that were, if not Iranian, at least marked by Iranian civilization ... The major centers of Islam in the late medieval and early modern periods, the centers of both political and cultural power, such as India, Central Asia, Iran, Turkey, were all part of this Iranian civilization.</blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Georg_W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg W. F. Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</a> in his work <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of History">The Philosophy of History</a> introduces the Persian Empire as the "first empire that passed away" and its people as the "first historical people" in history. According to his account: <blockquote>The Persian Empire is an empire in the modern sense—like that which existed in Germany, and the great imperial realm under the sway of Napoleon; for we find it consisting of a number of states, which are indeed dependent, but which have retained their own individuality, their manners, and laws. The general enactments, binding upon all, did not infringe upon their political and social idiosyncrasies, but even protected and maintained them; so that each of the nations that constitute the whole, had its own form of constitution. As light illuminates everything—imparting to each object a peculiar vitality—so the Persian Empire extends over a multitude of nations, and leaves to each one its particular character. Some have even kings of their own; each one its distinct language, arms, way of life and customs. All this diversity coexists harmoniously under the impartial dominion of Light ... a combination of peoples—leaving each of them free. Thereby, a stop is put to that barbarism and ferocity with which the nations had been wont to carry on their destructive feuds.<a href="#cite_note-249">[243]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a>, the American historian and philosopher, during one of his speeches, "Persia in the History of Civilization", as an address before the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93America_Society" title="Iran–America Society">Iran–America Society</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a> on 21 April 1948, stated: <blockquote>For thousands of years Persians have been creating beauty. Sixteen centuries before Christ there went from these regions or near it ... You have been here a kind of watershed of civilization, pouring your blood and thought and art and religion eastward and westward into the world ... I need not rehearse for you again the achievements of your Achaemenid period. Then for the first time in known history an empire almost as extensive as the United States received an orderly government, a competence of administration, a web of swift communications, a security of movement by men and goods on majestic roads, equalled before our time only by the zenith of Imperial Rome.<a href="#cite_note-250">[244]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rulers">Rulers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Rulers">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Iran" title="Category:History of Iran">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of Iran</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/200px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/300px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/400px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2477" data-file-height="1857" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE / BC</a> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baradostian_culture" title="Baradostian culture">Baradostian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 36,000–18,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 20,000–10,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shulaveri%E2%80%93Shomu_culture" title="Shulaveri–Shomu culture">Shulaveri–Shomu culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6000–5000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zayandeh_River_Culture" title="Zayandeh River Culture">Zayandeh River Culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th millennium</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dalma_culture" title="Dalma culture">Dalma culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5th millennium</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Prehistory" title="History of Iran">Ancient period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3400–2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Helmand_culture" title="Helmand culture">Helmand culture</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2200</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3200–2700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi Kingdom</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zamua" title="Zamua">Zamua</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100-675</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2700–539</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Marhasi" title="Marhasi">Marhaši</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2550-2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus Civilization</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2400–2150</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1155</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Avestan period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 911–609</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 860–590</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mannaea" title="Mannaea">Mannaea</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 850–616</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zikirti" title="Zikirti">Zikirti</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750-521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saparda" title="Saparda">Saparda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 720-670</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Classical_antiquity" title="History of Iran">Imperial period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Median_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Median state">Median Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 678–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 652–625 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Teispids" title="Teispids">Anshanite Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 635 BC–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 626 BC–539 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th century BC–11th century AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550 BC–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 331 BC–428 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 323 BC–226 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 320s BC–17 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 312 BC–63 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 281 BC–62 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Fratarakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Fratarakas">Fratarakas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3rd-century BC–132 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elymais" title="Elymais">Elymais</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 147 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Characene" title="Characene">Characene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 141 BC–222 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 132 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 19 AD–224/5</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Paratarajas" title="Paratarajas">Paratarajas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 125–300</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 224–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarmihrids" title="Zarmihrids">Zarmihrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 6th century–785</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550s–11th century</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Medieval_period" title="History of Iran">Medieval period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE / AD</a> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 632-661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750–1258</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 642–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–1349</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Masmughans_of_Damavand" title="Masmughans of Damavand">Masmughans of Damavand</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 665–1598</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Justanids" title="Justanids">Justanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 791 – 11th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alid dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 864 – 14th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 819–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 861–1003</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> pre-879 – 1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sajid_dynasty" title="Sajid dynasty">Sajid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 889–929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sallarid_dynasty" title="Sallarid dynasty">Sallarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 919–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 930–1090</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ilyas" title="Banu Ilyas">Ilyasids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 932–968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 934–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rawadid_dynasty" title="Rawadid dynasty">Rawadid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 955–1070</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hasanwayhids" title="Hasanwayhids">Hasanwayhids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 959–1095</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 977–1186</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Annazids" title="Annazids">Annazids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 990/1–1117</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1008–1141</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty_(Sistan)" title="Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)">Nasrid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1029–1236</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shabankara" title="Shabankara">Shabankara</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1030–1355</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1077–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1135–1225</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atabegs_of_Yazd" title="Atabegs of Yazd">Atabegs of Yazd</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1141–1319</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Salghurids" title="Salghurids">Salghurids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1148–1282</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hazaraspids" title="Hazaraspids">Hazaraspids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1424</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pishkinid_dynasty" title="Pishkinid dynasty">Pishkinid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khorshidi_dynasty" title="Khorshidi dynasty">Khorshidi dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1184-1597</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qutlugh-Khanids" title="Qutlugh-Khanids">Qutlugh-Khanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1223-1306</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mihrabanids" title="Mihrabanids">Mihrabanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1236–1537</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt dynasty">Kurt dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1244–1396</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1393</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sarbadars" title="Sarbadars">Sarbadars</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Injuids" title="Injuids">Injuids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_dynasty" title="Afrasiyab dynasty">Afrasiyab dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1349–1504</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mar%27ashis" title="Mar'ashis">Mar'ashis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1359–1596</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kar-Kiya_dynasty" title="Kar-Kiya dynasty">Kar-Kiya dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370s–1592</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1406–1468</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1468–1508</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Early_modern_period" title="History of Iran">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1501–1736</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> (<a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1722–1729</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1736–1796</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1751–1794</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Modern_period" title="History of Iran">Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1789–1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1925–1979</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Contemporary_period" title="History of Iran">Contemporary period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Iran" title="Name of Iran">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Iran">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of women in Iran">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iran" title="List of wars involving Iran">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Iranian_history" title="Timeline of Iranian history">Timeline</a> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/16px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/24px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Iran" title="Template talk:History of Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/File:Achamenid-dynasty-timeline.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Achamenid dynasty timeline"><img alt="Achamenid dynasty timeline" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Achamenid-dynasty-timeline.png" decoding="async" width="1191" height="138" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1191" data-file-height="138" /></a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:120px;">Name </th> <th>Image </th> <th>Comments </th> <th>Dates </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Achaemenes" title="Achaemenes">Achaemenes</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom and founder of the dynasty. Attested to only by the Behistun Inscription. </td> <td>705 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Teispes" title="Teispes">Teispes</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>Son of Achaemenes. Attested to only by the Behistun Inscription. </td> <td>640 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_I" title="Cyrus I">Cyrus I</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Cyrus_I_on_horseback,_seal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Cyrus_I_on_horseback%2C_seal.png/100px-Cyrus_I_on_horseback%2C_seal.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Cyrus_I_on_horseback%2C_seal.png/150px-Cyrus_I_on_horseback%2C_seal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Cyrus_I_on_horseback%2C_seal.png/200px-Cyrus_I_on_horseback%2C_seal.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="186" /></a> </td> <td>Son of Teispes, first Achaemenid ruler with attestation. </td> <td>580 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cambyses_I" title="Cambyses I">Cambyses I</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II. No records from his reign survive. </td> <td>550 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus II">Cyrus II</a> </td> <td> </td> <td>Transformed the dynasty into an empire; King of the "four corners of the world" </td> <td>560–530 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Cambyses_II_of_Persia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Cambyses_II_of_Persia.jpg/100px-Cambyses_II_of_Persia.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Cambyses_II_of_Persia.jpg/150px-Cambyses_II_of_Persia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Cambyses_II_of_Persia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="163" data-file-height="212" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> </td> <td>530–522 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gaumata" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaumata">Gaumata</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Gaumata_portrait_on_the_Behistun_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gaumata_portrait_on_the_Behistun_inscription.jpg/100px-Gaumata_portrait_on_the_Behistun_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gaumata_portrait_on_the_Behistun_inscription.jpg/150px-Gaumata_portrait_on_the_Behistun_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gaumata_portrait_on_the_Behistun_inscription.jpg/200px-Gaumata_portrait_on_the_Behistun_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="888" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a>, allegedly an impostor named Gaumata. </td> <td>522 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_I_(The_Great).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Darius_I_%28The_Great%29.jpg/100px-Darius_I_%28The_Great%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Darius_I_%28The_Great%29.jpg/150px-Darius_I_%28The_Great%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Darius_I_%28The_Great%29.jpg/200px-Darius_I_%28The_Great%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="828" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a>. Cousin of Cambyses II and Bardiya. </td> <td>522–486 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_(784).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_%28784%29.JPG/99px-National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_%28784%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="99" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_%28784%29.JPG/149px-National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_%28784%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_%28784%29.JPG/199px-National_Museum_of_Iran_Darafsh_%28784%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4928" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> </td> <td>486–465 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Artaxerxes I</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Artaxerxes_I,_from_his_tomb_in_Naqsh-e_Rustam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Relief_of_Artaxerxes_I%2C_from_his_tomb_in_Naqsh-e_Rustam.jpg/99px-Relief_of_Artaxerxes_I%2C_from_his_tomb_in_Naqsh-e_Rustam.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Relief_of_Artaxerxes_I%2C_from_his_tomb_in_Naqsh-e_Rustam.jpg/149px-Relief_of_Artaxerxes_I%2C_from_his_tomb_in_Naqsh-e_Rustam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Relief_of_Artaxerxes_I%2C_from_his_tomb_in_Naqsh-e_Rustam.jpg/199px-Relief_of_Artaxerxes_I%2C_from_his_tomb_in_Naqsh-e_Rustam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1012" data-file-height="1404" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> </td> <td>465–424 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_II" title="Xerxes II">Xerxes II</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Achaemenid_Empire_(Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II)_(Cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Coin_of_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg/99px-Coin_of_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Coin_of_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg/149px-Coin_of_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Coin_of_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg/199px-Coin_of_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="424" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a>. Assassinated by his half-brother and successor, Sogdianus. </td> <td>424 BC (45 days) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sogdianus_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdianus of Persia">Sogdianus</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Daric_coin_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire_(Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II)_(Cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Daric_coin_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg/100px-Daric_coin_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Daric_coin_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg/150px-Daric_coin_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Daric_coin_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg/200px-Daric_coin_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire_%28Xerxes_II_to_Artaxerxes_II%29_%28Cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="374" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a> </td> <td>424–423 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_II_(reduced_shadow).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Darius_II_%28reduced_shadow%29.jpg/100px-Darius_II_%28reduced_shadow%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Darius_II_%28reduced_shadow%29.jpg/150px-Darius_II_%28reduced_shadow%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Darius_II_%28reduced_shadow%29.jpg/200px-Darius_II_%28reduced_shadow%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="1074" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a>. His birth name was Ochus. </td> <td>423–405 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes II of Persia">Artaxerxes II</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Artaxerxes_II_relief_portrait_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Artaxerxes_II_relief_portrait_detail.jpg/100px-Artaxerxes_II_relief_portrait_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Artaxerxes_II_relief_portrait_detail.jpg/150px-Artaxerxes_II_relief_portrait_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Artaxerxes_II_relief_portrait_detail.jpg/200px-Artaxerxes_II_relief_portrait_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="609" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a>. Ruling for 47 years, Artaxerxes II was the longest reigning Achaemenid king. His birth name was Arses. </td> <td>405–358 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Rock_relief_of_Artaxerxes_III_in_Persepolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Rock_relief_of_Artaxerxes_III_in_Persepolis.jpg/100px-Rock_relief_of_Artaxerxes_III_in_Persepolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Rock_relief_of_Artaxerxes_III_in_Persepolis.jpg/150px-Rock_relief_of_Artaxerxes_III_in_Persepolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Rock_relief_of_Artaxerxes_III_in_Persepolis.jpg/199px-Rock_relief_of_Artaxerxes_III_in_Persepolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2913" data-file-height="3884" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a>, having re-conquered the land after it was lost during the reign of Artaxerxes II. His birth name was Ochus. </td> <td>358–338 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes IV">Artaxerxes IV</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/File:Artaxerxes_IV_Arses.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Artaxerxes_IV_Arses.jpg/100px-Artaxerxes_IV_Arses.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Artaxerxes_IV_Arses.jpg/150px-Artaxerxes_IV_Arses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Artaxerxes_IV_Arses.jpg/200px-Artaxerxes_IV_Arses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="420" /></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a>. His birth name was Arses. </td> <td>338–336 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">King of Persia</a> in addition to <a href="/wiki/List_of_pharaohs" title="List of pharaohs">Pharaoh of Egypt</a>; last ruler of the empire. His birth name was either Artashata or Codomannus. </td> <td>336–330 BC </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ruins of Throne Hall, Persepolis"><img alt="Ruins of Throne Hall, Persepolis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg/120px-Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg/180px-Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg/240px-Persepolis_-_Tachara_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4131" data-file-height="2754" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ruins of Throne Hall, <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis"><img alt="Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg/120px-Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg/180px-Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg/240px-Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1908" data-file-height="1284" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pasargadae,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-24,_DD_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lateral view of tomb of Cambyses II, Pasargadae, Iran"><img alt="Lateral view of tomb of Cambyses II, Pasargadae, Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Pasargadae%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/120px-Pasargadae%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Pasargadae%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/180px-Pasargadae%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Pasargadae%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/240px-Pasargadae%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8486" data-file-height="5557" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Lateral view of tomb of <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Plaque_with_horned_lion-griffins_MET_DT896.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plaque with horned lion-griffins. The Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Plaque with horned lion-griffins. The Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Plaque_with_horned_lion-griffins_MET_DT896.jpg/98px-Plaque_with_horned_lion-griffins_MET_DT896.