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<ul id="toc-Types_or_locations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine_coastal_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_coastal_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Marine coastal ecosystems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_coastal_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coral_reefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_reefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Coral reefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coral_reefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mangroves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mangroves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Mangroves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mangroves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seagrass_meadows" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seagrass_meadows"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Seagrass meadows</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seagrass_meadows-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kelp_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kelp_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Kelp forests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kelp_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Estuaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estuaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Estuaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estuaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lagoons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lagoons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.6</span> <span>Lagoons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lagoons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salt_marsh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salt_marsh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.7</span> <span>Salt marsh</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salt_marsh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intertidal_zones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intertidal_zones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.8</span> <span>Intertidal zones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intertidal_zones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_surface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_surface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Ocean surface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_surface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deep_sea_and_sea_floor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deep_sea_and_sea_floor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Deep sea and sea floor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deep_sea_and_sea_floor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large_marine_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large_marine_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Large marine ecosystems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large_marine_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_ecosystem_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_ecosystem_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Role in ecosystem services</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_ecosystem_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Threats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Threats</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Threats-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Threats subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Threats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_exploitation_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_exploitation_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Human exploitation and development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_exploitation_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasive_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasive_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Invasive species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasive_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Global_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Global goals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine ecosystem</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="نظام بيئي بحري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظام بيئي بحري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="সামুদ্রিক বাস্তুতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সামুদ্রিক বাস্তুতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema_mar%C3%AD" title="Ecosistema marí – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ecosistema marí" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosistema_marino" title="Ecosistema marino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecosistema marino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mara_ekosistemo" title="Mara ekosistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mara ekosistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsasoko_ekosistema" title="Itsasoko ekosistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Itsasoko ekosistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="بوم‌سازگان دریایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوم‌سازگان دریایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%96%91%EC%83%9D%ED%83%9C%EA%B3%84" title="해양생태계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해양생태계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ծովային էկոհամակարգեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծովային էկոհամակարգեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem_laut" title="Ekosistem laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekosistem laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83_%D1%82%D2%AF%D0%B1%D1%96_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Су түбі организмдері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Су түбі организмдері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekosistem_laut" title="Ekosistem laut – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ekosistem laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Далайн экосистем – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Далайн экосистем" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB" title="海洋生態系 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海洋生態系" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dengiz_ekosistemasi" title="Dengiz ekosistemasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dengiz ekosistemasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecossistema_marinho" title="Ecossistema marinho – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ecossistema marinho" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Морские экосистемы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Морские экосистемы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Екосистеми мора – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Екосистеми мора" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கடல்சார் சூழல் மண்டலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கடல்சார் சூழல் மண்டலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5" title="ระบบนิเวศทางทะเล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบนิเวศทางทะเล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_sinh_th%C3%A1i_bi%E1%BB%83n" title="Hệ sinh thái biển – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ sinh thái biển" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="海洋生態系統 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="海洋生態系統" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="海洋生態系統 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海洋生態系統" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3304561#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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searchaux" style="display:none">Ecosystem