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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Сиански инцидент – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сиански инцидент" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incident_de_Xi%27an" title="Incident de Xi'an – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Incident de Xi'an" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siansk%C3%BD_incident" title="Sianský incident – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sianský incident" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi%27an-episoden" title="Xi'an-episoden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Xi'an-episoden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwischenfall_von_Xi%E2%80%99an" title="Zwischenfall von Xi’an – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zwischenfall von Xi’an" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidente_de_Xi%27an" title="Incidente de Xi'an – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Incidente de Xi'an" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AB%D9%87_%D8%B4%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%A2%D9%86" title="حادثه شی‌آن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حادثه شی‌آن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accord_de_Xi%27an" title="Accord de Xi'an – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Accord de Xi'an" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%88_%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4" title="시안 사건 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시안 사건" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insiden_Xi%27an" title="Insiden Xi'an – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Insiden Xi'an" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidente_di_Xi%27an" title="Incidente di Xi'an – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Incidente di Xi'an" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9F" title="תקרית שיאן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקרית שיאן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="西安事件 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="西安事件" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi%E2%80%99an-episoden" title="Xi’an-episoden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Xi’an-episoden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incydent_Xi%E2%80%99an" title="Incydent Xi’an – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Incydent Xi’an" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidente_de_Xian" title="Incidente de Xian – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Incidente de Xian" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Сианьский инцидент – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сианьский инцидент" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Сијански инцидент – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сијански инцидент" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi%E2%80%99anin_v%C3%A4likohtaus" title="Xi’anin välikohtaus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Xi’anin välikohtaus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="อุบัติการณ์ซีอาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อุบัติการณ์ซีอาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Сіаньський інцидент – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сіаньський інцидент" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%B1_bi%E1%BA%BFn_T%C3%A2y_An" title="Sự biến Tây An – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sự biến Tây An" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%8B%E8%AE%8A" title="西安事變 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="西安事變" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%8B%E8%AE%8A" title="西安事變 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="西安事變" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%8B%E8%AE%8A" title="西安事變 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="西安事變" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%8B%E5%8F%98" title="西安事变 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西安事变" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1936 political crisis in China</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 1981 film based on the incident, see <a href="/wiki/The_Xi%27an_Incident_(film)" title="The Xi'an Incident (film)">The Xi'an Incident (film)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Xueliang,_Yang_Hucheng_and_Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zhang_Xueliang%2C_Yang_Hucheng_and_Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg/220px-Zhang_Xueliang%2C_Yang_Hucheng_and_Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zhang_Xueliang%2C_Yang_Hucheng_and_Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg/330px-Zhang_Xueliang%2C_Yang_Hucheng_and_Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zhang_Xueliang%2C_Yang_Hucheng_and_Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg/440px-Zhang_Xueliang%2C_Yang_Hucheng_and_Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="351" /></a><figcaption>Zhang Xueliang, Yang Hucheng, and Chiang Kai-shek two months before the incident</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Xi'an Incident</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">西安事變</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">西安事变</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Xī'ān Shìbiàn</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Hsi-an Shih-pian</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Xi'an Incident</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a major Chinese political crisis from 12 to 26 December 1936. <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist government of China</a>, was placed under <a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">house arrest</a> in the city of <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a> by a Nationalist army he was there to review. Chiang's captors hoped to end the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> and confront <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War#Historical_development" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese imperial expansion</a> into Chinese territory. After two weeks of intense negotiations between Chiang, his captors, and representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP), Chiang was released with a verbal promise to end the civil war and put up a firmer resistance to Japan. </p><p>Before the incident, Chiang Kai-shek had followed a strategy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance" that entailed eliminating the CCP before confronting Japanese aggression. This strategy was deeply unpopular among many groups in China, including the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Army" title="Northeastern Army">Northeastern Army</a> tasked with suppressing <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Soviet" title="Yan'an Soviet">the main Communist base in Yan'an</a>. The Northeastern Army was mainly composed of troops exiled from Manchuria after <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">that region was invaded by Japan</a> in 1931. Northeastern Army soldiers and officers had also begun to fraternize with the Communists and were convinced of the need for a united Nationalist-Communist front against Japan. </p><p>The commanders of the Northeastern Army, Generals <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yang_Hucheng" title="Yang Hucheng">Yang Hucheng</a>, decided to kidnap Chiang after the latter refused repeated entreaties to change his policies. Zhang invited Chiang to come review the Northeastern Army, and after Chiang arrived, had him placed under house arrest at the <a href="/wiki/Huaqing_Pool" title="Huaqing Pool">Huaqing Pool</a> complex. Some radical army officers wanted Chiang executed, but both Zhang and the CCP strongly opposed such a move. They wanted to pressure Chiang into changing his policies instead. <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> led the Communist negotiating team, which after two weeks agreed to release Chiang. Although Chiang publicly repudiated the verbal promises he made in Xi'an, a ceasefire was declared and talks with Zhou continued. The rapprochement between the Communists and Nationalists outraged the Japanese, and eventually helped lead to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>. The full-scale Japanese invasion hastened the formal joining of the two Chinese factions in the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xi%27an_Incident_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Xi%27an_Incident_Map.png/320px-Xi%27an_Incident_Map.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Xi%27an_Incident_Map.png/480px-Xi%27an_Incident_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Xi%27an_Incident_Map.png/640px-Xi%27an_Incident_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="1120" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the situation of China during the Xi'an Incident in December 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 1930s, the Nationalist Chinese government faced a number of overlapping problems. Since Chiang Kai-shek had purged the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) in 1927, the Communists had led a widespread <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">rural insurgency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200968_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200968-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nationalists found it difficult to organize an effective suppression campaign, in part because many of their armies answered to a local warlord rather than to the central government. The central government had to fight several wars during the early 1930s to keep these warlords in line (for example, see <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a>). When the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">invaded Manchuria</a> in 1931, the Nationalist government decided it was not ready to confront Japan directly and instead focused on consolidating their control of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This policy was known as "first internal pacification, then external resistance."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble199176_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199176-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang launched on a series of <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement campaigns">encirclement campaigns</a> against the CCP, which forced the Communists onto the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a> and almost destroyed the party. The survivors arrived in <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an" title="Yan'an">Yan'an</a> on 15 October 1935, where they began to establish the <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Soviet" title="Yan'an Soviet">Yan'an Soviet</a>. They were besieged by a number of Nationalist armies, including the <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Northwestern Army</a> under Yang Hucheng and the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Army" title="Northeastern Army">Northeastern Army</a> under Zhang Xueliang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991105_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991105-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009116_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009116-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Xueliang_and_Yang_Hucheng.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Zhang_Xueliang_and_Yang_Hucheng.jpg/180px-Zhang_Xueliang_and_Yang_Hucheng.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Zhang_Xueliang_and_Yang_Hucheng.jpg/270px-Zhang_Xueliang_and_Yang_Hucheng.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Zhang_Xueliang_and_Yang_Hucheng.jpg/360px-Zhang_Xueliang_and_Yang_Hucheng.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="740" /></a><figcaption>Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng in 1936</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite its success against the Communists, the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance" faced strong public criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble199176–77_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199176–77-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarver19885_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarver19885-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leftists opposed the civil war against the Communists and right-wing nationalists desired greater resistance to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble199178_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199178-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang Xueliang was one of the regime's critics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202332_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202332-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had governed Manchuria before it was overrun by the Japanese, and strongly wished to retake his homeland. He opposed the concessions that Chiang made to Japan in the <a href="/wiki/He%E2%80%93Umezu_Agreement" title="He–Umezu Agreement">He–Umezu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qin%E2%80%93Doihara_Agreement" title="Qin–Doihara Agreement">Qin–Doihara Agreements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble1991224–225_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991224–225-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang had slighted Zhang by refusing to let him resume his leadership of the Northeastern Army after a year-long