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Plaque_with_horned_lion-griffins_MET_DT896.jpg/146px-Plaque_with_horned_lion-griffins_MET_DT896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Plaque_with_horned_lion-griffins_MET_DT896.jpg/195px-Plaque_with_horned_lion-griffins_MET_DT896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="3718" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Plaque with horned lion-griffins. The Metropolitan Museum of Art</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_the_pre-Achaemenid_kingdoms_of_Iran" title="List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran">List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Zoroastrian_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties">List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The standard was described as "a golden eagle mounted upon a lofty shaft." This image is a reconstruction, the design based on <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Achaemenid_plaque_from_Persepolis.JPG" class="extiw" title="c:File:Achaemenid plaque from Persepolis.JPG">an Achaemenid tile from Persepolis</a>, and the coloring based on the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a>, which depicts the standard in dark red and gold.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Either King (Xšāyaθiya) or <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a> (Xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām) </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> The chronology of the reign of Cyrus is uncertain, and these events are alternatively dated in 542–541 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200234-40">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-bardiya-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bardiya_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bardiya_65-1">b</a> Bardiya is referred to by a variety of names in Greek sources, including Smerdis, Tanyoxarces, Tanoxares, Mergis and Mardos. The earliest account to mention him is the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a>, which has his name as Bardiya.<a href="#cite_note-behistunsmerdis-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200298-64">[61]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Sources differ on the circumstances of Cambyses' death. According to Darius the Great in the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a>, he died of natural causes.<a href="#cite_note-behistunsmerdis-63">[60]</a> According to Herodotus, he died after accidentally wounding himself in the thigh.<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> The true cause of death remains uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200613-67">[63]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> All peoples listed (except for the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albanians</a>) are the ones that took part in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[162]</a> The total amount of ethnicities could very well amount to much more.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/derafs">"DERAFŠ"</a>. Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. 21 November 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.atitle=DERAF%C5%A0&rft.date=2011-11-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fderafs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> 2002 Oxford Atlas of World History <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA42">p.42 (West portion of the Achaemenid Empire)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133020/https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA42">Archived</a> 29 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA43">p.43 (East portion of the Achaemenid Empire)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2002" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA43">Atlas of World History</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 42–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0"><bdi>978-0-19-521921-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521921-0&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DffZy5tDjaUkC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Visible online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.rowan.edu/~mcinneshin/101/wk05/images/NEWachaemexp.jpg">Philip's Atlas of World History (1999)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181017082134/http://users.rowan.edu/~mcinneshin/101/wk05/images/NEWachaemexp.jpg">Archived</a> 17 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> The Times Atlas of World History, p.79 (1989): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarraclough1997" class="citation book cs1">Barraclough, Geoffrey (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_IYYAQAAMAAJ">The Times Atlas of World History</a>. Times Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-0906-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-0906-1"><bdi>978-0-7230-0906-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Times+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7230-0906-1&rft.aulast=Barraclough&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_IYYAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EY-7"><a href="#cite_ref-EY_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarshater1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a> (1993). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 482. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9"><bdi>978-0-521-20092-9</bdi></a>. <q>Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>—<a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a> the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>—to <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, just as later <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanian</a> double city of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mada%27in" title="Al-Mada'in">Seleucia-Ctesiphon</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%2C+Volume+3&rft.pages=482&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20092-9&rft.aulast=Yarshater&rft.aufirst=Ehsan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKittelFrankHouseGreiner2007" class="citation book cs1">Kittel, Harald; Frank, Armin Paul; <a href="/wiki/Juliane_House" title="Juliane House">House, Juliane</a>; Greiner, Norbert; Schultze, Brigitte; Koller, Werner (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oD0dBqGDNscC">Traduction: encyclopédie internationale de la recherche sur la traduction</a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1194–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017145-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017145-7"><bdi>978-3-11-017145-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traduction%3A+encyclop%C3%A9die+internationale+de+la+recherche+sur+la+traduction&rft.pages=1194-95&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017145-7&rft.aulast=Kittel&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft.au=Frank%2C+Armin+Paul&rft.au=House%2C+Juliane&rft.au=Greiner%2C+Norbert&rft.au=Schultze%2C+Brigitte&rft.au=Koller%2C+Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoD0dBqGDNscC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWindfuhr" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Windfuhr, Gernot. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vii3-elamite">"Iran vii. Non-Iranian Languages (3) Elamite"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a>. Retrieved 8 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iran+vii.+Non-Iranian+Languages+%283%29+Elamite&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.aulast=Windfuhr&rft.aufirst=Gernot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Firan-vii3-elamite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001_10-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranian,_E._Tucker_2001_10-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2001" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Elizabeth (2001). "Greek and Iranian". In Christidis, Anastasios-Phoivos (ed.). A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83307-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83307-3"><bdi>978-0-521-83307-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greek+and+Iranian&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Greek%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83307-3&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/achaemenid_society_culture.php">"History of Iran: Achaemenid Society and Culture"</a>. www.iranchamber.com. Retrieved 19 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iranchamber.com&rft.atitle=History+of+Iran%3A+Achaemenid+Society+and+Culture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranchamber.com%2Fhistory%2Farticles%2Fachaemenid_society_culture.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoiy2004" class="citation book cs1">Boiy, T. (2004). Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1449-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1449-0"><bdi>978-90-429-1449-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Achaemenid+and+Hellenistic+Babylon&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1449-0&rft.aulast=Boiy&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turchin-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Turchin_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Turchin_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381">"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"</a>. Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X">1076-156X</a>. Retrieved 12 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=223&rft.date=2006-12&rft.issn=1076-156X&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwsr.pitt.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjwsr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F369%2F381&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taagepera-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taagepera_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1979" class="citation journal cs1">Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1170959">10.2307/1170959</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-5532">0145-5532</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959">1170959</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=Size+and+Duration+of+Empires%3A+Growth-Decline+Curves%2C+600+B.C.+to+600+A.D&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=121&rft.date=1979&rft.issn=0145-5532&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1170959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1170959&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dynamics_of_Ancient_Empires-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Dynamics_of_Ancient_Empires_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisScheidel2009" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Ian; Scheidel, Walter (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dynamicsanciente00sche">The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dynamicsanciente00sche/page/n95">77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975834-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-975834-0"><bdi>978-0-19-975834-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynamics+of+Ancient+Empires%3A+State+Power+from+Assyria+to+Byzantium&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-975834-0&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Scheidel%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdynamicsanciente00sche&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiesehöfer2001119-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiesehöfer2001119_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWiesehöfer2001">Wiesehöfer 2001</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELavanPayneWeisweiler201617-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELavanPayneWeisweiler201617_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELavanPayneWeisweiler201617_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLavanPayneWeisweiler2016">Lavan, Payne & Weisweiler 2016</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius20211-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius20211_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrosius2021">Brosius 2021</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbazi2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alireza_Shapour_Shahbazi" title="Alireza Shapour Shahbazi">Shahbazi, A. Shapour</a> (2012). "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 bce)". In <a href="/wiki/Touraj_Daryaee" title="Touraj Daryaee">Daryaee, Touraj</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199732159.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199732159">The Oxford handbook of Iranian history</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973215-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973215-9"><bdi>978-0-19-973215-9</bdi></a>. <q>Although the Persians and Medes shared domination and others were placed in important positions, the Achaemenids did not – could not – provide a name for their multinational state. Nevertheless, they referred to it as Khshassa, "the Empire".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Achaemenid+Persian+Empire+%28550%E2%80%93330+bce%29&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+handbook+of+Iranian+history&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973215-9&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.+Shapour&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199732159.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199732159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKent1954" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roland_Grubb_Kent" title="Roland Grubb Kent">Kent, Roland G.</a> (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106016799493&view=1up&seq=203">Old Persian: grammar, texts, lexicon</a>. American Oriental Society. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-940490-33-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-940490-33-8"><bdi>978-0-940490-33-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Persian%3A+grammar%2C+texts%2C+lexicon&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=American+Oriental+Society&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-940490-33-8&rft.aulast=Kent&rft.aufirst=Roland+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.32106016799493%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-book-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-book_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-book_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-book_22-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-book_22-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSacksMurrayBrody2005" class="citation book cs1">Sacks, David; Murray, Oswyn; Brody, Lisa (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gsGmuQAACAAJ">Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World</a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5722-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5722-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-5722-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ancient+Greek+World&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5722-1&rft.aulast=Sacks&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Murray%2C+Oswyn&rft.au=Brody%2C+Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgsGmuQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-schmitt-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schmitt_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-schmitt_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitt2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schmitt, Rüdiger (21 July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429155501/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty">"Achaemenid Dynasty"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty">the original</a> on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 4 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Achaemenid+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.date=2011-07-21&rft.aulast=Schmitt&rft.aufirst=R%C3%BCdiger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fachaemenid-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ulrich-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Ulrich_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilcken1967" class="citation book cs1">Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00wilc">Alexander the Great</a>. W. W. Norton & Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00wilc/page/146">146</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9"><bdi>978-0-393-00381-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-393-00381-9&rft.aulast=Wilcken&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreat00wilc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaagepera1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Taagepera" title="Rein Taagepera">Taagepera, Rein</a> (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1170959">10.2307/1170959</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170959">1170959</a>. <q>A superimposition of the maps of Achaemenid and Alexander's empires shows a 90% match, except that Alexander's realm never reached the peak size of the Achaemenid realm.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=Size+and+Duration+of+Empires%3A+Growth-Decline+Curves%2C+600+B.C.+to+600+A.D&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=123&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1170959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1170959%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Taagepera&rft.aufirst=Rein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtisStewart2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vesta_Sarkhosh_Curtis" title="Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis">Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarah_Stewart_(historian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sarah Stewart (historian) (page does not exist)">Stewart, Sarah</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qPVHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79">The Sasanian Era</a>. I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-309-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-309-2"><bdi>978-0-85773-309-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sasanian+Era&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-85773-309-2&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Vesta+Sarkhosh&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqPVHBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETavernier200717-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETavernier200717_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTavernier2007">Tavernier 2007</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-enc-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-enc_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-enc_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokes2009" class="citation book cs1">Stokes, Jamie (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpe0000unse_h6k0/page/551/">Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East</a>. Vol. II. Infobase Publishing. p. 551. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7158-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7158-6"><bdi>978-0-8160-7158-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Peoples+of+Africa+and+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=551&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7158-6&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Jamie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofpe0000unse_h6k0%2Fpage%2F551%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-name-29"><a href="#cite_ref-name_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapour_Shahbazi2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alireza_Shapour_Shahbazi" title="Alireza Shapour Shahbazi">Shapour Shahbazi, Alireza</a> (2012). Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/incompleteoxford00dary">The Oxford handbook of Iranian history</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/incompleteoxford00dary/page/n142">131</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199732159.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199732159.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973215-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973215-9"><bdi>978-0-19-973215-9</bdi></a>. <q>Although the Persians and Medes shared domination and others were placed in important positions, the Achaemenids did not—could not—provide a name for their multinational state. Nevertheless, they referred to it as Khshassa, "the Empire".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+handbook+of+Iranian+history&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199732159.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973215-9&rft.aulast=Shapour+Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=Alireza&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fincompleteoxford00dary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius20063-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius20063_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrosius2006">Brosius 2006</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_de_Mieroop2015" class="citation book cs1">Van de Mieroop, Marc (25 June 2015). A history of the ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 BC (Third ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-71817-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-71817-9"><bdi>978-1-118-71817-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/904507201">904507201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+ancient+Near+East+ca.+3000%E2%80%93323+BC&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex%2C+UK&rft.edition=Third&rft.date=2015-06-25&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F904507201&rft.isbn=978-1-118-71817-9&rft.aulast=Van+de+Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200217-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200217_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200217_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius20066-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius20066_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrosius2006">Brosius 2006</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200216-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200216_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200215-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200215_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cylinders_of_Nabonidus" title="Cylinders of Nabonidus">Nabonidus Cylinder</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-sippar/">I.8–II.25</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210512055152/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-sippar/">Archived</a> 12 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus_Chronicle" title="Nabonidus Chronicle">Nabonidus Chronicle</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/">II.1–4</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511170730/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/">Archived</a> 11 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200231-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200231_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200233-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200233_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200234-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200234_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200234_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D72">I.72</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D73">I.73</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225143018/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D73">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200235-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200235_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200236-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200236_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrosius2006">Brosius 2006</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200237-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200237_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.154&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">I.154</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200237–38-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200237–38_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, pp. 37–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>, Epitome <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210517225411/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans1.html">I.7</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200239-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200239_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200240-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200240_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200241–43-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200241–43_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200241–43_52-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, pp. 41–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus_Chronicle" title="Nabonidus Chronicle">Nabonidus Chronicle</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/">III.12–16</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511170730/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/">Archived</a> 11 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611–12-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius200611–12_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrosius2006">Brosius 2006</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1">23–35</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119192924/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1">Archived</a> 19 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt198385–86-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhrt198385–86_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuhrt1983">Kuhrt 1983</a>, pp. 85–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200243–44-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200243–44_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200243–44_57-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1">43</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119192924/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1">Archived</a> 19 January 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuhrt198388–89-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuhrt198388–89_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuhrt1983">Kuhrt 1983</a>, pp. 