India - Harappa, Indus Valley, Civilization

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When first discovered, the extensive surviving brick ramparts led to the site’s being described as a ruined brick castle. The lower city is partly occupied by a modern village, and it has been seriously disturbed by erosion and brick robbers. 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class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="285248"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">India</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/India">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref46358"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46358">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46359"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46359">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46360" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas">The Himalayas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46361"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46361">The Outer Himalayas (the Siwalik Range)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46362">The Lesser Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46363">The Great Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46364">Associated ranges and hills</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46365">The Indo-Gangetic Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46366" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan">The Deccan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46367">The Western Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46368">The Eastern Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46369">Inland regions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46370">Coastal areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46371">Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46372">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46373" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal">Drainage into the Bay of Bengal</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46374">The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46375"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46375">Peninsular rivers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46376">Drainage into the Arabian Sea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46377"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46377">Lakes and inland drainage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46378"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46378">Soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273210" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref273210">In situ soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46380"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46380">Red-to-yellow soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46381"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils">Black soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46379"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46379">Alluvial soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46382"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46382">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46383" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46383">The monsoons</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46384"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46384">The southwest monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46385"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon">Rainfall during the retreating monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46386"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46386">Tropical cyclones</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46387"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46387">Importance to agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46388">Temperatures</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46389"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46390"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46390">Vegetation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46391" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46391">Animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46392"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46392">Mammals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46393"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46393">Birds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46394"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46394">Reptiles, fish, and insects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46395">Conservation</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46396"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46397"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46397">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46398"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46398">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages">Indo-European languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46400">Dravidian and other languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46401">Lingua francas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46402"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46402">Minor languages and dialects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46403"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46403">Religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste">Caste</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46405"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46405">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46406">Population density</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46407">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46408"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46408">Urban settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46410"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends#ref46410">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46416">Agriculture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273192">Crops</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273193"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273193">Livestock</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46417">Forestry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46418">Fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power">Resources and power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power#ref46419">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273194">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273195">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273196">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref46425">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46426"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads">Railways and roads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46427">Water and air transport</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273197"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref273197">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46428"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46428">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46429">Constitutional framework</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure">Constitutional structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46431" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46431">Union government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46432"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46432">Executive branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46433">Legislative branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46434">Bureaucracy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46439">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46435"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46435">State and local governments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46436"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46436">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46437">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46438">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273190"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273190">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46440">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46442"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46442">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273200">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46444">Family and kinship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273201"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref273201">Festivals and holidays</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46445">Cuisine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing">Clothing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref46447">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273202">Architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273203"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273203">Dance and music</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273204"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273204">Theatre, film, and literature</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46448">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46449">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214184"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46800">India from the Paleolithic Period to the decline of the Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46801" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46801">The early prehistoric period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic">The Indian Paleolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46803">Mesolithic hunters</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46804">The earliest agriculturalists and pastoralists</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46805">Neolithic