absence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble1991150–151_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991150–151-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Chiang did re-appoint Zhang to the post, he ordered him to focus on fighting the Communists rather than the Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble1991224–225_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991224–225-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Communists took advantage of dissent in the Nationalist camp. They made repeated exhortations for Chinese unity against Japan. In February 1936, they announced that they were sending a detachment through <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> to fight the Japanese in <a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe</a> and Hubei. Letting the Red Army through would have broken the encirclement, so <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a> stopped them by force. Although defeated militarily, the Red Army convinced the Shanxi peasantry of their patriotism and gained 8,000 new recruits on their retreat. Zhang Xueliang was impressed, and began to see them as potential allies rather than foes. When Mao announced on March 14 that the Communists were willing to conclude a truce, Zhang covertly agreed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991109_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991109-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed to Chiang Kai-shek that he reverse the Nationalist policy of prioritizing the purge of Communists, and instead focusing on military preparation against Japanese aggression.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017168_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017168-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Chiang refused, Zhang began to plot a coup in "great secrecy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By June 1936, the secret agreement between Zhang and the CCP had been successfully settled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009119_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009119-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Events">Events</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Events"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrest_of_Chiang">Arrest of Chiang</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arrest of Chiang"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-10.jpg/150px-Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-10.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-10.jpg/225px-Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-10.jpg/300px-Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2653" data-file-height="4184" /></a><figcaption>Bullet hole made while Northeastern Army soldiers stormed the Huaqing Pool complex</figcaption></figure> <p>In November 1936, Zhang asked Chiang to come to Xi'an to raise the morale of troops unwilling to fight the Communists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Chiang agreed, Zhang informed <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, who called the plan "a masterpiece". At Xi'an, Chiang stayed in his resort headquarters at the <a href="/wiki/Huaqing_Pool" title="Huaqing Pool">Huaqing Pool</a> complex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang19974_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang19974-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 12 December 1936, bodyguards of Zhang and Yang stormed the cabin where Chiang was sleeping. Chiang was able to escape but suffered an injury in the process. He was eventually detained by Zhang's troops in the morning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein201429_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201429-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As conflicting reports of the events reached the capital, the Nationalist government was sent into disarray.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017168_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017168-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The response to the coup from high-level officials was divided. The Military Affairs Commission led by <a href="/wiki/He_Yingqin" title="He Yingqin">He Yingqin</a> recommended a military campaign against Xi'an, and immediately sent a regiment to capture <a href="/wiki/Tongguan_County" title="Tongguan County">Tongguan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009128_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009128-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Soong_Mei-ling" title="Soong Mei-ling">Soong Mei-ling</a> and <a href="/wiki/H._H._Kung" title="H. H. Kung">Kong Xiangxi</a> were strongly in favor of negotiating a settlement to ensure the safety of Chiang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017169_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017169-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negotiations_and_release">Negotiations and release</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Negotiations and release"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xian_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Xian_1.JPG/180px-Xian_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Xian_1.JPG/270px-Xian_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Xian_1.JPG/360px-Xian_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Negotiating room where Chiang Kai-shek met with Zhou Enlai and Lin Boqu</figcaption></figure> <p>A faction of the army led by Yang Hucheng and the radical young officers of the "Anti-Japanese Comrade Society" wanted to execute Chiang, but Zhang and the Communists insisted that he be kept alive in order to maintain the possibility of a united front.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–178_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–178-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEastman199148_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argued that an alliance with Chiang was their best chance to combat the Japanese, while killing him would only provoke retaliation from the Nanjing Government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Northeastern Army sent a telegram to Nanjing explaining to the Chinese public why they had arrested Chiang and the 8 demands they had for his release. These included an immediate end to civil war against the CCP, expulsion of pro-Japanese factions from the Nationalist government, and the adoption of an active anti-Japanese military stance. They attempted to broadcast these demands publicly, but Nationalist censorship prevented their publication outside the Communist-held areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 16 December, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lin_Boqu" title="Lin Boqu">Lin Boqu</a> arrived in Xi'an to represent the CCP in negotiations. At first, Chiang was opposed to negotiating with a CCP delegate, but withdrew his