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200246-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200246_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200246_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah%2041:2–4&version=nrsv">Isaiah 41:2–4</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Isaiah%2045:1–3&version=nrsv">45:1–3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ezra%206:2–5&version=nrsv">Ezra 6:2–5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-behistunsmerdis-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-behistunsmerdis_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-behistunsmerdis_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-behistunsmerdis_63-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-t-05/">11</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511170933/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-t-05/">Archived</a> 11 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200298-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200298_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200298_64-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200249–50-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200249–50_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, pp. 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrosius200613-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius200613_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrosius200613_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrosius2006">Brosius 2006</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWallinga1984406–409-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWallinga1984406–409_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWallinga1984">Wallinga 1984</a>, pp. 406–409. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55_69-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55_69-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55_69-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55_69-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55_69-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200252–55_69-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, pp. 52–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-III.11,13-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-III.11,13_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-III.11,13_70-1">b</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">III.11</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227142639/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 27 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D13">III.13</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310031638/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D13">Archived</a> 10 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.29&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">III.29</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225191523/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.29&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D30">III.30</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301014336/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D30">Archived</a> 1 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D31">III.31</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304024925/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D31">Archived</a> 4 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D36">III.36</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210226230453/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D36">Archived</a> 26 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.38&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">III.38</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224210504/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.38&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 24 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriant200255–57-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriant200255–57_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBriant2002">Briant 2002</a>, pp. 55–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D17">III.17</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210228091449/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D17">Archived</a> 28 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D19">III.19</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224161429/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D19">Archived</a> 24 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.25&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">III.25</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304045925/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.25&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 4 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeidorn1992147–150-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeidorn1992147–150_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeidorn1992">Heidorn 1992</a>, pp. 147–150. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Herodotus, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">Histories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.61&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">III.61</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224155236/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.61&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 24 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Ctesias, Persica <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/">11</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170402145945/http://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/">Archived</a> 2 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Ctesias, Persica <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/">15</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170402145945/http://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/">Archived</a> 2 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li 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Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007-12-18&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I#refkhshayayrsha" title="Xerxes I">Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia, book 1, p. 873</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> See discussion on possible dates for the battle in the article <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoms" class="citation web cs1">Homs, George. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genealogieonline.nl/en/stamboom-homs/I6000000006131531097.php">"Artaxerxes I Makrokheir (Artaxerxes I) Makrokheir (± 475-± 424) » Stamboom Homs » Genealogy Online"</a>. 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(1841). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wd0-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PR98-IA43">Palestine: the Bible History of the holy land</a>. London. p. 657.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palestine%3A+the+Bible+History+of+the+holy+land&rft.pages=657&rft.pub=London&rft.date=1841&rft.aulast=Kitto&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwd0-AAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPR98-IA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Maurice Whittemore Mather (ed.), Joseph William Hewitt (ed.), <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>: Anabasis, Books 1–4. University of Oklahoma Press, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1347-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-1347-0">978-0-8061-1347-0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dQltw0UIC2UC&pg=PA44">p. 44</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> (Polybius, 27 October 2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> (Dandamaev & Lukonin, 1989: 361–62). </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-achaemenid-empire/">"The Achaemenid Empire"</a>. 25 April 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.date=2014-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Firanologie.com%2Fthe-history-page%2Fthe-achaemenid-empire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.iranologie.com/history/Achaemenid/chapter%20V.html">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080619124220/http://www.iranologie.com/history/Achaemenid/chapter%20V.html">Archived</a> 19 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKjeilen" class="citation web cs1">Kjeilen, Tore. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lexicorient.com/e.o/artaxerxes3.htm">"Artaxerxes 3"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080225213722/http://lexicorient.com/e.o/artaxerxes3.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2008. 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Godley, vol. 4, book 8, verse 98, pp. 96–97 (1924). </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/persepolis-fortification-archive">Persepolis Fortification Archive.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160929234803/http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/persepolis-fortification-archive">Archived</a> 29 September 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Oriental Institute – The University of Chicago </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Stolper, Matthew W. and Tavernier, Jan (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.achemenet.com/document/2007.001-Stolper-Tavernier.pdf">From the Persepolis Fortification Archive Project, 1: An Old Persian Administrative Tablet from the Persepolis Fortification.</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920045714/http://www.achemenet.com/document/2007.001-Stolper-Tavernier.pdf">Archived</a> 20 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. ARTA 2007.001. </li> <li id="cite_note-iranica-151"><a href="#cite_ref-iranica_151-0">^</a> Michael Alram, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/daric">"DARIC"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429180102/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/daric">Archived</a> 29 April 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a>, 15 December 1994, last updated 17 November 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Persepolis Recreated, NEJ International Pictures; 1st edition (2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-964-06-4525-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-964-06-4525-3">978-964-06-4525-3</a> <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000J5N46S">B000J5N46S</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nCwxJsk14e4">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nCwxJsk14e4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210512055818/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nCwxJsk14e4">Archived</a> 12 May 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-HIII-153"><a href="#cite_ref-HIII_153-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3D*.html">Book III, 89–95</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133022/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3D%2A.html">Archived</a> 29 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ZA-154"><a href="#cite_ref-ZA_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchibaldDaviesGabrielsen2011" class="citation book cs1">Archibald, Zosia; Davies, John K.; Gabrielsen, Vincent (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w9YUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA404">The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 404. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958792-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958792-6"><bdi>978-0-19-958792-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economies+of+Hellenistic+Societies%2C+Third+to+First+Centuries+BC&rft.pages=404&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958792-6&rft.aulast=Archibald&rft.aufirst=Zosia&rft.au=Davies%2C+John+K.&rft.au=Gabrielsen%2C+Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw9YUDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iranica_-_Achaemenid_Relations-155"><a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_-_Achaemenid_Relations_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/india-iii-relations-achaemenid-period">"India Relations: Achaemenid Period – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. www.iranicaonline.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=India+Relations%3A+Achaemenid+Period+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Findia-iii-relations-achaemenid-period&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-historyworld.net-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-historyworld.net_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-historyworld.net_156-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa65">"History of Iran (Persia)"</a>. Historyworld.net. Retrieved 7 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Iran+%28Persia%29&rft.pub=Historyworld.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyworld.net%2Fwrldhis%2FPlainTextHistories.asp%3Fhistoryid%3Daa65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Dandamayev" title="Muhammad Dandamayev">M. Dandamayev</a>, "Foreign Slaves on the Estates of the Achaemenid Kings and their Nobles", in Trudy dvadtsat' pyatogo mezhdunarodnogo kongressa vostokovedov II, Moscow, 1963, pp. 151–52 </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStolper1989" class="citation journal cs1">Stolper, Matthew (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/23572293">"Registration and Taxation of Slave Sales in Achaemenid Babylonia"</a>. Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie. 79: 80–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzava.1989.79.1.80">10.1515/zava.1989.79.1.80</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162232807">162232807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Assyriologie+und+Vorderasiatische+Arch%C3%A4ologie&rft.atitle=Registration+and+Taxation+of+Slave+Sales+in+Achaemenid+Babylonia&rft.volume=79&rft.pages=80-101&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fzava.1989.79.1.80&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162232807%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stolper&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F23572293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1998" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Michael R. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historycomputing00will">A history of computing technology</a> (2nd ed., 2nd print. ed.). Los Alamitos, Calif.: IEEE Computer Soc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historycomputing00will/page/n66">56</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8186-7739-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8186-7739-7"><bdi>978-0-8186-7739-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+computing+technology&rft.place=Los+Alamitos%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=56&rft.edition=2nd+ed.%2C+2nd+print.&rft.pub=IEEE+Computer+Soc.&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8186-7739-7&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorycomputing00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNyrop1978" class="citation book cs1">Nyrop, Richard F., ed. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lvvrt670CB8C&pg=PA25">Iran, a Country Study</a>. American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Area. pp. 25–26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran%2C+a+Country+Study&rft.pages=25-26&rft.pub=American+University+%28Washington%2C+D.+C.+%29+Foreign+Area&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLvvrt670CB8C%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/data">"DĀTA – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. iranicaonline.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=D%C4%80TA+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fdata&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/D/DAR/darius-i-the-great.html">"Darius I (Darius the Great), King of Persia (from 521 BC)"</a>. 1902encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 7 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Darius+I+%28Darius+the+Great%29%2C+King+of+Persia+%28from+521+BC%29&rft.pub=1902encyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.1902encyclopedia.com%2FD%2FDAR%2Fdarius-i-the-great.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> The words are actually inscribed on the <a href="/wiki/Frieze" title="Frieze">frieze</a> of the <a href="/wiki/James_A._Farley_Post_Office_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Farley Post Office Building">James A. Farley Post Office Building</a> in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. The inscription is based on: Herodotus with George Rawlinson, trans., The History of Herodotus (New York, New York: Tandy-Thomas Co., 1909), vol. 4, Book 8, § 98, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x000329532;view=1up;seq=163">p. 147.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308112106/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x000329532;view=1up;seq=163">Archived</a> 8 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/diary-young-explorers-iran-and-royal-road">"The Diary of Young Explorers: Iran and the Royal Road | SILK ROADS"</a>. en.unesco.org. Retrieved 11 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.unesco.org&rft.atitle=The+Diary+of+Young+Explorers%3A+Iran+and+the+Royal+Road+%7C+SILK+ROADS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.unesco.org%2Fsilkroad%2Fcontent%2Fdiary-young-explorers-iran-and-royal-road&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cyv-165"><a href="#cite_ref-cyv_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmira_Johnson_BrummettRobert_R._EdgarNeil_J._HackettRobert_R._Edgar2003" class="citation book cs1">Palmira Johnson Brummett; Robert R. Edgar; Neil J. Hackett; Robert R. Edgar; Neil J. Hackett (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vz65MAm_6JMC">Civilization past & present, Volume 1</a>. Longman. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-09097-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-09097-3"><bdi>978-0-321-09097-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civilization+past+%26+present%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-321-09097-3&rft.au=Palmira+Johnson+Brummett&rft.au=Robert+R.+Edgar&rft.au=Neil+J.+Hackett&rft.au=Robert+R.+Edgar&rft.au=Neil+J.+Hackett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVz65MAm_6JMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> A history of Greece, Volume 2, By Connop Thirlwall, Longmans, 1836, p. 174 </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231123;layout=;loc=7.60.1">VII, 59</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133018/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true">Archived</a> 29 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-84-169"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-84_169-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.84.1">VII, 84</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154130/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.84.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-62-170"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-62_170-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.62.1">VII, 62</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153822/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.62.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-63-171"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-63_171-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.63.1">VII, 63</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153833/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.63.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-64-172"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-64_172-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.64.1">VII, 64</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133025/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true">Archived</a> 29 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chaumont-173"><a href="#cite_ref-Chaumont_173-0">^</a> Chaumont, M.L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f8/v1f8a022.html">Albania</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070310231608/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f8/v1f8a022.html">Archived</a> 10 March 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. "Encyclopædia Iranica. </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-66-174"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-66_174-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.66.1">VII, 66</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153916/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.66.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-67-175"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-67_175-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.67.1">VII, 67</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153917/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.67.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii=89-176"><a href="#cite_ref-vii=89_176-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.89.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">VII, 89</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200804175531/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.%207.89.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 4 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-90-177"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-90_177-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.90.1">VII 90</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133027/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true">Archived</a> 29 November 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-68-178"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-68_178-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.68.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">VII, 68</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210723133518/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.68.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 23 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-69-179"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-69_179-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.69.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">VII, 69</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724232523/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.69.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 24 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-70-180"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-70_180-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.70.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">VII, 70</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210723133542/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.70.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 23 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-71-181"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-71_181-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.71.1">VII, 71</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154012/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.71.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-72-182"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-72_182-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.72.1">VII, 72</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154017/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.72.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-73-183"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-73_183-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.73.1">VII, 73</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506135017/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.73.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-74-184"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-74_184-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.74.1">VII, 74</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154038/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.74.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-75-185"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-75_185-0">^</a> Herodotus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.75.1">VII, 75</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154046/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.75.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-77-186"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-77_186-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.77.1">VII, 77</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154111/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.77.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-78-187"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-78_187-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.78.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">VII, 78</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724223706/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.78.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 24 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii=79-188"><a href="#cite_ref-vii=79_188-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.79.