in saltwater environment</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the entire ecosystem in saline water, including all living organisms and their interactions. For more detailed aspects about specific types of environment within the marine ecosystem, see <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitat</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/290px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/435px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/580px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a><figcaption>Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Marine ecosystems</b> are the largest of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic ecosystems</a> and exist in <a href="/wiki/Saline_water" title="Saline water">waters that have a high salt</a> content. These systems contrast with <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a>, which have a lower <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a> content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 90% of habitable space on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seawater has an average salinity of 35 <a href="/wiki/Parts-per_notation" title="Parts-per notation">parts per thousand</a> of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-USEPA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USEPA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceanic</a> zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal zone</a> is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include <a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">mudflats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass meadows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a>, rocky <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">salt marshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoons</a>. In the deep water, <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a> may occur where <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> form the base of the food web. </p><p>Marine ecosystems are characterized by the biological <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">community of organisms</a> that they are associated with and <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine habitats">their physical environment</a>. <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Classes</a> of organisms found in marine ecosystems include <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>. </p><p>Marine ecosystems are important sources of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry" title="Fishing industry">food and jobs for significant portions of the global population</a>. <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human uses of marine ecosystems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">pollution in marine ecosystems</a> are significantly threats to the stability of these ecosystems. Environmental problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources (for example <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> of certain species), <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">climate change</a>, and building on coastal areas. Moreover, much of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emission">carbon dioxide causing global warming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">heat captured by global warming</a> are absorbed by the ocean, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">ocean chemistry</a> is changing through processes like <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a> which in turn threatens marine ecosystems. </p><p>Because of the opportunities in marine ecosystems for humans and the threats created by humans, the <a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">international community</a> has prioritized "Life below water" as <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">Sustainable Development Goal 14</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal is to "Conserve and sustainably use the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_seas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of seas">seas</a> and marine resources for sustainable development".<sup id="cite_ref-:17_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_or_locations">Types or locations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types or locations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_coastal_ecosystems">Marine coastal ecosystems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Marine coastal ecosystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_distribution_of_coral,_mangrove,_and_seagrass_diversity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Global_distribution_of_coral%2C_mangrove%2C_and_seagrass_diversity.png/440px-Global_distribution_of_coral%2C_mangrove%2C_and_seagrass_diversity.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="406" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Global_distribution_of_coral%2C_mangrove%2C_and_seagrass_diversity.png/660px-Global_distribution_of_coral%2C_mangrove%2C_and_seagrass_diversity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Global_distribution_of_coral%2C_mangrove%2C_and_seagrass_diversity.png 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>Global distribution of coral, mangrove, and seagrass diversity</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coral_reefs">Coral reefs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Coral reefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Coral_Reef_at_the_Andaman_Islands.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/The_Coral_Reef_at_the_Andaman_Islands.jpg/220px-The_Coral_Reef_at_the_Andaman_Islands.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/The_Coral_Reef_at_the_Andaman_Islands.jpg/330px-The_Coral_Reef_at_the_Andaman_Islands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/The_Coral_Reef_at_the_Andaman_Islands.jpg/440px-The_Coral_Reef_at_the_Andaman_Islands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3377" data-file-height="2340" /></a><figcaption>Coral reef</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a> are one of the most well-known marine ecosystems in the world, with the largest being the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>. These reefs are composed of large coral colonies of a variety of species living together. The corals form multiple symbiotic relationships with the organisms around them.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mangroves">Mangroves</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mangroves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mangrove_swamp,_Iriomote_Island,_Okinawa,_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mangrove_swamp%2C_Iriomote_Island%2C_Okinawa%2C_Japan.jpg/220px-Mangrove_swamp%2C_Iriomote_Island%2C_Okinawa%2C_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mangrove_swamp%2C_Iriomote_Island%2C_Okinawa%2C_Japan.jpg/330px-Mangrove_swamp%2C_Iriomote_Island%2C_Okinawa%2C_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Mangrove_swamp%2C_Iriomote_Island%2C_Okinawa%2C_Japan.jpg/440px-Mangrove_swamp%2C_Iriomote_Island%2C_Okinawa%2C_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Mangrove forests</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></div> <p>Mangroves are trees or shrubs that grow in low-oxygen soil near coastlines in tropical or subtropical latitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are an extremely productive and complex ecosystem that connects the land and sea. Mangroves consist of species that are not necessarily related to each other and are often grouped for the characteristics they share rather than genetic similarity.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of their proximity to the coast, they have all developed adaptions such as salt excretion and root aeration to live in salty, oxygen-depleted water.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mangroves can often be recognized by their dense tangle of roots that act to protect the coast by reducing erosion from storm surges, currents, wave, and tides.