agriculture in the Indus valley and Baluchistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin">Developments in the Ganges basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46807">Earliest settlements in peninsular India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46808">Earliest settlements in eastern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46809" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46809">The rise of urbanism in the Indus valley</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46810">Extent and chronology of Early Harappan culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46811">Principal sites</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46812">Subsistence and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46813">Culture and religion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46814" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization">The Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46815">Character and significance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46816">Chronology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46817">Extent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46818">Planning and architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46819">Important sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46820">Mohenjo-daro</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa">Harappa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46822"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46822">Kalibangan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46823">Lothal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46824">Other important sites</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46825">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry">Agriculture and animal husbandry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46827">Communications</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46828">Craft and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46829">Trade and external contacts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46830">Language and scripts, weights and measures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46831">Social and political system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46832">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46833">Religion and burial customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46834"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization">The end of the Indus civilization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46835" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46835">Post-Harappan developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46836">The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46837">The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46838">The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46839">Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 2000–1000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce">The development of Indian civilization from c. 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to c. 1200 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273188">Traditional approaches to Indian historiography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273189">Trends in early Indian society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46841" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref46841">From c. 1500 to c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period">Early Vedic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46843"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period#ref46843">Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46844" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce">The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46845"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46845">Pre-Mauryan states</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46846">Location</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46847">Political systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46848">Economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46849">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy">Magadhan ascendancy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46851">Campaigns of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46852">The Mauryan empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46853">Chandragupta Maurya</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46854">Bindusara</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors">Ashoka and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46856">Financial base for the empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46857">Mauryan society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46858">Mauryan government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts">Ashoka’s edicts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46860">Mauryan decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46861"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46861">The concept of the state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46862" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46862">From 150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46863">Rise of small kingdoms in the north</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46864">Indo-Greek rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46865"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46865">Central Asian rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46866"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46866">Oligarchies and kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46867"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom">The Shunga kingdom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46868"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46868">Kalinga</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46869"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46869">The Andhras and their successors</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46870"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46870">Southern Indian kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46871"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West">Contacts with the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46872"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46872">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46873"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46873">Guilds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46874"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46874">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46875"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46875">Impact of trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46876"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46876">Religious patronage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46877"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46878"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46878">Assimilation of foreigners</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46879" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46879">From 300 to 750 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46880"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46880">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46881"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46881">The Guptas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46882">Successor states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46883">The Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India">Southern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46885">Society and culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46886" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46886">From 750 to c. 1200</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46887">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46888">The tripartite struggle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs">The Rajputs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46890">The coming of the Turks</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46891">The Deccan and the south</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892">The Colas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46893">The Hoysalas and Pandyas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46895">The economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46896">Social mobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46897">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46898">Literature and the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46899">The early Muslim period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46900" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46900">North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 1200–1526</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46901">The Delhi sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46902">The Turkish conquest</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans">The early Turkish sultans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans#ref46904">Consolidation of the sultanate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis">The Khaljīs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46906"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46906">Centralization and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46907">Taxation and distribution of revenue resources</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46908"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46908">Expansion and conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46909"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46909">The urban economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46910"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs">The Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46911"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46911">Reversal and rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46912"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46912">Society and the state under the Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46913"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate">Decline of the sultanate</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46914"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46914">The rise of regional states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46915"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46915">Struggle for supremacy in northern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46916" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46916">The Muslim states of southern India, c. 1350–1680</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46917"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46917">The Bahmani sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan">Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan#ref46919">External and internal rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref273208"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan">Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46920">Bahmanī decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46921">Successors to the Bahmanī</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46922" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646">The Vijayanagar empire, 1336–1646</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46923">Development of the state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46924">Conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46925"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46925">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries">Wars and rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46927">Decentralization and loss of territory</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46928">Later dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46929">Reconsolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46930">Growth of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46931">Renewed decentralization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46932"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46932">Relations with the Muslim states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar">Decline of Vijayanagar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46934">Military policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46935"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46935">Loss of central control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46936">Breakup of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46937">Administration of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761">The Mughal Empire, 1526–1761</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46939">The significance of Mughal rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46940" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46940">The establishment of the Mughal Empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46941">Bābur</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46942">Conquest of Hindustan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46943">Bābur’s achievements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun">Humāyūn</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46945">Sher Shah and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46946">Restoration of Humāyūn</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46947" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great">The reign of Akbar the Great</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46948">Extension and consolidation of the empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46949">The early years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46950">Struggle for firm personal control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46951">Subjugation of Rajasthan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46952">Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46953">The frontiers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46954">The state and society under Akbar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46955">Central, provincial, and local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46956"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility">The composition of the Mughal nobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46957">Organization of the nobility and the army</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46958">Revenue system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46959">Fiscal administration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46960">Coinage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46961">Evolution of a nonsectarian state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46962">Akbar in historical perspective</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46963" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46963">The empire in the 17th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir">Jahāngīr</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46965">Loss of Kandahār</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46966">Submission of Mewar</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46967">Developments in the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46968">Rebellion of Khurram (Shah Jahān)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46969">Mahābat Khan’s coup</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46970"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan">Shah Jahān</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46971">The Deccan problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46972">Central Asian policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46973"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46973">War of succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46975">Local and peasant uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46976">Assessment of Aurangzeb</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46977" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46977">Mughal decline in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings">The Sikh uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46979">Cracks in the core</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46980">Struggle for a new power center</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46981">The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46982">Nādir Shah’s invasion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46983">The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46984">Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46985">Regional states, c. 1700–1850</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46986" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas">The Marathas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46987">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46988">Rise of the <em>peshwa</em>s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46989"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46989">Subordinate Maratha rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century">Mughal mystique in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46991">The case of Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46992">Challenge from the northwest</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46993">The Afghan factor in northern India, 1747–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46994" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab">The Sikhs in the Punjab</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46995">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46996">From Banda Singh Bahadur to Ranjit Singh</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century">Rajasthan in the 18th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century#ref46998">The south: Travancore and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy">Politics and the economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47000">Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47001">India and European expansion, c. 1500–1858</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47002" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47002">European activity in India, 1498–c. 1760</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47003">The Portuguese</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47004">The Dutch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740">The British, 1600–1740</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47006"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740#ref47006">The French</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63">The Anglo-French struggle, 1740–63</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63#ref47008">European military superiority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal">Revolution in Bengal</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47010" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47010">The extension of British power, 1760–1856</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47011">The period of disorder, 1760–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur">The Company Bahadur</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47013">The company and the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47014">Relations with the Marathas and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47015"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy">The ascent to paramountcy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47016">The government of Lord Wellesley</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47017">The government of Lord Minto</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings">The government of Lord Hastings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47019">The settlement of 1818</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47020">Organization and policy in British