opposition when it became clear that his life and freedom were largely dependent on Communist goodwill towards him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influencing his decision was also the arrival of Madame Chiang on 22 December, who had travelled to Xi'an hoping to secure his speedy release, fearing military intervention from factions within the Kuomintang. On 24 December, Chiang received Zhou for a meeting, the first time the two had seen each other since Zhou had left <a href="/wiki/Huangpu_District,_Guangzhou" class="mw-redirect" title="Huangpu District, Guangzhou">Whampoa Military Academy</a> over ten years earlier. Zhou began the conversation by saying: "In the ten years since we have met, you seem to have aged very little." Chiang nodded and said: "Enlai, you were my subordinate. You should do what I say." Zhou replied that if Chiang would halt the civil war and resist the Japanese instead, the Red Army would willingly accept Chiang's command. By the end of the meeting, Chiang promised to end the civil war, to resist the Japanese together, and to invite Zhou to Nanjing for further talks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang was released on 26 December and returned to Nanjing with Zhang Xueliang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chiang_Kai-shek_after_Xi%27an_incident.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Chiang_Kai-shek_after_Xi%27an_incident.jpg/220px-Chiang_Kai-shek_after_Xi%27an_incident.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Chiang_Kai-shek_after_Xi%27an_incident.jpg/330px-Chiang_Kai-shek_after_Xi%27an_incident.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Chiang_Kai-shek_after_Xi%27an_incident.jpg/440px-Chiang_Kai-shek_after_Xi%27an_incident.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lin_Sen" title="Lin Sen">Lin Sen</a> receives Chiang Kai-shek at the Nanjing Airport after the Xi'an Incident.</figcaption></figure> <p>After Chiang returned to Nanjing, he announced a cease fire in the civil war. However, he also repudiated any promises that he had made in Xi'an. He had Zhang imprisoned and charged with treason.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble202353_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble202353-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chiang then sent 37 army divisions north to surround the Northeastern Army and force them to stand down. The army was deeply divided on the appropriate response. Yang Hucheng and the Anti-Japanese Comrade Society wanted to stand and fight if the KMT army attacked, and refuse to negotiate until Zhang was released. The Communist representatives strongly disagreed and cautioned that civil war would, in the words of Zhou Enlai, "make China into <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">another Spain</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negotiations between the CCP and Nanjing continued. However, when a conference of Northeastern officers in January 1937 overwhelmingly resolved not to surrender peacefully, the CCP reluctantly decided that they could not abandon their allies and pledged to fight alongside them if the KMT attacked. The situation was again reversed when the five most senior Northeastern generals met separately and decided to surrender. The radical officers were enraged and assassinated one of the generals on 2 February, but this only turned the majority of the soldiers against the plan to stand and fight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016180–185_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016180–185-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Northeastern Army peacefully surrendered to advancing KMT forces and was divided into new units, which were sent to Hebei, Hunan, and Anhui.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016191_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016191-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yang Hucheng, however, was arrested and eventually executed,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman2003234_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman2003234-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the leaders of the Anti-Japanese Comrade Society defected to the Red Army. Zhang was kept under house arrest for over 50 years before emigrating to Hawaii in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rapprochement between the Communists and Nationalists outraged the Japanese, and eventually helped lead to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaine2012102–103_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaine2012102–103-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in turn hastened the two Chinese factions into formalizing their alliance as the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Xi'an Incident was a turning point for the CCP. Chiang's leadership over political and military affairs in China was affirmed, while the CCP was able to expand its own strength under the new united front, which played a role in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarver198878_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarver198878-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Xi%27an_Incident" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Xi%27an_Incident" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also romanized as the <b>Sian Incident</b></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">先安內，後讓外。</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Xiān ānnèi, hòu ràngwài.</span></i></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor200968-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor200968_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2009">Taylor 2009</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2009">Taylor 2009</a>, p. 100: "When the Japanese overran Jehol, Zhang Xueliang resigned all his posts and entered a missionary hospital in Shanghai where a 'cold turkey' treatment cured him of his opium addiction<span class="nowrap"> </span>... In April, the Young Marshal and a large entourage<span class="nowrap"> </span>... sailed for Europe."