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">VII, 79</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200724224548/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.79.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 24 July 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-80-189"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-80_189-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.80.1">VII, 80</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154124/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.80.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-85-190"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-85_190-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.85.1">VII, 85</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154200/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.85.1">Archived</a> 6 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-vii-65-191"><a href="#cite_ref-vii-65_191-0">^</a> Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.65.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">VII, 65</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210723133509/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.65.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126">Archived</a> 23 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartleyYazicioğluSmith2012" class="citation book cs1">Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UstGrkGNNQcC&pg=PA83">The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01652-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01652-1"><bdi>978-1-107-01652-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Power+and+Politics+in+Eurasia%3A+Regimes+and+Revolutions&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01652-1&rft.aulast=Hartley&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft.au=Yazicio%C4%9Flu%2C+G.+Bike&rft.au=Smith%2C+Adam+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUstGrkGNNQcC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-livius.org2-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-livius.org2_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius.org2_193-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJona1997" class="citation web cs1">Jona, Lendering (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/immortals/">"Immortals"</a>. Livius.org. Retrieved 16 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Livius.org&rft.atitle=Immortals&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Jona&rft.aufirst=Lendering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fconcept%2Fimmortals%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Volume IX, Encyclopædia Britannica, Fifteenth Edition 1983 </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotts1999" class="citation book cs1">Potts, D. T. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C&pg=PA346">The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 345. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56496-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56496-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56496-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Elam%3A+Formation+and+Transformation+of+an+Ancient+Iranian+State&rft.pages=345&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56496-0&rft.aulast=Potts&rft.aufirst=D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmc4cfzkRVj4C%26pg%3DPA346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDugawLipschitsStiebel2020" class="citation journal cs1">Dugaw, Sean; Lipschits, Oded; Stiebel, Guy (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27100276">"A New Typology of Arrowheads from the Late Iron Age and Persian Period and its Historical Implications"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Israel_Exploration_Journal" title="Israel Exploration Journal">Israel Exploration Journal</a>. 70 (1): 64–89. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27100276">27100276</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Exploration+Journal&rft.atitle=A+New+Typology+of+Arrowheads+from+the+Late+Iron+Age+and+Persian+Period+and+its+Historical+Implications.&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64-89&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27100276%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dugaw&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft.au=Lipschits%2C+Oded&rft.au=Stiebel%2C+Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27100276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYahalom-MackHerzlingerBogdanovskyTirosh2020" class="citation journal cs1">Yahalom-Mack, Naama; Herzlinger, Gadi; Bogdanovsky, Alexander; Tirosh, Ofir; Garfinkel, Yosef; Dugaw, Sean; Lipschits, Oded; Erel, Yigal (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440320300698">"Combining chemical and lead isotope analyses with 3-D geometric–morphometric shape analysis: A methodological case study of socketed bronze arrowheads from the southern Levant"</a>. Journal of Archaeological Science. 118: 105147. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020JArSc.118j5147Y">2020JArSc.118j5147Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2020.105147">10.1016/j.jas.2020.105147</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218967765">218967765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Combining+chemical+and+lead+isotope+analyses+with+3-D+geometric%E2%80%93morphometric+shape+analysis%3A+A+methodological+case+study+of+socketed+bronze+arrowheads+from+the+southern+Levant&rft.volume=118&rft.pages=105147&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218967765%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2020.105147&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020JArSc.118j5147Y&rft.aulast=Yahalom-Mack&rft.aufirst=Naama&rft.au=Herzlinger%2C+Gadi&rft.au=Bogdanovsky%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Tirosh%2C+Ofir&rft.au=Garfinkel%2C+Yosef&rft.au=Dugaw%2C+Sean&rft.au=Lipschits%2C+Oded&rft.au=Erel%2C+Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0305440320300698&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorey1980" class="citation book cs1">Moorey, P. R. S. (1980). Cemeteries of the First Millennium B.C. at Deve Hüyük, near Carchemish, salvaged by T. E. Lawrence and C. L. Woolley in 1913. British Archaeological Reports Limited. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86054-101-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86054-101-1"><bdi>978-0-86054-101-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cemeteries+of+the+First+Millennium+B.C.+at+Deve+H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk%2C+near+Carchemish%2C+salvaged+by+T.+E.+Lawrence+and+C.+L.+Woolley+in+1913&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=British+Archaeological+Reports+Limited&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-86054-101-1&rft.aulast=Moorey&rft.aufirst=P.+R.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelrue2007" class="citation journal cs1">Delrue, Parsival (2007). "Trilobate Arrowheads at Ed-Dur (U.A.E, Emirate of Umm Al-Qaiwain)". 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British Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Museum&rft.atitle=Collection+online%3A+arrow-head&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details.aspx%3FobjectId%3D282545%26partId%3D1%26searchText%3Dachaemenid%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSekunda1992" class="citation book cs1">Sekunda, Nicholas (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianarmybc00seku">The Persian Army 560–330 BC</a>. Osprey Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianarmybc00seku/page/n30">30</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-250-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-250-9"><bdi>978-1-85532-250-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Army+560%E2%80%93330+BC&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-250-9&rft.aulast=Sekunda&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpersianarmybc00seku&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1835-0630-1">"The Darius Seal"</a>. British Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Museum&rft.atitle=The+Darius+Seal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fobject%2FW_1835-0630-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/pictures/a/iran/darius-seal-photo/">"Darius' seal: photo – Livius"</a>. www.livius.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.livius.org&rft.atitle=Darius%27+seal%3A+photo+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fpictures%2Fa%2Firan%2Fdarius-seal-photo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-navy-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-navy_204-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaveh_Farrokh2007" class="citation book cs1">Kaveh Farrokh (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wywlvgAACAAJ">Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war</a>. Bloomsbury USA. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3"><bdi>978-1-84603-108-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shadows+in+the+desert%3A+ancient+Persia+at+war&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+USA&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-108-3&rft.au=Kaveh+Farrokh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwywlvgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-navi-205"><a href="#cite_ref-navi_205-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElspeth_R.M._Dusinberre2002" class="citation book cs1">Elspeth R.M. Dusinberre (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uWkzTBHB6ekC">Aspects of empire in Achaemenid Sardis</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81071-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81071-5"><bdi>978-0-521-81071-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+empire+in+Achaemenid+Sardis&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81071-5&rft.au=Elspeth+R.M.+Dusinberre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuWkzTBHB6ekC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhsan_Yar-Shater1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Ehsan Yar-Shater</a> (1982). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica">Encyclopaedia Iranica, Volume 4, Issues 5–8</a>. Routledge & Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Volume+4%2C+Issues+5%E2%80%938&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1982&rft.au=Ehsan+Yar-Shater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Manuel_Cook1983" class="citation book cs1">John Manuel Cook (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianempire0000cook/mode/2up">The Persian Empire</a>. Schocken Books. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-3846-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-3846-4"><bdi>978-0-8052-3846-4</bdi></a>. <q>The Achaemenids maintained some bridges on their main routes. What we hear of is boat bridges, which seem to have been in normal use on the Tigris in Babylonia...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Schocken+Books&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8052-3846-4&rft.au=John+Manuel+Cook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpersianempire0000cook%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE.V._CernenkoAngus_McBrideM.V._Gorelik1983" class="citation book cs1">E.V. Cernenko; Angus McBride; M.V. Gorelik (24 March 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ozA8d9AFiMgC">The Scythians, 700–300 BC</a>. 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John Murray. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyherodotu00unkngoog/page/n93">77</a> (Chp. 86).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Herodotus%3A+a+new+English+version%2C+Volume+3&rft.pages=77+%28Chp.+86%29&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1859&rft.au=Herodotus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryherodotu00unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldemar_Heckel2006" class="citation book cs1">Waldemar Heckel (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JJ4K1wFZkrsC">Who's who in the age of Alexander the Great: prosopography of Alexander's empire</a>. 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U of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-1114-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-1114-0"><bdi>978-0-8166-1114-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Ancient+Iranian+Religion%3A+Readings+from+the+Avesta+and+Achaemenid+Inscriptions&rft.pub=U+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-1114-0&rft.au=William+W.+Malandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8dKeJH3f59IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> in the Achaemenid Empire. </li> <li id="cite_note-Briant2002-221"><a href="#cite_ref-Briant2002_221-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierre_Briant2002" class="citation book cs1">Pierre Briant (1 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&pg=PA252">From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire</a>. Eisenbrauns. pp. 252–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-120-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-120-7"><bdi>978-1-57506-120-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Cyrus+to+Alexander%3A+A+History+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=252-&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-120-7&rft.au=Pierre+Briant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlxQ9W6F1oSYC%26pg%3DPA252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dandamaev1989-222"><a href="#cite_ref-Dandamaev1989_222-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._A._Dandamaev1989" class="citation book cs1">M. A. 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BRILL. pp. 97–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6"><bdi>978-90-04-09172-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.pages=97-&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09172-6&rft.au=M.+A.+Dandamaev&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dms30qA6nyMsC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bivar1998-223"><a href="#cite_ref-Bivar1998_223-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._D._H._Bivar1998" class="citation book cs1">A. D. H. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-251111-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-251111-9"><bdi>978-0-19-251111-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Images+of+Mithra&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017-03-23&rft.isbn=978-0-19-251111-9&rft.au=Philippa+Adrych&rft.au=Robert+Bracey&rft.au=Dominic+Dalglish&rft.au=Stefanie+Lenk&rft.au=Rachel+Wood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGPJ0DgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perrot2013-225"><a href="#cite_ref-Perrot2013_225-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJean_Perrot2013" class="citation book cs1">Jean Perrot (28 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MSJXzAEACAAJ">The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia</a>. 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Kessinger Publishing. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-6655-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-6655-4"><bdi>978-0-7661-6655-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL8060499M">8060499M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zoroastrian+Studies%3A+The+Iranian+Religion+and+Various+Monographs+%281928%29&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8060499M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-7661-6655-4&rft.au=A.+V.+Williams+Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL8060499M%2FZoroastrian_Studies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirginia_Schomp2009" class="citation book cs1">Virginia Schomp (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U21j7vDhCCIC">The Ancient Persians</a>. 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Dodd, Mead and Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HnoWAAAAYAAJ/page/n348">80</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+study+architecture&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead+and+Company&rft.date=1917&rft.au=Charles+Henry+Caffin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_HnoWAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald2020" class="citation web cs1">MacDonald, Eve (8 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/irans-cultural-heritage-reflects-the-grandeur-and-beauty-of-the-golden-age-of-the-persian-empire-129413">"Iran's cultural heritage reflects the grandeur and beauty of the golden age of the Persian empire"</a>. 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Retrieved 15 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Iran%27s+cultural+heritage+reflects+the+grandeur+and+beauty+of+the+golden+age+of+the+Persian+empire&rft.date=2020-01-08&rft.aulast=MacDonald&rft.aufirst=Eve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Firans-cultural-heritage-reflects-the-grandeur-and-beauty-of-the-golden-age-of-the-persian-empire-129413&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_LipińskiKarel_van_LerbergheAntoon_SchoorsKarel_Van_Lerberghe1995" class="citation book cs1">Edward Lipiński; Karel van Lerberghe; Antoon Schoors; Karel Van Lerberghe; Antoon Schoors (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=thIxCmwfNoMC">Immigration and emigration within the ancient Near East</a>. Peeters Publishers. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-727-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-727-5"><bdi>978-90-6831-727-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immigration+and+emigration+within+the+ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-90-6831-727-5&rft.au=Edward+Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.au=Karel+van+Lerberghe&rft.au=Antoon+Schoors&rft.au=Karel+Van+Lerberghe&rft.au=Antoon+Schoors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DthIxCmwfNoMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> "Mastering World History" by Philip L. Groisser, New York, 1970, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hovannisian-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hovannisian_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hovannisian_246-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHovannisianSabaghYāršātir1998" class="citation book cs1">Hovannisian, Richard G.; Sabagh, Georges; Yāršātir, Iḥsān (19 November 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=39XZDnOWUXsC&q=abbasid+and+achaemenid&pg=PA81">The Persian Presence in the Islamic World</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59185-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59185-0"><bdi>978-0-521-59185-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Presence+in+the+Islamic+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998-11-19&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59185-0&rft.aulast=Hovannisian&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Sabagh%2C+Georges&rft.au=Y%C4%81r%C5%A1%C4%81tir%2C+I%E1%B8%A5s%C4%81n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D39XZDnOWUXsC%26q%3Dabbasid%2Band%2Bachaemenid%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret_Christina_Miller2004" class="citation book cs1">Margaret Christina Miller (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oGXMMD5rXBQC">Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 243. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60758-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60758-2"><bdi>978-0-521-60758-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Athens+and+Persia+in+the+Fifth+Century+BC%3A+A+Study+in+Cultural+Receptivity&rft.pages=243&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-60758-2&rft.au=Margaret+Christina+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoGXMMD5rXBQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVesta_Sarkhosh_CurtisSarah_Stewart2005" class="citation book cs1">Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis; Sarah Stewart (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a0IF9IdkdYEC&pg=PA7">Birth of the Persian Empire</a>. I.B.Tauris. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-062-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-062-8"><bdi>978-1-84511-062-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birth+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-062-8&rft.au=Vesta+Sarkhosh+Curtis&rft.au=Sarah+Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da0IF9IdkdYEC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_W.F._Hegel2007" class="citation book cs1">George W.F. 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Cosimo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60206-438-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60206-438-6"><bdi>978-1-60206-438-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+History&rft.pub=Cosimo&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-60206-438-6&rft.au=George+W.F.+Hegel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGbxWvCCUdD8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant" class="citation web cs1">Durant, Will. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723072146/http://www.mazdapublisher.com/Documents/Persian%20Civilization.pdf">"Persia in the History of Civilization"</a> (PDF). Addressing 'Iran-America Society. Mazda Publishers, Inc. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mazdapublisher.com/Documents/Persian%20Civilization.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Addressing+%27Iran-America+Society&rft.atitle=Persia+in+the+History+of+Civilization&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mazdapublisher.com%2FDocuments%2FPersian%2520Civilization.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriant2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Briant" title="Pierre Briant">Briant, Pierre</a> (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-031-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-031-6"><bdi>978-1-57506-031-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Cyrus+to+Alexander%3A+A+History+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-031-6&rft.aulast=Briant&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrosius2006" class="citation book cs1">Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32089-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32089-4"><bdi>978-0-415-32089-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persians&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32089-4&rft.aulast=Brosius&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrosius2021" class="citation book cs1">Brosius, Maria (2021). A History of Ancient Persia: The Achaemenid Empire. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-444-35092-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-444-35092-0"><bdi>978-1-444-35092-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Persia%3A+The+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-444-35092-0&rft.aulast=Brosius&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidorn1992" class="citation thesis cs1">Heidorn, Lisa Ann (1992). The Fortress of Dorginarti and Lower Nubia during the Seventh to Fifth Centuries B.C. (PhD). University of Chicago.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Fortress+of+Dorginarti+and+Lower+Nubia+during+the+Seventh+to+Fifth+Centuries+B.C.&rft.inst=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Heidorn&rft.aufirst=Lisa+Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoweReames2008" class="citation book cs1">Howe, Timothy; Reames, Jeanne (2008). Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza. Regina Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930053-56-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-930053-56-4"><bdi>978-1-930053-56-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Macedonian+Legacies%3A+Studies+in+Ancient+Macedonian+History+and+Culture+in+Honor+of+Eugene+N.+Borza&rft.pub=Regina+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-930053-56-4&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Reames%2C+Jeanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhrt1983" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_Kuhrt" title="Amélie Kuhrt">Kuhrt, Amélie</a> (1983). "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. 8 (25): 83–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030908928300802507">10.1177/030908928300802507</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170508879">170508879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Study+of+the+Old+Testament&rft.atitle=The+Cyrus+Cylinder+and+Achaemenid+Imperial+Policy&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=83-97&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030908928300802507&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170508879%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kuhrt&rft.aufirst=Am%C3%A9lie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhrt2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_Kuhrt" title="Amélie Kuhrt">Kuhrt, Amélie</a> (2013). The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-01694-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-01694-3"><bdi>978-1-136-01694-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Empire%3A+A+Corpus+of+Sources+from+the+Achaemenid+Period&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-01694-3&rft.aulast=Kuhrt&rft.aufirst=Am%C3%A9lie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLavanPayneWeisweiler2016" class="citation book cs1">Lavan, Myles; Payne, Richard E.; Weisweiler, John, eds. (2016). "Cosmopolitan Politics: The Assimilation and Subordination of Elite Cultures". Cosmopolitanism and Empire: Universal Rulers, Local Elites, and Cultural Integration in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cosmopolitan+Politics%3A+The+Assimilation+and+Subordination+of+Elite+Cultures&rft.btitle=Cosmopolitanism+and+Empire%3A+Universal+Rulers%2C+Local+Elites%2C+and+Cultural+Integration+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+and+Mediterranean&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTavernier2007" class="citation book cs1">Tavernier, Jan (2007). Iranica in the Achaeamenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts. Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1833-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1833-7"><bdi>978-90-429-1833-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iranica+in+the+Achaeamenid+Period+%28ca.+550-330+B.C.%29%3A+Lexicon+of+Old+Iranian+Proper+Names+and+Loanwords%2C+Attested+in+Non-Iranian+Texts&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1833-7&rft.aulast=Tavernier&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallinga1984" class="citation journal cs1">Wallinga, Herman (1984). "The Ionian Revolt". Mnemosyne. 37 (3/4): 401–437. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852584X00619">10.1163/156852584X00619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mnemosyne&rft.atitle=The+Ionian+Revolt&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=401-437&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852584X00619&rft.aulast=Wallinga&rft.aufirst=Herman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiesehöfer2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Josef_Wieseh%C3%B6fer" title="Josef Wiesehöfer">Wiesehöfer, Josef</a> (2001). Ancient Persia. Translated by Azodi, Azizeh. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-675-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-675-1"><bdi>978-1-86064-675-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Persia&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-86064-675-1&rft.aulast=Wieseh%C3%B6fer&rft.aufirst=Josef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAchenbach2019" class="citation book cs1">Achenbach, Reinhard, ed. (2019). Persische Reichspolitik und lokale Heiligtümer. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-11319-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-11319-9"><bdi>978-3-447-11319-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persische+Reichspolitik+und+lokale+Heiligt%C3%BCmer&rft.place=Wiesbaden%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-447-11319-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDandamaev1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Dandamayev" title="Muhammad Dandamayev">Dandamaev, M. A.</a> (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6"><bdi>978-90-04-09172-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09172-6&rft.aulast=Dandamaev&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKosmin2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_J._Kosmin" title="Paul J. Kosmin">Kosmin, Paul J.</a> (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72882-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-72882-0"><bdi>978-0-674-72882-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Land+of+the+Elephant+Kings%3A+Space%2C+Territory%2C+and+Ideology+in+Seleucid+Empire&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-674-72882-0&rft.aulast=Kosmin&rft.aufirst=Paul+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagel2023" class="citation book cs1">Nagel, Alexander (2023). Color and meaning in the art of Achaemenid Persia. Cambridge NewYork, NY Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781009361293" title="Special:BookSources/9781009361293"><bdi>9781009361293</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Color+and+meaning+in+the+art+of+Achaemenid+Persia&rft.place=Cambridge+NewYork%2C+NY+Port+Melbourne&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781009361293&rft.aulast=Nagel&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlmstead1948" class="citation book cs1">Olmstead, Albert T. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532747">History of the Persian Empire</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-62777-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-62777-9"><bdi>978-0-226-62777-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.isbn=978-0-226-62777-9&rft.aulast=Olmstead&rft.aufirst=Albert+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.532747&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Achaemenid_Empire&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Achaemenid_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persiansarenotarabs.com/persian-history">Persian History</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Persia">"Persia" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 187–252.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Persia&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=187-252&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/achaemenians.html">Livius.org on Achaemenids</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131017093213/https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/achaemenians.html">Archived</a> 17 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cispis-opers">Čišpiš</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html">The Behistun Inscription</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225415/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions.html">Livius.org on Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161218193522/http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions.html">Archived</a> 18 December 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/art/articles/art_of_achaemenids.php">Achaemenid art on Iran Chamber Society (www.iranchamber.com)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persianempire.info/AchaemenidArchitecture.htm#tribute">Photos of the tribute bearers from the 23 satrapies of the Achaemenid empire, from Persepolis</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://irancollection.alborzi.com/">Coins, medals and orders of the Persian empire</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126095027/http://irancollection.alborzi.com/">Archived</a> 26 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100502073108/http://en.tarikhema.ir/category/ancient/ancient-iran/achaemenid-empire">Dynasty Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.farsmovie.com/eng/index.htm">Iran, The Forgotten Glory – Documentary Film About Ancient Iran (achaemenids & Sassanids)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100428091251/http://farsmovie.com/eng/index.htm">Archived</a> 28 April 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.achemenet.com/">Achemenet</a> an electronic resource for the study of the history, literature and archaeology of the Persian Empire</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virtualtourengine.com/tour.aspx?id=17&langindex=1">Persepolis Before Incursion</a> (Virtual tour project)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061126081333/http://www.museum-achemenet.college-de-france.fr/">Musée achéménide virtuel et interactif (Mavi)</a> a "Virtual Interactive Achemenide Museum" of more than 8000 items of the Persian Empire</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persianpast.com/">Persian history in detail</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/3156/2007_168.pdf?sequence=1">Swedish Contributions to the Archaeology of Iran</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210722052638/http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/3156/2007_168.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> 22 July 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Artikel i Fornvännen (2007) by Carl Nylander</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Achaemenid_Empire&#124;link=Achaemenid_Empire_Achaemenid_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#DEB887"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Template:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Template talk:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Achaemenid_Empire&#124;link=Achaemenid_Empire_Achaemenid_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire"><img alt="Achaemenid Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/15px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/23px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/30px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="470" /></a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Achaemenid Empire">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Falcon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/150px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/225px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/300px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="333" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Lion_Rhyton" title="Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton">Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_coinage" title="Achaemenid coinage">Achaemenid coinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apadana_hoard" title="Apadana hoard">Apadana hoard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danake" title="Danake">Danake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daric" title="Daric">Daric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachara" title="Tachara">Tachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">Palace of Darius in Susa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">Tomb of Cyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_column" title="Persian column">Persian column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'ba-ye Zartosht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus" title="Mausoleum at Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombs_at_Xanthos" title="Tombs at Xanthos">Tombs at Xanthos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harpy_Tomb" title="Harpy Tomb">Harpy Tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nereid_Monument" title="Nereid Monument">Nereid Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Payava" title="Tomb of Payava">Tomb of Payava</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_music" title="Achaemenid music">Achaemenid music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I%27s_inscription_at_Van" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I's inscription at Van">Xerxes I's inscription at Van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganjnameh" title="Ganjnameh">Ganjnameh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Revolt">Persian Revolt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hyrba" title="Battle of Hyrba">Battle of Hyrba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Border" title="Battle of the Persian Border">Battle of the Persian Border</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lydian-Persian Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pteria" title="Battle of Pteria">Battle of Pteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thymbra" title="Battle of Thymbra">Battle of Thymbra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)" title="Siege of Sardis (547 BC)">Siege of Sardis (547 BC)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">Scythian campaign of Darius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Naxos_(499_BC)" title="Siege of Naxos (499 BC)">Siege of Naxos (499 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Battle of Lade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eretria" title="Siege of Eretria">Siege of Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Battle of Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens" title="Achaemenid destruction of Athens">Destruction of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Battle of Mycale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_revolts_(484_BC)" title="Babylonian revolts (484 BC)">Babylonian revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus" title="Battle of Cyzicus">Battle of Cyzicus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Battle of Cunaxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cnidus" title="Battle of Cnidus">Battle of Cnidus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">Second conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Siege of Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Siege of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre (332 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Siege of Gaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Battle of the Persian Gate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_and_water" title="Earth and water">Earth and water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Callias" title="Peace of Callias">Peace of Callias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">Peace of Antalcidas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Capitals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylon#Persian_conquest" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">Satrapies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Districts of the Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives" title="Persepolis Administrative Archives">Persepolis Administrative Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapar_Khaneh" title="Chapar Khaneh">Chapar Khaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angarium" title="Angarium">Angarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angarum" title="Angarum">Angarum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Dynasties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnacid_dynasty" title="Pharnacid dynasty">Pharnacid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_dynasty" title="Mithridatic dynasty">Mithridatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathid_dynasty" title="Ariarathid dynasty">Ariarathid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lygdamid_dynasty" title="Lygdamid dynasty">Lygdamid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontid_dynasty" title="Orontid dynasty">Orontid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Achaemenid_clans" title="Seven Achaemenid clans">Seven Achaemenid clans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthian_Obelisk" title="Xanthian Obelisk">Xanthian Obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_calendar" title="Cappadocian calendar">Cappadocian calendar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Provinces_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire(Behistun_/_Persepolis_/_Naqsh-e_Rustam_/_Susa_/_Daeva_inscriptions)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Achaemenid_Provinces" title="Template:Achaemenid Provinces"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Achaemenid_Provinces" title="Template talk:Achaemenid Provinces"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid_Provinces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid Provinces"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire(Behistun_/_Persepolis_/_Naqsh-e_Rustam_/_Susa_/_Daeva_inscriptions)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="plainlist" style="padding:0.1em;white-space:nowrap;"><ul style="line-height:1.2em;"><li>Provinces of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid Empire</a></li><li style="font-size:90%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a> / <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">Susa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daeva" title="Daeva">Daeva</a> inscriptions)</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;padding:0.25em;line-height:1.4em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Akaufaka (<a href="/wiki/Quhistan" title="Quhistan">Quhistan</a>?)</li> <li>Amyrgoi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Arabia" title="Achaemenid Arabia">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aria_(region)" title="Aria (region)">Aria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia#Persian_Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria_(satrapy)" title="Bactria (satrapy)">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(satrapy)" title="Cappadocia (satrapy)">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmania_(region)" title="Carmania (region)">Carmania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorasmia_(satrapy)" title="Chorasmia (satrapy)">Chorasmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia (satrapy)">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colchis" title="Colchis">Colchis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dahae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drangiana" title="Drangiana">Drangiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">1st Egypt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">2nd Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kush_(satrapy)" title="Kush (satrapy)">Kush</a> (Nubia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gand%C4%81ra" title="Gandāra">Gandāra</a> (Gandhara)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gedrosia_(satrapy)" title="Gedrosia (satrapy)">Gedrosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Hyrcania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia_(satrapy)" title="Ionia (satrapy)">Ionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindush" title="Hindush">Hindush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_(satrapy)" title="Libya (satrapy)">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia_(satrapy)" title="Lydia (satrapy)">Lydia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maka_(satrapy)" title="Maka (satrapy)">Maka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persis" title="Persis">Persis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Phoenicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia" title="Phrygia">Phrygia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a></li> <li>Greater Phrygia</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li> <li>Samaritan Province</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sattagydia" title="Sattagydia">Sattagydia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skudra" title="Skudra">Skudra (Thrace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">Yehud</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The principal Achaemenid satrapies, ~500 BC."><img alt="The principal Achaemenid satrapies, ~500 BC." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/160px-Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/240px-Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg/320px-Map_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1314" data-file-height="635" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Taxation_districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" title="Taxation districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Taxation districts of the Achaemenid Empire</a> (according to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mediterranean:   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Ra and Ra II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)">Ivlia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">The Histories (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">The Histories (Polybius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template talk:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northwestern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Southern Mesopotamia </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (Southern Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Middle Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>") </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a> <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a> <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iran_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iran_topics" title="Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iran_topics" title="Template talk:Iran topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iran_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Prehistory"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistory</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">3400–539 BC</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannaeans">Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu (860 BC–590 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median Empire (678–549 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">550 BC–AD 224</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka (c.295–220 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">AD 224–651</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval and early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">632–1090</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid dynasty (819–999)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty (821–873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alavid dynasty (864–928)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty (861–1003)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty (934–1062)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">977–1432</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anushtegin_dynasty" title="Anushtegin dynasty">Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty (1244–1381)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate (1256–1335)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1370–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire (1370–1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Empire (1501–1736)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Empire (1736–1796)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand Dynasty (1751–1794)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Empire (1789–1925)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">1908 bombardment of the Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_separatism_in_Iran" title="Kurdish separatism in Iran">Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1925–1979</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab_dispute" title="Shatt al-Arab dispute">Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Balochistan" title="Insurgency in Balochistan">Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_Iranian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election">1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution (1979)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Islamic Republic</a> 1979–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">History (1979–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government (1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1979_Iranian_Islamic_Republic_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum">March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_1979_Iranian_constitutional_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum">December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Embassy_siege" title="Iranian Embassy siege">Iranian Embassy siege (1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nojeh_coup_plot" title="Nojeh coup plot">Nojeh coup plot (1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War (1980–88)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran_(1981)" title="Interim Government of Iran (1981)">Interim Government of Iran (1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident" title="1987 Mecca incident">1987 Mecca incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655" title="Iran Air Flight 655">Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KDPI_insurgency_(1989%E2%80%931996)" title="KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)">KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93PJAK_conflict" title="Iran–PJAK conflict">PJAK conflict (2004–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election_protests" title="2009 Iranian presidential election protests">2009 Iranian presidential election protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war (2011–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_military_intervention_against_the_Islamic_State" class="mw-redirect" title="International military intervention against the Islamic State">International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">United States withdrawal (2018)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_Iranian_protests" title="2017–2018 Iranian protests">2017–2018 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Iranian_general_strikes_and_protests" title="2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests">2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Iran">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Iranian_protests" title="2019–2020 Iranian protests">2019–2020 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iranian_protests" title="2021–2022 Iranian protests">2021–2022 Iranian protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Persians" title="List of ancient Persians">Ancient Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Peoples of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs of Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy in classical Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electricity_in_Iran" title="History of electricity in Iran">Electric history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Iran" title="List of years in Iran">Years in Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iran" title="Geography of Iran">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Iran" title="Borders of Iran">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Iran_by_province" title="List of cities in Iran by province">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_of_Iran" title="List of largest cities of Iran">largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Iran" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Iran">twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Iran" title="List of earthquakes in Iran">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Iranian Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_province" title="Sistan and Baluchestan province">Iranian Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Hyrcanian_mixed_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests">Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Iranian Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iran" title="List of islands of Iran">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Iran" title="List of mountains in Iran">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Iran" title="Provinces of Iran">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iran" title="Wildlife of Iran">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iran" title="Politics of Iran">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Iran" title="Censorship