India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47021">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy">The determination of policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47023">The completion of dominion and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47024"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47024">The first century of British influence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects">Political effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47026">Economic effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47027"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47027">Social effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47028">Cultural effects</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47029" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59">The mutiny and great revolt of 1857–59</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47030"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47030">Nature and causes of the rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47031"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47031">The revolt and its aftermath</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47032"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47032">British imperial power, 1858–1947</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47033" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47033">Climax of the raj, 1858–85</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273209"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858">Government of India Act of 1858</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47034"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47034">Social policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47035"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47035">Government organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47036"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47036">Economic policy and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47037" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy">Foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47038"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47038">The northwest frontier</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47039"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47039">The Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47040"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47040">The incorporation of Burma</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47041" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920">Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47042"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47042">Origins of the nationalist movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47043"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47043">The early Congress movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47044"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal">The first partition of Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47045"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal#ref47045">Nationalism in the Muslim community</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47046"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals">Reforms of the British Liberals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47047"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47047">Moderate and militant nationalism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47048" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47048">World War I and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47049"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47049">India’s contributions to the war effort</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47050"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity">Anti-British activity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity#ref47051">The postwar years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47053">Gandhi’s strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47054" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47054">Prelude to independence, 1920–47</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47055"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms">Constitutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47056"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms#ref47056">The Congress’s ambivalent strategy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47057"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism">Muslim separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47058"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47058">The impact of World War II</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47059">British wartime strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries">The transfer of power and the birth of two countries</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47061">The Republic of India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47062" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47062">The Nehru era, 1947–64</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics">Government and politics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47064">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47065"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47065">Economic planning and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47066" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47066">Post-Nehru politics and foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47067"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47067">The 1965 war with Pakistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47068"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact">Indira Gandhi’s impact</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47069"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47069">The Bangladesh war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47070"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47070">Emergency rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47071"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47071">The Janata interlude and the return of Indira Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47072"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism">Sikh separatism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47073" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47073">From Rajiv to Rao: India from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47074"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47074">The premiership of Rajiv Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47075"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47075">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47076"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall">V.P. Singh’s coalition—its brief rise and fall</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref47077">Congress government of P.V. Narasimha Rao</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref321317" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref321317">India since the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273206"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref273206">The first and second BJP governments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342918">The BJP becomes the largest party in the Lok Sabha</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342919">BJP gains in elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li 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Head of Tollund Man. Died at about age 30-40, Dated to about 280 BCE early Iron Age. Found Bjaeldskovdal bog Denmark in 1950 near Elling Woman. Most well preserved bog body to date. 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data-assembly-id="184574" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/155594-050-D61369CC/Harappan-well-Pakistan.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/184574"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/155594-050-D61369CC/Harappan-well-Pakistan.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/155594-050-D61369CC/Harappan-well-Pakistan.jpg?w=300" alt="Harappan well" data-width="1600" data-height="1068" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/94/155594-050-D61369CC/Harappan-well-Pakistan.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/184574">Harappan well</a><span>Ancient Harappan well, Harappa, Pakistan.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The vast mounds at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Harappa" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Harappa</a> stand on the left bank of the now dry course of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ravi-River" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Ravi River</a> in the Punjab. They were excavated between 1920 and 1934 by the Archaeological Survey of India, in 1946 by Wheeler, and in the late 20th century by an American and Pakistani team. When first discovered, the extensive surviving brick ramparts led to the site’s being described as a ruined brick castle. The lower city is partly occupied by a modern village, and it has been seriously disturbed by erosion and brick robbers. The citadel, to the west, is roughly a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/parallelogram" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">parallelogram</a> on plan, measuring approximately 1,300 by 650 feet (400 by 200 metres). Excavation there revealed a great platform of mud brick about 20 feet (6 metres) in thickness, with a massive brick wall around the perimeter. Below the defenses were discovered traces of the Early Harappan Period. The excavations were not <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="extensive" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/extensive" data-type="EB">extensive</a> enough to reveal the layout of the interior, but about six building periods were discovered above the platform. The most interesting remains were discovered immediately north of the citadel, close to the bed of the river: there were a series of circular platforms evidently intended to hold mortars for pounding grain; a remarkable series of brick plinths, which are inferred to have formed the podium for two rows of six granary buildings, each 50 by 20 feet (15 by 6 metres) and of a different design from those at Mohenjo-daro; a series of pear-shaped furnaces, apparently used for metallurgy; and two rows of single-roomed barracks, which are generally thought to have been occupied by servants. Two other discoveries at Harappa were made to the south of the citadel. There two <span id="ref485024"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/cemetery" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">cemeteries</a> were found—“R. 37,” belonging to the Harappan Period, and “H,” dating from the Late or even Post-Harappan Period. These contained different styles of burial and will be discussed below.