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199176-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble199176_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoble1991">Coble 1991</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991105-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991105_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCh'en1991">Ch'en 1991</a>, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009116-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009116_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2009">Taylor 2009</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199176–77-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble199176–77_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoble1991">Coble 1991</a>, pp. 76–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarver19885-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarver19885_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarver1988">Garver 1988</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199178-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble199178_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoble1991">Coble 1991</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond202332-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond202332_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHammond2023">Hammond 2023</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991224–225-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble1991224–225_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble1991224–225_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoble1991">Coble 1991</a>, pp. 224–225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991150–151-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble1991150–151_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoble1991">Coble 1991</a>, pp. 150–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991109-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991109_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCh'en1991">Ch'en 1991</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017168-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017168_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017168_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWorthing2017">Worthing 2017</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCh'en1991">Ch'en 1991</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009119-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009119_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2009">Taylor 2009</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2009">Taylor 2009</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang19974-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuang19974_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuang1997">Huang 1997</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201429-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein201429_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBernstein2014">Bernstein 2014</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009128-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2009128_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor2009">Taylor 2009</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017169-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2017169_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWorthing2017">Worthing 2017</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–178-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–178_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFItoh2016">Itoh 2016</a>, pp. 176–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEastman199148_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEastman1991">Eastman 1991</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnouinYu2006">Barnouin & Yu 2006</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWorthing2016">Worthing 2016</a>, p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFItoh2016">Itoh 2016</a>, pp. 176–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble202353-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoble202353_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoble2023">Coble 2023</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016180–185-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016180–185_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFItoh2016">Itoh 2016</a>, pp. 180–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016191-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016191_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFItoh2016">Itoh 2016</a>, p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWakeman2003234-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWakeman2003234_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWakeman2003">Wakeman 2003</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEastman1991">Eastman 1991</a>, p. 48-49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaine2012102–103-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaine2012102–103_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaine2012">Paine 2012</a>, pp. 102–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarver198878-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarver198878_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarver1988">Garver 1988</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xi%27an_Incident&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Xi'an Incident</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Xi%26%2339%3Ban+Incident">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Xi%26%2339%3Ban+Incident&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarnouinYu2006" class="citation book cs1">Barnouin, Barbara; Yu, Changgen (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674290112/"><i>Zhou Enlai: A Political Life</i></a>. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zhou+Enlai%3A+A+Political+Life&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=The+Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Barnouin&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft.au=Yu%2C+Changgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780674290112%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernstein2014" class="citation book cs1">Bernstein, Richard (2014). <i>China 1945 : Mao's revolution and America's fateful choice</i> (First ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307595881" title="Special:BookSources/9780307595881"><bdi>9780307595881</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+1945+%3A+Mao%27s+revolution+and+America%27s+fateful+choice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780307595881&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCh'en1991" class="citation book cs1">Ch'en, Jerome (1991). "The Communist movement, 1927-1937". In Eastman, Lloyd E. (ed.). <i>The Nationalist Era in China, 1927-1949</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521385911" title="Special:BookSources/0521385911"><bdi>0521385911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Communist+movement%2C+1927-1937&rft.btitle=The+Nationalist+Era+in+China%2C+1927-1949&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0521385911&rft.aulast=Ch%27en&rft.aufirst=Jerome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChor2002" class="citation journal cs1">Chor, So Wai (2002). "The Making of the Guomindang's Japan Policy, 1932-1937: The Roles of Chiang Kai-shek and Wang Jingwei". <i>Modern China</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 213–252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009770040202800203">10.1177/009770040202800203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=The+Making+of+the+Guomindang%E2%80%99s+Japan+Policy%2C+1932-1937%3A+The+Roles+of+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+Wang+Jingwei&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=213-252&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009770040202800203&rft.aulast=Chor&rft.aufirst=So+Wai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoble1991" class="citation book cs1">Coble, Parks M. (1991). <i>Facing Japan: Chinese politics and Japanese imperialism; 1931 - 1937</i>. Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard Univ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674290112" title="Special:BookSources/9780674290112"><bdi>9780674290112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facing+Japan%3A+Chinese+politics+and+Japanese+imperialism%3B+1931+-+1937&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Council+on+East+Asian+Studies%2C+Harvard+Univ&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780674290112&rft.aulast=Coble&rft.aufirst=Parks+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoble2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Parks_M._Coble" title="Parks M. Coble">Coble, Parks M.</a> (2023). <i>The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War</i>. Cambridge New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29761-5"><bdi>978-1-009-29761-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+Nationalist+China%3A+How+Chiang+Kai-shek+Lost+China%27s+Civil+War&rft.place=Cambridge+New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29761-5&rft.aulast=Coble&rft.aufirst=Parks+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2014" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Paul A (2014). <i>History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231166362" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231166362"><bdi>978-0231166362</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+and+Popular+Memory%3A+The+Power+of+Story+in+Moments+of+Crisis&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0231166362&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Paul+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEastman1991" class="citation book cs1">Eastman, Lloyd E. (1991). "Nationalist China during the Nanking decade, 1927-1937". In Eastman, Lloyd E. (ed.). <i>The Nationalist Era in China, 1927-1949</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521385911" title="Special:BookSources/0521385911"><bdi>0521385911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nationalist+China+during+the+Nanking+decade%2C+1927-1937&rft.btitle=The+Nationalist+Era+in+China%2C+1927-1949&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0521385911&rft.aulast=Eastman&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarver1988" class="citation book cs1">Garver, John W. (1988). <i>Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195363744" title="Special:BookSources/0195363744"><bdi>0195363744</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese-Soviet+Relations%2C+1937%E2%80%931945%3A+The+Diplomacy+of+Chinese+Nationalism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0195363744&rft.aulast=Garver&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond2023" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Ken (2023). <i>China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future</i>. New York, NY: 1804 Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781736850084" title="Special:BookSources/9781736850084"><bdi>9781736850084</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Revolution+and+the+Quest+for+a+Socialist+Future&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=1804+Books&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781736850084&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang1997" class="citation book cs1">Huang, Ray (1997). <i>China - A Macro History</i> (Rev. ed.). Armonk, NY: Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1563247316" title="Special:BookSources/978-1563247316"><bdi>978-1563247316</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+-+A+Macro+History&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Sharpe&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1563247316&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFItoh2016" class="citation book cs1">Itoh, Mayumi (3 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VcswDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74"><i>The Making of China's War with Japan: Zhou Enlai and Zhang Xueliang</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-10-0494-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-10-0494-0"><bdi>978-981-10-0494-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+China%27s+War+with+Japan%3A+Zhou+Enlai+and+Zhang+Xueliang&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016-10-03&rft.isbn=978-981-10-0494-0&rft.aulast=Itoh&rft.aufirst=Mayumi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVcswDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaine2012" class="citation book cs1">Paine, Sarah C. (2012). <i>The Wars for Asia 1911–1949</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107020696" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107020696"><bdi>978-1107020696</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+for+Asia+1911%E2%80%931949&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1107020696&rft.aulast=Paine&rft.aufirst=Sarah+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2009" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Jay (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalissimochi00tayl"><i>The Generalissimo</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674033382" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674033382"><bdi>978-0674033382</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Generalissimo&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0674033382&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneralissimochi00tayl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWakeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Wakeman, Frederic (2003). <i>Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520234073" title="Special:BookSources/0520234073"><bdi>0520234073</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spymaster%3A+Dai+Li+and+the+Chinese+Secret+Service&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0520234073&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthing2017" class="citation book cs1">Worthing, Peter (2017). <i>General He Yingqin: The Rise and Fall of Nationalist China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107144637" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107144637"><bdi>978-1107144637</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+He+Yingqin%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Nationalist+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1107144637&rft.aulast=Worthing&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthing2016" class="citation