in Iran">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iran" title="Constitution of Iran">Constitution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iran" title="Elections in Iran">Elections</a> (<a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election" title="2009 Iranian presidential election">2009 presidential</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iran" title="Foreign relations of Iran">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iran" title="Human rights in Iran">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childrens%27_Rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Childrens' Rights in Iran">Children's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iran">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_in_Iran" title="Women's rights in Iran">Women's rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_judicial_system_of_Iran" title="History of the judicial system of Iran">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Armed_Forces" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Army" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Air_Force" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Navy" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Navy">Navy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Intelligence_(Iran)" title="Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)">Ministry of Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_and_Iran" title="Cyberwarfare and Iran">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iran" title="List of political parties in Iran">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principlists" class="mw-redirect" title="Principlists">Principlists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Iran" title="Propaganda in Iran">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Reformists" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Reformists">Reformists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_and_terrorism_in_Iran" title="Assassination and terrorism in Iran">Terrorism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="Iran and state-sponsored terrorism">state-sponsorship allegations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Revolution" title="White Revolution">White Revolution (1963)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_movement_in_Iran" title="Women's rights movement in Iran">Women's rights movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Councils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Experts" title="Assembly of Experts">Assembly (or Council) of Experts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expediency_Discernment_Council" title="Expediency Discernment Council">Expediency Discernment Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Council" title="Guardian Council">Guardian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Consultative_Assembly" title="Islamic Consultative Assembly">Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_councils_of_Iran" title="Local councils of Iran">Local councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Security_Council" title="Supreme National Security Council">Supreme National Security Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_officials" title="List of Iranian officials">Officials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ambassadors_from_Iran" title="List of current ambassadors from Iran">Ambassadors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iran" title="President of Iran">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Iran_governors-general" title="List of current Iran governors-general">Provincial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iran" title="Economy of Iran">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonyad" title="Bonyad">Bonyad (charitable trust)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight_from_Iran" title="Human capital flight from Iran">Brain drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iran" title="List of companies of Iran">Companies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Iran" title="Automotive industry in Iran">Automotive industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Iran" title="Child labour in Iran">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Economic_Reform_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Economic Reform Plan">Economic Reform Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Iran" title="Energy in Iran">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_Iran" title="Foreign direct investment in Iran">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_Iran" title="Intellectual property in Iran">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_oil_bourse" title="Iranian oil bourse">International oil bourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Iran and the World Trade Organization">Iran and the World Trade Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Iran" title="Taxation in Iran">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_laws_in_Iran" title="List of economic laws in Iran">Main economic laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Middle_East" title="Economy of the Middle East">Economy of the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milad_Tower" title="Milad Tower">Milad Tower and complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_manufactured_in_Iran" title="List of military equipment manufactured in Iran">Military equipment manufactured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Iran" title="Privatization in Iran">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rial" title="Iranian rial">Rial (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Imam_Khomeini%27s_Order" title="Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order">Setad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Audit_Court_of_Iran" title="Supreme Audit Court of Iran">Supreme Audit Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Stock_Exchange" title="Tehran Stock Exchange">Tehran Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture capital in Iran">Venture capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran#Technology_start-ups" title="Communications in Iran">Technology start-ups</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_sector" title="Economic sector">Sectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iran" title="Agriculture in Iran">Agriculture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fruit_production_in_Iran" title="Fruit production in Iran">fruit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_insurance_in_Iran" title="Banking and insurance in Iran">Banking and insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iran" title="Central Bank of Iran">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetab_Banking_System" title="Shetab Banking System">Shetab Banking System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Iran" title="Construction industry of Iran">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Iran" title="Defense industry of Iran">Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Iran" title="Healthcare in Iran">Health care</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals in Iran">Pharmaceuticals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Iran" title="Industry of Iran">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Iran" title="Mining in Iran">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iran" title="Petroleum industry in Iran">Petroleum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company" title="Anglo-Persian Oil Company">Anglo-Persian Oil Company</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran" title="Communications in Iran">Telecommunications and IT</a> (<a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_Company_of_Iran" title="Telecommunication Company of Iran">TCI</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iran" title="Transport in Iran">Transport</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iran" title="List of airlines of Iran">airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Metro" title="Tehran Metro">metro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Railways" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Railways">railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRISL_Group" title="IRISL Group">shipping</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iran" title="Tourism in Iran">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Industries_Organization" title="Defense Industries Organization">Defense Industries Organization (DIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDRO_Group" title="IDRO Group">Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization" title="Iran Aviation Industries Organization">Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Electronics_Industries" title="Iran Electronics Industries">Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Development_Fund_of_Iran" title="National Development Fund of Iran">National Development Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asaluyeh" title="Asaluyeh">Asaluyeh industrial corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabahar_Free_Trade-Industrial_Zone" title="Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone">Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_Island" title="Kish Island">Kish Island Free Trade Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_research_centers" title="List of Iranian research centers">Research centers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iran" title="Category:Society of Iran">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iran" title="Languages of Iran">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian (Farsi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Iranian citizens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_diaspora" title="Iranian diaspora">abroad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Iran" title="Ethnic minorities in Iran">Ethnic minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Armenians" title="Iranian Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iran" title="Assyrians in Iran">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iran" title="Circassians in Iran">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Georgians" title="Iranian Georgians">Georgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iran" title="Kurds in Iran">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Turkmen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Iran" title="Baháʼí Faith in Iran">Baháʼí Faith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Iran" title="Zoroastrianism in Iran">Zoroastrians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iran" title="Freedom of religion in Iran">Freedom of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Iran" title="Crime in Iran">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Iran" title="Higher education in Iran">higher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars">scientists and scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Iran" title="List of universities in Iran">universities</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationality_law" title="Iranian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iran" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iran">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Architecture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architects_of_Iran" title="Architects of Iran">architects</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">modern / contemporary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blogging_in_Iran" title="Blogging in Iran">Blogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Calendars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Persian New Year (Nowruz)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_Iran" title="Fashion in Iran">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Persian_antiquities_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Chicago Persian antiquities dispute">Chicago Persian antiquities dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iran" title="Cinema of Iran">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_cuisine" title="Iranian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_wine" title="Persian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folklore" title="Iranian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranians" title="List of Iranians">Iranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_studies" title="Iranian studies">Iranian studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iran" title="Mass media in Iran">Media</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_news_agencies" title="List of Iranian news agencies">news agencies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Students_News_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Students News Agency">student</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Iran" title="List of newspapers in Iran">newspapers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_National_Jewels" title="Iranian National Jewels">National Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national symbols of Iran">National symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Imperial_Anthem_of_Iran" title="Imperial Anthem of Iran">Imperial Anthem</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_in_Iran" title="Opium in Iran">Opium consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_name" title="Persian name">Persian name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iran" title="Public holidays in Iran">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouting_in_Iran" title="Scouting in Iran">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iran" title="Sport in Iran">Sport</a> (<a href="/wiki/Football_in_Iran" title="Football in Iran">football</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folk_music" title="Iranian folk music">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_jazz" title="Iranian jazz">Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_pop_music" title="Iranian pop music">Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_hip_hop" title="Iranian hip hop">Rap and hip-hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rock" title="Iranian rock">Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ey_Iran" title="Ey Iran">Ey Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iran" title="Science and technology in Iran">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Anti-Iranian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehrangeles" title="Tehrangeles">Tehrangeles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iran" title="Category:Iran">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template talk:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"><div style="overflow:auto"> <table style="width:100%" class="wraplinks"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Territories/ dates <a href="#cite_note-251">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[5]</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td rowspan="2">4000–3200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada I">Naqada I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Naqada II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_(front_top_part_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife"><img alt="Gebel el-Arak Knife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/50px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/75px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/100px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="1100" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td> <td colspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Pre-Dynastic period</a> (4000–2900 BCE) </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (4000–3100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/100px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/150px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/200px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a> (<a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Anu Ziggurat</a>, 4000 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:Rolzegel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/100px-Rolzegel.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/150px-Rolzegel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/200px-Rolzegel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1726" data-file-height="714" /></a> (Anonymous "King-priests") </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows"><img alt="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/35px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/53px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/70px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1663" /></a> (Uruk influence or control) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3200–3100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Proto-Dynastic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a>) Early or legendary kings: </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a> <a href="/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a> <a href="/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a> Animal <a href="/wiki/Stork_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stork (Pharaoh)">Stork</a> <a href="/wiki/Canide_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canide (Pharaoh)">Canide</a> <a href="/wiki/Bull_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bull (Pharaoh)">Bull</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a> <a href="/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a> <a href="/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a> <a href="/wiki/Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nat-Hor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nat-Hor (page does not exist)">Nat-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">3100–2900 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Narmer Palette"><img alt="Narmer Palette" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/40px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/60px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/80px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Narmer Palette</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> <a href="/wiki/Neithhotep" title="Neithhotep">Neithhotep</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a> <a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a> <a href="/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneith" title="Merneith">Merneith</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a> <a href="/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a> <a href="/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Bird_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horus Bird (Pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="13"><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> (3100–2900 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa III</a>) (3100–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2900 BCE </td> <td rowspan="8" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebra_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra (Pharaoh)">Nebra/Raneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a> <a href="/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a> <a href="/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a> <a href="/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a> <a href="/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a> <a href="/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a> <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> <a href="/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a> <a href="/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Khasekhemwy"><img alt="Khasekhemwy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/30px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/45px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/60px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4103" data-file-height="5203" /></a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period I</a> (2900–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">First Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">First kingdom of Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Jushur" title="Jushur">Jushur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kullassina-bel" title="Kullassina-bel">Kullassina-bel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nangishlishma" title="Nangishlishma">Nangishlishma</a>, <a href="/wiki/En-tarah-ana" title="En-tarah-ana">En-tarah-ana</a> <a href="/wiki/Babum" title="Babum">Babum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puannum" title="Puannum">Puannum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibum" title="Kalibum">Kalibum</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2800 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kalumum" title="Kalumum">Kalumum</a> <a href="/wiki/Zuqaqip" title="Zuqaqip">Zuqaqip</a> <a href="/wiki/Atab" title="Atab">Atab</a> <a href="/wiki/Mashda" title="Mashda">Mashda</a> <a href="/wiki/Arwium" title="Arwium">Arwium</a> <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a> <a href="/wiki/Balih" title="Balih">Balih</a> <a href="/wiki/En-me-nuna" title="En-me-nuna">En-me-nuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Melem-Kish" title="Melem-Kish">Melem-Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/Barsal-nuna" title="Barsal-nuna">Barsal-nuna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Mesh-ki-ang-gasher" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesh-ki-ang-gasher">Mesh-ki-ang-gasher</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar" title="Enmerkar">Enmerkar</a> ("conqueror of <a href="/wiki/Aratta" title="Aratta">Aratta</a>") </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2700 BCE </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period II</a> (2700–2600 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Zamug" title="Zamug">Zamug</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tizqar" title="Tizqar">Tizqar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilku" title="Ilku">Ilku</a> <a href="/wiki/Iltasadum" title="Iltasadum">Iltasadum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid,_the_Fisherman" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid, the Fisherman">Dumuzid, the Fisherman</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> ("made the land of Elam submit")<a href="#cite_note-SKL-256">[6]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Aga_of_Kish" title="Aga of Kish">Aga of Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ak_gal-ukkin_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aga of Kish"><img alt="Aga of Kish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/22px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/33px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/44px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="826" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/15px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/20px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda,_2600_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/30px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/45px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/60px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="595" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Old Elamite period</a> (2700–1500 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2600 BCE </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Saqqara,_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2,_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid"><img alt="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/50px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/75px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/100px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a> (First <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a> <a href="/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a> <a href="/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a> <a href="/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period III</a> (2600–2340 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sagisu" title="Sagisu">Sagisu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abur-lim (page does not exist)">Abur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agur-lim (page does not exist)">Agur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibbi-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibbi-Damu (page does not exist)">Ibbi-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baba-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baba-Damu (page does not exist)">Baba-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> II dynasty (5 kings) <a href="/wiki/Uhub" title="Uhub">Uhub</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesilim" title="Mesilim">Mesilim</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nungal" title="Ur-Nungal">Ur-Nungal</a> <a href="/wiki/Udul-kalama" title="Udul-kalama">Udulkalama</a> <a href="/wiki/La-ba%27shum" title="La-ba'shum">Labashum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> <a href="/wiki/En-hegal" title="En-hegal">En-hegal</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugalshaengur" title="Lugalshaengur">Lugal- shaengur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur I">Ur</a> <a href="/wiki/A-Imdugud" title="A-Imdugud">A-Imdugud</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Pabilsag" title="Ur-Pabilsag">Ur-Pabilsag</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Palbisag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/30px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/45px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/60px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="2201" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Meskalamdug" title="Meskalamdug">Meskalamdug</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a>) <a