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="5" id="ref46822"> <h2 class="h5"><span id="ref485009"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kalibangan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kalibangan</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Third in importance among excavated Harappan sites is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kalibangan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kalibangan</a>, which stands on the left bank of the dry bed of the Saraswati River in northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rajasthan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Rajasthan</a>. As mentioned above, an Early Harappan settlement lies beneath the later remains, and the main Harappan township has a layout strikingly similar to that of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mohenjo-daro" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Mohenjo-daro</a> and Harappa. In the lower town, excavation has revealed as many as nine building phases. The citadel mound is a parallelogram on a plan of about 430 feet (130 metres) on the east-west axis and 850 feet (260 metres) on the north-south. The whole site has been drastically reduced by brick robbers, but careful excavation has revealed the foundation courses of an accurately laid rhomboid central section with oblong <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="bastions" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bastions" data-type="MW">bastions</a> at each corner and smaller bastions on the north and south walls. The principal access was from the south via a flight of steps. Access from the north was via a narrow postern reached by a stairway, beyond which was a further rhomboid section, having an inset gateway in the northwest corner, near the riverbank. Traces of a brick wall around the lower town were also encountered. The central sector of the citadel contained a series of high brick platforms divided by narrow passages. The upper parts of these platforms had been seriously damaged, and their function is mysterious, but they do not appear to have been the foundation for a granary. The northern sector contained normal domestic housing. A cemetery was discovered a short distance to the west of the town. It may be expected that, when the excavation of this site is published, it will add greatly to knowledge of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Indus civilization</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="5" id="ref46823"> <h2 class="h5"><span id="ref485025"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Lothal" class="md-crosslink ">Lothal</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">One other excavated site deserves special attention; this is Lothal, a small settlement built on low-lying ground near a tributary of the Sabarmati River on the west side of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulf-of-Khambhat" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gulf of Khambhat</a>. It appears to have served as a port or trading station. Its <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="layout" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/layout" data-type="EB">layout</a> is distinctive: the site is roughly rectangular, measuring about 1,180 feet (360 metres) on the long north-south axis and 690 feet (210 metres) on the east-west. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, which was probably used for flood protection. The southeastern quadrant takes the form of a great platform of brick with earth filling, rising to a height of about 13 feet (4 metres). On this were built a series of further smaller platforms with intersecting air channels, reminiscent of the granary at Mohenjo-daro, with overall dimensions of about 159 by 139 feet (48 by 42 metres). Behind this block were other buildings including a row of 12 bathrooms with connected drains, also strongly reminiscent of those found on the citadel at Mohenjo-daro. The remaining enclosed area was evidently taken up by houses and shops. Among the significant finds were a bead maker’s factory and the shops of goldsmiths and coppersmiths. The main street ran from north to south.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The most unexpected discovery at Lothal, however, was a great brick basin measuring some 718 by 121 feet (219 by 37 metres) with <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="extant" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/extant" data-type="MW">extant</a> brick walls of 15 feet (4.5 metres) in height. This lay east of the settlement, alongside the platform on which the granary block stood. At one end of the basin was a small sluice or spillway with a locking device. The excavator has inferred that the basin was a <span id="ref485026"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/dock" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">dock</a> to which ships could be brought from the nearby estuary via an artificial channel that would have been kept clear of silt by controlling the flow of water from the spillway. This view has not been universally accepted; another view is that it provided a source of fresh water for drinking or agriculture. A cemetery was found outside the perimeter of the wall, west of the site.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="5" id="ref46824"> <h2 class="h5">Other important sites</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A growing number of other sites have been excavated, each important in its own way. On the coast near <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Las-Bela" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Las Bela</a> in Balochistan, materials suggesting a substantial shell-working industry have been found at <span id="ref485027"></span>Balakot. Not far from Mehrgarh, at the head of the Kachchhi desert region in Balochistan, the small settlement of <span id="ref485028"></span>Naushahro Firoz provides valuable evidence of the actual <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="transformation" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/transformation" data-type="EB">transformation</a> of Early Harappan into mature Harappan. Near the <span id="ref485029"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rann-of-Kachchh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Rann of Kachchh</a>, <span id="ref485030"></span>Surkotada is a small settlement with an oblong fortification wall of stone. Also in Kachchh is <span id="ref485031"></span>Dholavira, which appears to be among the largest Harappan settlements so far identified; a nine-year excavation at the site completed in 2001 yielded a walled Indus valley city that dated to the mid-3rd millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> and covered some 3.5 acres (1.4 hectares). The Archaeological Survey of India team uncovered a sophisticated water-management system with a series of giant reservoirs—the largest 265 by 40 feet (80 by 12 metres) wide and 23 feet (7 metres) deep—used to conserve rainwater. Of excavated sites in Punjab, <span id="ref485032"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Banawali" class="md-crosslink ">Banawali</a> is an important major settlement, surrounded by massive brick defenses. One of the most surprising discoveries, far outside the central area of the Indus civilization, is <span id="ref485033"></span>Shortughai in the <span id="ref485034"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Oxus-Valley" class="md-crosslink ">Amu Darya (Oxus River) valley</a>, in northern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Afghanistan</a>. There the remains of a small Harappan colony, presumably sited so as to provide control of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/lapis-lazuli" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">lapis lazuli</a> export trade originating in neighbouring Badakhshan, have been excavated by a French team.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref46825"> <h2 class="h4">Population</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">There have been two independent estimates of the population of Mohenjo-daro. Both are based on an estimation of the original area covered and the density of the people living there, using traditional settlements in the region in the present day for comparison. <span id="ref485035"></span>Hugh Trevor Lambrick proposed a figure of 35,000 for Mohenjo-daro and a roughly similar figure for Harappa, while <span id="ref485036"></span>Walter A. Fairservis estimated the former at about 41,250 and the latter about 23,500. These figures are probably <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conservative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conservative" data-type="MW">conservative</a>. It would be possible to produce estimates of the population for other sites along similar lines—notably for Kalibangan, of which the lower city has an area about one-fifth that of Mohenjo-daro.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":25,"pagesTotal":85,"pageId":285248,"pageLength":1321,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":25,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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India - Harappa, Indus Valley, Civilization | Britannica