book cs1">Worthing, Peter (2016). <i>General He Yingqin: The Rise and Fall of Nationalist China</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107144637" title="Special:BookSources/9781107144637"><bdi>9781107144637</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+He+Yingqin%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Nationalist+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781107144637&rft.aulast=Worthing&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AXi%27an+Incident" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background: none;"><div> <dl><dt>Principal belligerents and <a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War">campaigns</a></dt></dl> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalist Party</a> / <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">National Government</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">→</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional ROC Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">ROC Armed Forces</a>) <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">→</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China on Taiwan</a><hr /> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Danghui_(pre-1996).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/20px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/30px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/40px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="305" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party</a> / <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/20px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/30px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/40px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Soviet Republic</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/20px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/30px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/40px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="229" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Red Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">Liberated Area</a> (<span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">8th Route Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">etc.</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">→</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">→</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> </p> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;">Pre-1945</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Post-1945</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1923</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1924</td><td> <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1926</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Canton Coup</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nanjing%E2%80%93Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing–Wuhan split">Nanjing–Wuhan split</a><br /><a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">715 Incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Little_Long_March" title="Little Long March">Little Long March</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nanchang_uprising" title="Nanchang uprising">Nanchang uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest Uprising</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Guangzhou Uprising">Guangzhou Uprising</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1930–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns_(Chinese_Civil_War)" title="Encirclement campaigns (Chinese Civil War)">Encirclement campaigns</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1931–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1933–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Fujian_People%27s_Government" title="Fujian People's Government">Fujian People's Government</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1934–1936</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1936</td><td> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Xi'an Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1937–1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wartime_perception_of_the_Chinese_Communists" title="Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists">Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1941</td><td> <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1944</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Negotiations" title="Chongqing Negotiations">Chongqing Negotiations</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Jiaochangkou_incident" title="Jiaochangkou incident">Jiaochangkou Incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Peiping rape case</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation <i>Beleaguer</i></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Yu_Zisan_Incident" title="Yu Zisan Incident">Yu Zisan Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948</td><td> <a href="/wiki/SS_Kiangya" title="SS Kiangya">SS <i>Kiangya</i> incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_campaign" title="Liaoshen campaign">Liaoshen campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Huaihai_campaign" title="Huaihai campaign">Huaihai campaign</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pingjin_campaign" title="Pingjin campaign">Pingjin campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Taiping_(steamer)" title="Taiping (steamer)"><i>Taiping Steamer</i> Incident</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_campaign" title="Yangtze River Crossing campaign">Yangtze River Crossing campaign</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Amethyst_incident" title="Amethyst incident"><i>Amethyst</i> Incident</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the government of Republic of China to Taiwan">ROC Government retreat to Taiwan</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_Xinjiang_into_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China">PRC incorporation of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949–1953</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Shanghai_(1949-1953)" title="Bombing of Shanghai (1949-1953)">Bombing of Shanghai</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">Hainan Island campaign</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Wanshan_Archipelago_Campaign" title="Wanshan Archipelago Campaign">Wanshan Archipelago Campaign</a><br /></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950–1958</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_Islamic_insurgency" title="Kuomintang Islamic insurgency">Kuomintang Islamic insurgency</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1961–1972</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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