href="/wiki/Akalamdug" title="Akalamdug">Akalamdug</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/En-nun-tarah-ana" title="En-nun-tarah-ana">Enun-dara-anna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mes-he" class="mw-redirect" title="Mes-he">Mes-he</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamanna">Melamanna</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kitun" title="Lugal-kitun">Lugal-kitun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> <a href="/wiki/Nin-kisalsi" title="Nin-kisalsi">Nin-kisalsi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Me-durba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Me-durba (page does not exist)">Me-durba</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-dalu" title="Lugal-dalu">Lugal-dalu</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2575 BCE </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a> <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/50px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/75px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/100px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="971" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> <a href="/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">Ur I dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesannepada" title="Mesannepada">Mesannepada</a> "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk </td></tr> <tr> <td>2500 BCE </td> <td rowspan="22" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> (2500-539 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/The_second_kingdom_of_Mari" class="mw-redirect" title="The second kingdom of Mari">Second kingdom of Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Shamash" title="Ikun-Shamash">Ikun-Shamash</a> <a href="/wiki/Iku-Shamagan" title="Iku-Shamagan">Iku-Shamagan</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iku-Shamagan"><img alt="Iku-Shamagan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/30px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/45px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/60px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="2102" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ansud" title="Ansud">Ansud</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%27umu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'umu">Sa'umu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ishar" title="Ishtup-Ishar">Ishtup-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Mari" title="Ikun-Mari">Ikun-Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Iblul-Il" title="Iblul-Il">Iblul-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizi (page does not exist)">Nizi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3">Kish III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ku-Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ku-Baba">Ku-Baba</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak dynasty</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Unzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unzi (page does not exist)">Unzi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Undalulu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Undalulu (page does not exist)">Undalulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Enshakushanna" title="Enshakushanna">Ensha- kushanna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mug-si" title="Mug-si">Mug-si</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Pabilgagaltuku" title="Pabilgagaltuku">Pabilgagaltuku</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nanshe" title="Ur-Nanshe">Ur-Nanshe</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Nanshe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/30px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/45px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/60px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="918" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Akurgal" title="Akurgal">Akurgal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/A%27annepada" title="A'annepada">A'annepada</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskiagnun" title="Meskiagnun">Meskiagnun</a> <a href="/wiki/Elulu" title="Elulu">Elulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Balulu" title="Balulu">Balulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Awan_dynasty" title="Awan dynasty">Awan dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Peli_(king_of_Awan)" title="Peli (king of Awan)">Peli</a> <a href="/wiki/Tata_(king_of_Awan)" title="Tata (king of Awan)">Tata</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukku-Tanhish" title="Ukku-Tanhish">Ukkutahesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hishutash" title="Hishutash">Hishur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2450 BCE </td> <td rowspan="4" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a> <a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a> <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enar-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enar-Damu (page does not exist)">Enar-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishar-Malik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishar-Malik (page does not exist)">Ishar-Malik</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ush,_king_of_Umma" title="Ush, king of Umma">Ush</a> <a href="/wiki/Enakalle" title="Enakalle">Enakalle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> invasions (3 kings)<a href="#cite_note-SKL-256">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Shushun-Tarana" title="Shushun-Tarana">Shushun- tarana</a> <a href="/wiki/Napi-Ilhush" title="Napi-Ilhush">Napilhush</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2425 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/wiki/Kun-Damu" title="Kun-Damu">Kun-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/30px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/45px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/60px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2595" /></a> (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2400 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adub-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adub-Damu (page does not exist)">Adub-Damu</a> <a href="/wiki/Igrish-Halam" title="Igrish-Halam">Igrish-Halam</a> <a href="/wiki/Irkab-Damu" title="Irkab-Damu">Irkab-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Suen" title="Puzur-Suen">Puzur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Zababa" title="Ur-Zababa">Ur-Zababa</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urur (page does not exist)">Urur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kinishe-dudu" title="Lugal-kinishe-dudu">Lugal-kinishe-dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kisalsi" title="Lugal-kisalsi">Lugal-kisalsi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/E-iginimpa%27e" title="E-iginimpa'e">E-iginimpa'e</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskigal" title="Meskigal">Meskigal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Lumma" title="Ur-Lumma">Ur-Lumma</a> <a href="/wiki/Il,_king_of_Umma" title="Il, king of Umma">Il</a> <a href="/wiki/Gishakidu" title="Gishakidu">Gishakidu</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Bara-irnun" title="Bara-irnun">Bara-irnun</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;"><a href="/wiki/Enannatum_I" title="Enannatum I">Enannatum</a> <a href="/wiki/Entemena" title="Entemena">Entemena</a> <a href="/wiki/Enannatum_II" title="Enannatum II">Enannatum II</a> <a href="/wiki/Enentarzi" title="Enentarzi">Enentarzi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;"><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> II dynasty Nanni <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II (page does not exist)">Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Kikku-Siwe-Temti" title="Kikku-Siwe-Temti">Kiku-siwe-tempti</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2380 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a> <a href="/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I,_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.,_39.121.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I"><img alt="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/30px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/45px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/60px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1536" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="10" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannemundu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugalannemundu">Lugalannemundu</a> "King of the four quarters of the world" </td></tr> <tr> <td>2370 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isar-Damu" title="Isar-Damu">Isar-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ikun-Ishar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ikun-Ishar (page does not exist)">Ikun-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Invasion by <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter<a href="#cite_note-SKL-256">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ukush" title="Ukush">Ukush</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugalanda" title="Lugalanda">Lugalanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Luh-ishan" title="Luh-ishan">Luh-ishan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2350 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-Nirah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-Nirah (page does not exist)">Puzur-Nirah</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishu-Il&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishu-Il (page does not exist)">Ishu-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Sin_(Akshak)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Sin (Akshak) (page does not exist)">Shu-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugalzagesi</a> (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2340 BCE </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="10" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Period</a> (2340–2150 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush" title="Rimush">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Manishtushu" title="Manishtushu">Manishtushu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="1" rowspan="3">Akkadian Governors: <a href="/wiki/Eshpum" title="Eshpum">Eshpum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilshu-rabi" title="Ilshu-rabi">Ilshu-rabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Epirmupi" title="Epirmupi">Epirmupi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-ishmani" title="Ili-ishmani">Ili-ishmani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2250 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Naram-Sin_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/25px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/38px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/50px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="2300" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-ushumgal" title="Lugal-ushumgal">Lugal-ushumgal</a> (vassal of the Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare Neby</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare Khendu</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare Tereru</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare Pepiseneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Ibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="6">Second <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Third kingdom of Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakku</a> dynasty) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ididish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ididish (page does not exist)">Ididish</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Dagan (page does not exist)">Shu-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishma-Dagan" title="Ishma-Dagan">Ishma-Dagan</a> (Vassals of the Akkadians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="5"> <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Igigi_of_Akkad" title="Igigi of Akkad">Igigi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imi" title="Imi">Imi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanum_of_Akkad" title="Nanum of Akkad">Nanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilulu" title="Ilulu">Ilulu</a> (3 years) <a href="/wiki/Dudu_of_Akkad" title="Dudu of Akkad">Dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-turul" title="Shu-turul">Shu-turul</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-nigin" title="Ur-nigin">Ur-nigin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gigir" title="Ur-gigir">Ur-gigir</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzer-Mama" title="Puzer-Mama">Puzer-Mama</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu_I" title="Ur-Ningirsu I">Ur-Ningirsu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pirig-me" title="Pirig-me">Pirig-me</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-Baba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-Baba (page does not exist)">Lu-Baba</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-gula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-gula (page does not exist)">Lu-gula</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaku_of_Lagash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaku of Lagash (page does not exist)">Ka-ku</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Hishep-Ratep" class="mw-redirect" title="Hishep-Ratep">Hishep-Ratep</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helu_(Awan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helu (Awan) (page does not exist)">Helu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khita" title="Khita">Khita</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Inshushinak" title="Puzur-Inshushinak">Puzur-Inshushinak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2150 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare,_ninth_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferkare, ninth dynasty">Neferkare VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a> </td> <td colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III period</a> (2150–2000 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BBr-M%C3%AAr" title="Nûr-Mêr">Nûr-Mêr</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ilum" title="Ishtup-Ilum">Ishtup-Ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ishtup-Ilum_statue_(head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/25px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/38px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/50px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="810" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ishgum-Addu" title="Ishgum-Addu">Ishgum-Addu</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-kin" title="Apil-kin">Apil-kin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutian dynasty</a> (21 kings) <a href="/wiki/La-erabum" title="La-erabum">La-erabum</a> <a href="/wiki/Si%27um" title="Si'um">Si'um</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuda_(Uruk)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuda (Uruk) (page does not exist)">Kuda (Uruk)</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-ili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-ili (page does not exist)">Puzur-ili</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ur-Utu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ur-Utu (page does not exist)">Ur-Utu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE; rowspan=2"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannatum" title="Lugalannatum">Lugalannatum</a> (vassal of the Gutians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Baba" title="Ur-Baba">Ur-Baba</a> <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/30px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/45px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/60px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3900" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu" title="Ur-Ningirsu">Ur-Ningirsu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gar" title="Ur-gar">Ur-gar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nam-mahani" title="Nam-mahani">Nam-mahani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Tirigan" title="Tirigan">Tirigan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2125 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merykare</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> V dynasty <a href="/wiki/Utu-hengal" title="Utu-hengal">Utu-hengal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1">(Vassals of UR III) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Iddi-ilum" title="Iddi-ilum">Iddi-ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-Ishar" title="Ili-Ishar">Ili-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Tura-Dagan" title="Tura-Dagan">Tura-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ishtar" title="Puzur-Ishtar">Puzur-Ishtar</a> (Vassals of Ur III)<a href="#cite_note-257">[7]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Third dynasty of Ur">Ur III dynasty</a> "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"<a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/35px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/53px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/70px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="632" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> <a href="/wiki/Amar-Sin" title="Amar-Sin">Amar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Sin" title="Shu-Sin">Shu-Sin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2025-1763 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> invasions </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Elamite</a> invasions <a href="/wiki/Kindattu" title="Kindattu">Kindattu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shimashki_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimashki Dynasty">Shimashki Dynasty</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Third Eblaite</a> Kingdom (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Ibbit-Lim" title="Ibbit-Lim">Ibbit-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ibbit-Lim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/30px-Ibbit-Lim.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/45px-Ibbit-Lim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/60px-Ibbit-Lim.png 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="345" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Immeya" title="Immeya">Immeya</a> <a href="/wiki/Indilimma" title="Indilimma">Indilimma</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakkus</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hitial-Erra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitial-Erra (page does not exist)">Hitial-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanun-Dagan" title="Hanun-Dagan">Hanun-Dagan</a> (...) Lim Dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Yaggid-Lim" title="Yaggid-Lim">Yaggid-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahdun-Lim" title="Yahdun-Lim">Yahdun-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yasmah-Adad" title="Yasmah-Adad">Yasmah-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Zimri-Lim" title="Zimri-Lim">Zimri-Lim</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Shibtu" title="Shibtu">Shibtu</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_I" title="Puzur-Ashur I">Puzur-Ashur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalim-ahum" title="Shalim-ahum">Shalim-ahum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilu-shuma" title="Ilu-shuma">Ilu-shuma</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_I" title="Erishum I">Erishum I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikunum" title="Ikunum">Ikunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_I" title="Sargon I">Sargon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_II" title="Puzur-Ashur II">Puzur-Ashur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Assyria" title="Naram-Sin of Assyria">Naram-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_II" title="Erishum II">Erishum II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_(1940).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/30px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/45px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/60px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ishbi-Erra" title="Ishbi-Erra">Ishbi-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ilishu" title="Shu-Ilishu">Shu-Ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Iddin-Dagan" title="Iddin-Dagan">Iddin-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan" title="Ishme-Dagan">Ishme-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Eshtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipit-Eshtar">Lipit-Eshtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ninurta" title="Ur-Ninurta">Ur-Ninurta</a> <a href="/wiki/Bur-Suen" title="Bur-Suen">Bur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Enlil" title="Lipit-Enlil">Lipit-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Erra-imitti" title="Erra-imitti">Erra-imitti</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-bani" title="Enlil-bani">Enlil-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Zambiya" title="Zambiya">Zambiya</a> <a href="/wiki/Iter-pisha" title="Iter-pisha">Iter-pisha</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-du-kuga" title="Ur-du-kuga">Ur-du-kuga</a> <a href="/wiki/Suen-magir" title="Suen-magir">Suen-magir</a> <a href="/wiki/Damiq-ilishu" title="Damiq-ilishu">Damiq-ilishu</a> Dynasty of Larsa: <a href="/wiki/Naplanum" title="Naplanum">Naplanum</a> <a href="/wiki/Emisum" title="Emisum">Emisum</a> <a href="/wiki/Samium" title="Samium">Samium</a> <a href="/wiki/Zabaia" title="Zabaia">Zabaia</a> <a href="/wiki/Gungunum" title="Gungunum">Gungunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Abisare" title="Abisare">Abisare</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumuel" title="Sumuel">Sumuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-Adad" title="Nur-Adad">Nur-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iddinam" title="Sin-Iddinam">Sin-Iddinam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Eribam" title="Sin-Eribam">Sin-Eribam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iqisham" title="Sin-Iqisham">Sin-Iqisham</a> <a href="/wiki/Silli-Adad" title="Silli-Adad">Silli-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Warad-Sin" title="Warad-Sin">Warad-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin I">Rim-Sin I</a> (...) <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin II">Rim-Sin II</a> Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-k%C4%81%C5%A1id" title="Sîn-kāšid">Sîn-kāšid</a> Sîn-iribam <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-g%C4%81mil" title="Sîn-gāmil">Sîn-gāmil</a> Ilum-gamil <a href="/wiki/An-am" title="An-am">An-am</a> <a href="/wiki/Irdanene" title="Irdanene">Irdanene</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%AEm-Anum" title="Rîm-Anum">Rîm-Anum</a> Nabi-ilišu </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sukkalmah_dynasty" title="Sukkalmah dynasty">Sukkalmah dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Siwe-Palar-Khuppak" title="Siwe-Palar-Khuppak">Siwe-Palar-Khuppak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a>♀ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1800–1595 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a>) <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yamhad_dynasty" title="Yamhad dynasty">Yamhad dynasty</a>) (Amorites) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">Shamshi-Adad</a> dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I" title="Ishme-Dagan I">Ishme-Dagan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur" title="Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush_of_Assyria" title="Rimush of Assyria">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Asinum" title="Asinum">Asinum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Sin" title="Puzur-Sin">Puzur-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adaside_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaside dynasty">Adaside dynasty</a> 1700–722 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Bel-bani" title="Bel-bani">Bel-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Libaya" title="Libaya">Libaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad I">Sharma-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Iptar-Sin" title="Iptar-Sin">Iptar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bazaya" title="Bazaya">Bazaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Lullaya" title="Lullaya">Lullaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ninua" title="Shu-Ninua">Shu-Ninua</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad II">Sharma-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Erishum III">Erishum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_II" title="Shamshi-Adad II">Shamshi-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_II" title="Ishme-Dagan II">Ishme-Dagan II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_III" title="Shamshi-Adad III">Shamshi-Adad III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_I" title="Ashur-nirari I">Ashur-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_III" title="Puzur-Ashur III">Puzur-Ashur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nasir_I" title="Enlil-nasir I">Enlil-nasir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-ili" title="Nur-ili">Nur-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-shaduni" title="Ashur-shaduni">Ashur-shaduni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_I" title="Ashur-rabi I">Ashur-rabi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_I" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe I">Ashur-nadin-ahhe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-Nasir_II" title="Enlil-Nasir II">Enlil-Nasir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_II" title="Ashur-nirari II">Ashur-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-nisheshu" title="Ashur-bel-nisheshu">Ashur-bel-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rim-nisheshu" title="Ashur-rim-nisheshu">Ashur-rim-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_II" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe II">Ashur-nadin-ahhe II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="4" rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/40px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/60px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/80px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3170" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a> ("Old Babylonian Period") (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a><a href="/wiki/Sabium" title="Sabium">Sabium</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-Sin" title="Apil-Sin">Apil-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a> <a href="/wiki/Abi-eshuh" class="mw-redirect" title="Abi-eshuh">Abi-eshuh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-ditana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-ditana">Ammi-ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-saduqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-saduqa">Ammi-saduqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-Ditana" title="Samsu-Ditana">Samsu-Ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Kassite_rulers" title="Early Kassite rulers">Early Kassite rulers</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Second Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>") <a href="/wiki/Ilum-ma-ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilum-ma-ili">Ilum-ma-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-ili-nibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Itti-ili-nibi">Itti-ili-nibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqi-ilishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Damqi-ilishu">Damqi-ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishkibal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishkibal">Ishkibal</a> <a href="/wiki/Shushushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shushushi">Shushushi</a> <a href="/wiki/Gulkishar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulkishar">Gulkishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">mDIŠ+U-EN</a> <a href="/wiki/Peshgaldaramesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshgaldaramesh">Peshgaldaramesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayadaragalama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayadaragalama">Ayadaragalama</a> <a href="/wiki/Akurduana" class="mw-redirect" title="Akurduana">Akurduana</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamkurkurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamkurkurra">Melamkurkurra</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-gamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea-gamil">Ea-gamil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Intermediate Period">Second Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth</a> Dynasty </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>") <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_(axe_of_Ahmose_I,_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II)_Colorized_per_source.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos"><img alt="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/35px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/53px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/70px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a> <a href="/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a> <a href="/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a> <a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a> <a href="/wiki/Apepi_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apepi (pharaoh)">Apepi</a> <a href="/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (1600–1260 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Kirta" title="Kirta">Kirta</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuttarna_I" title="Shuttarna I">Shuttarna I</a> <a href="/wiki/Parshatatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Parshatatar">Parshatatar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">1531–1155 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tutankhamun"><img alt="Tutankhamun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/30px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/45px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/60px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Tutankhamun</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/30px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/45px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/60px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2639" data-file-height="3973" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Third Babylonian dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Agum-Kakrime" class="mw-redirect" title="Agum-Kakrime">Agum-Kakrime</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_I" title="Burnaburiash I">Burnaburiash I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_III" title="Kashtiliash III">Kashtiliash III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulamburiash" title="Ulamburiash">Ulamburiash</a> <a href="/wiki/Agum_III" title="Agum III">Agum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaindash" title="Karaindash">Karaindash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-harbe_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadashman-harbe I">Kadashman-harbe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_I" title="Kurigalzu I">Kurigalzu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_I" title="Kadashman-Enlil I">Kadashman-Enlil I</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Burnaburiash II">Burnaburiash II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kara-hardash" title="Kara-hardash">Kara-hardash</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Bugash" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Bugash">Nazi-Bugash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_II" title="Kurigalzu II">Kurigalzu II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash" title="Nazi-Maruttash">Nazi-Maruttash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Turgu" title="Kadashman-Turgu">Kadashman-Turgu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_II" title="Kadashman-Enlil II">Kadashman-Enlil II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kudur-Enlil" title="Kudur-Enlil">Kudur-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash" title="Shagarakti-Shuriash">Shagarakti-Shuriash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliashu_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashtiliashu IV">Kashtiliashu IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-shumi" title="Enlil-nadin-shumi">Enlil-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_II" title="Kadashman-Harbe II">Kadashman-Harbe II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-iddina" title="Adad-shuma-iddina">Adad-shuma-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-usur" title="Adad-shuma-usur">Adad-shuma-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-Shipak II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I" title="Marduk-apla-iddina I">Marduk-apla-iddina I</a> <a href="/wiki/Zababa-shuma-iddin" title="Zababa-shuma-iddin">Zababa-shuma-iddin</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-ahi" title="Enlil-nadin-ahi">Enlil-nadin-ahi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Middle Elamite period</a> (1500–1100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Kidinuid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Igehalkid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Untash-Napirisha" title="Untash-Napirisha">Untash-Napirisha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> <a href="/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a> <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a> <a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Twosret" class="mw-redirect" title="Twosret">Twosret</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Elamite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite Empire">Elamite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutrukid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutrukid Dynasty">Shutrukid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte" title="Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nakhunte</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1155–1025 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Intermediate Period">Third Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Kingdom of Israel</a> <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ish-bosheth" title="Ish-bosheth">Ish-bosheth</a> <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_I" title="Eriba-Adad I">Eriba-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nirari" title="Enlil-nirari">Enlil-nirari</a> <a href="/wiki/Arik-den-ili" title="Arik-den-ili">Arik-den-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_I" title="Adad-nirari I">Adad-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_I" title="Shalmaneser I">Shalmaneser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-apli" title="Ashur-nadin-apli">Ashur-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_III" title="Ashur-nirari III">Ashur-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-kudurri-usur" title="Enlil-kudurri-usur">Enlil-kudurri-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apal-Ekur" title="Ninurta-apal-Ekur">Ninurta-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_I" title="Ashur-dan I">Ashur-dan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur" title="Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur">Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutakkil-Nusku" title="Mutakkil-Nusku">Mutakkil-Nusku</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_I" title="Ashur-resh-ishi I">Ashur-resh-ishi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Asharid-apal-Ekur" title="Asharid-apal-Ekur">Asharid-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_II" title="Eriba-Adad II">Eriba-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_IV" title="Shamshi-Adad IV">Shamshi-Adad IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_I" title="Ashurnasirpal I">Ashurnasirpal I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_II" title="Shalmaneser II">Shalmaneser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_IV" title="Ashur-nirari IV">Ashur-nirari IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_II" title="Ashur-rabi II">Ashur-rabi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_II" title="Ashur-resh-ishi II">Ashur-resh-ishi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_II" title="Tiglath-Pileser II">Tiglath-Pileser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Isin" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty of Isin">Second Dynasty of Isin</a>") <a href="/wiki/Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" title="Marduk-kabit-ahheshu">Marduk-kabit-ahheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-Marduk-balatu_(king)" title="Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)">Itti-Marduk-balatu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-nadin-shumi" title="Ninurta-nadin-shumi">Ninurta-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_I" title="Nebuchadnezzar I">Nebuchadnezzar I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-apli" title="Enlil-nadin-apli">Enlil-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-nadin-ahhe" title="Marduk-nadin-ahhe">Marduk-nadin-ahhe</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-shapik-zeri" title="Marduk-shapik-zeri">Marduk-shapik-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-ahhe-eriba" title="Marduk-ahhe-eriba">Marduk-ahhe-eriba</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zer-X" title="Marduk-zer-X">Marduk-zer-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shum-libur" title="Nabu-shum-libur">Nabu-shum-libur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Neo-Elamite period</a> (1100–540 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1025–934 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") <a href="/wiki/Simbar-shipak" title="Simbar-shipak">Simbar-shipak</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-mukin-zeri" title="Ea-mukin-zeri">Ea-mukin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashshu-nadin-ahi" title="Kashshu-nadin-ahi">Kashshu-nadin-ahi</a> <a href="/wiki/Eulmash-shakin-shumi" title="Eulmash-shakin-shumi">Eulmash-shakin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_I" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur I">Ninurta-kudurri-usur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shirikti-shuqamuna" title="Shirikti-shuqamuna">Shirikti-shuqamuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-apla-usur" title="Mar-biti-apla-usur">Mar-biti-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Nab%C3%BB-mukin-apli" title="Nabû-mukin-apli">Nabû-mukin-apli</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>911–745 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Samaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Samaria">Kingdom of Samaria</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a> <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-Dan III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/45px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/68px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/90px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Eight Babylonian Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_II" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur II">Ninurta-kudurri-usur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina" title="Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina">Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamash-mudammiq" title="Shamash-mudammiq">Shamash-mudammiq</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-apla-iddina" title="Nabu-apla-iddina">Nabu-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a> (five kings) <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apla-X" title="Ninurta-apla-X">Ninurta-apla-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-bel-zeri" title="Marduk-bel-zeri">Marduk-bel-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-usur" title="Marduk-apla-usur">Marduk-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Marduk" title="Eriba-Marduk">Eriba-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ishkun" title="Nabu-shuma-ishkun">Nabu-shuma-ishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-nadin-zeri" title="Nabu-nadin-zeri">Nabu-nadin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin II">Nabu-shuma-ukin II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Humban-Tahrid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Urtak_(king_of_Elam)" title="Urtak (king of Elam)">Urtak</a> <a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ummanigash_(son_of_Urtak)" title="Ummanigash (son of Urtak)">Ummanigash</a> <a href="/wiki/Tammaritu_(son_of_Urtak)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tammaritu (son of Urtak)">Tammaritu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Indabibi" title="Indabibi">Indabibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Humban-haltash_III" title="Humban-haltash III">Humban-haltash III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">745–609 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa"><img alt="Taharqa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/30px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/45px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/60px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Taharqa</figcaption></figure>("<a href="/wiki/Black_Pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pharaohs">Black Pharaohs</a>") <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="10" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>) <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_II" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi II">Marduk-zakir-shumi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-shumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-nadin-shumi">Ashur-nadin-shumi</a>† <a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a> <a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Elam" title="Assyrian conquest of Elam">Assyrian conquest of Elam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>626–539 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a> <a href="/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a> <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> <a href="/wiki/Amel-Marduk" title="Amel-Marduk">Amel-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Neriglissar" title="Neriglissar">Neriglissar</a> <a href="/wiki/Labashi-Marduk" title="Labashi-Marduk">Labashi-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraortes" title="Phraortes">Phraortes</a> <a href="/wiki/Madyes" title="Madyes">Madyes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">539–331 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/30px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/45px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/60px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3130" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Achaemenid Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes IV">Artaxerxes IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>331–141 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II">Berenice II Euergetis</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_Philopator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III Philopator">Arsinoe III Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra II of Egypt">Cleopatra II Philometor Soter</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra III of Egypt">Cleopatra III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra IV of Egypt">Cleopatra IV</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice III of Egypt">Berenice III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI of Egypt">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV of Egypt">Ptolemy XIV</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="11">Hellenistic Period <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon"><img alt="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/60px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/90px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/120px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>141–30 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Kingdom of Judea</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> <a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="9" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyspaosines" title="Hyspaosines">Hyspaosines</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_I" title="Gotarzes I">Gotarzes</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates III of Parthia">Mithridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_I_of_Parthia" title="Orodes I of Parthia">Orodes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces of Parthia">Sinatruces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates IV of Parthia">Mithridates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates II of Parthia">Tiridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Musa_of_Parthia" title="Musa of Parthia">Musa</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_III_of_Parthia" title="Orodes III of Parthia">Orodes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones I</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates III of Parthia">Tiridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_I" title="Vardanes I">Vardanes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotarzes II of Parthia">Gotarzes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Meherdates" title="Meherdates">Meherdates</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_II" title="Vonones II">Vonones II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_II" title="Vardanes II">Vardanes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_II" title="Pacorus II">Pacorus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_II_of_Parthia" title="Vologases II of Parthia">Vologases II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">30 BCE–116 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="4">(<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Egypt">Roman conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">116–117 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates of Parthia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>117–224 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_II_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces II of Parthia">Sinatruces II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates V of Parthia">Mithridates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_II" title="Osroes II">Osroes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>224–270 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Ardashir_I_(phase_3),_Hamadan_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint."><img alt="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/40px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/60px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/80px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adur_Narseh" title="Adur Narseh">Adur Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_IV" title="Shapur IV">Shapur IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(son_of_Bahram_IV)" title="Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)">Khosrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> <a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI Chobin</a> <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>270–273 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#48D1CC;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">273–395 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">395–618 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>618–628 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahralanyozan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahralanyozan">Sahralanyozan</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="11" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">628–641 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_VI" title="Hormizd VI">Hormizd VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_IV" title="Khosrow IV">Khosrow IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>639–651 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" rowspan="1" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/10px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/15px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/20px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a><a href="/wiki/Template:Neolithic_Chronology" title="Template:Neolithic Chronology"> Chronology of the Neolithic period</a> </td> <td style="text-align:right; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" colspan="7" align="right"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/12px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/18px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/24px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Central Asia">Rulers of Ancient Central Asia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalloSimpson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Hallo" title="William W. Hallo">Hallo, W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson" title="William Kelly Simpson">Simpson, W.</a> (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Harcourt%2C+Brace%2C+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/rulers_of_mesopotamia">"Rulers of Mesopotamia"</a>. cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rulers+of+Mesopotamia&rft.pub=University+of+Oxford%2C+CNRS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ox.ac.uk%2Fwiki%2Frulers_of_mesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasPotts2020" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Ariane; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Potts" title="Timothy Potts">Potts, Timothy</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14">Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins</a>. Getty Publications. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2"><bdi>978-1-60606-649-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+Civilization+Begins&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-649-2&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Ariane&rft.au=Potts%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVsHEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoux1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux" title="Georges Roux">Roux, Georges</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT534">Ancient Iraq</a>. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7"><bdi>978-0-14-193825-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.pages=532-534+%28Chronological+Tables%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-193825-7&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklZX8B_RzzYC%26pg%3DPT534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SKL-256">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_256-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_256-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_256-2">c</a> Per <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Unger" title="Merrill Unger">Unger, Merrill F.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qw6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History</a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4"><bdi>978-1-62564-606-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+and+the+Aramaeans+of+Damascus%3A+A+Study+in+Archaeological+Illumination+of+Bible+History&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62564-606-4&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Merrill+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqw6vCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAchaemenid+Empire" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" 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