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mangrove ecosystem is also an important source of food for many species as well as excellent at <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestering carbon</a> dioxide from the atmosphere with global mangrove carbon storage is estimated at 34 million metric tons per year.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seagrass_meadows">Seagrass meadows</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Seagrass meadows"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fan_mussel_(Pinna_nobilis).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Fan_mussel_%28Pinna_nobilis%29.jpg/220px-Fan_mussel_%28Pinna_nobilis%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Fan_mussel_%28Pinna_nobilis%29.jpg/330px-Fan_mussel_%28Pinna_nobilis%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Fan_mussel_%28Pinna_nobilis%29.jpg/440px-Fan_mussel_%28Pinna_nobilis%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1355" /></a><figcaption>Seagrass meadow</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadows" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrass meadows">Seagrass meadows</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Seagrasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrasses">Seagrasses</a> form dense underwater <a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">meadows</a> which are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. They provide habitats and food for a diversity of marine life comparable to coral reefs. This includes invertebrates like shrimp and crabs, cod and flatfish, marine mammals and birds. They provide refuges for endangered species such as seahorses, turtles, and <a href="/wiki/Dugongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Dugongs">dugongs</a>. They function as nursery habitats for shrimps, scallops and many commercial fish species. Seagrass meadows provide coastal storm protection by the way their leaves absorb energy from waves as they hit the coast. They keep coastal waters healthy by absorbing bacteria and nutrients, and slow the speed of climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide into the sediment of the ocean floor. </p><p>Seagrasses evolved from marine algae which colonized land and became land plants, and then returned to the ocean about 100 million years ago. However, today seagrass meadows are being damaged by human activities such as pollution from land runoff, fishing boats that drag dredges or trawls across the meadows uprooting the grass, and overfishing which unbalances the ecosystem. Seagrass meadows are currently being destroyed at a rate of about two football fields every hour<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kelp_forests">Kelp forests</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Kelp forests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/330px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/440px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Kelp forest</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></div> <p>Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar region">polar</a> coastal oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_(1973)_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann_(1973)-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> waters near <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Graham_et_al._2007_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graham_et_al._2007-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Physically formed by brown <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macroalgae</a>, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Trophic_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic dynamics">trophic</a> ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanographic</a> patterns<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and provide many <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Steneck_2002_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp <a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">forest degradation</a>. Of particular concern are the effects of <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> nearshore ecosystems, which can release <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> from their normal population regulation and result in the <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a> of kelp and other algae.<sup id="cite_ref-Sala1998_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can rapidly result in transitions to <a href="/wiki/Urchin_barren" title="Urchin barren">barren landscapes</a> where relatively few species persist.<sup id="cite_ref-Dayton_1985a_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already due to the combined effects of <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>'s east coast and the coast of <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The implementation of <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine protected areas">marine protected areas</a> is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Estuaries">Estuaries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Estuaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nerr0791_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Nerr0791_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/220px-Nerr0791_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Nerr0791_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/330px-Nerr0791_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Nerr0791_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg/440px-Nerr0791_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1776" data-file-height="1168" /></a><figcaption>Estuaries</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">Estuaries</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a> occur where there is a noticeable change in salinity between saltwater and freshwater sources. This is typically found where rivers meet the ocean or sea. The wildlife found within estuaries is unique as the water in these areas is brackish - a mix of freshwater flowing to the ocean and salty seawater.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other types of estuaries also exist and have similar characteristics as traditional brackish estuaries. The Great Lakes are a prime example. There, river water mixes with lake water and creates freshwater estuaries.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estuaries are extremely productive ecosystems that many humans and animal species rely on for various activities.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen as, of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located on estuaries as they provide many environmental and economic benefits such as crucial habitat for many species, and being economic hubs for many coastal communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estuaries also provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, habitat protection, erosion control, gas regulation nutrient cycling, and it even gives education, recreation and tourism opportunities to people.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lagoons">Lagoons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lagoons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kara-Bogaz_Gol_from_space,_September_1995.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kara-Bogaz_Gol_from_space%2C_September_1995.jpg/220px-Kara-Bogaz_Gol_from_space%2C_September_1995.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kara-Bogaz_Gol_from_space%2C_September_1995.jpg/330px-Kara-Bogaz_Gol_from_space%2C_September_1995.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Kara-Bogaz_Gol_from_space%2C_September_1995.jpg/440px-Kara-Bogaz_Gol_from_space%2C_September_1995.jpg 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>Lagoon</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lagoons" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagoons">Lagoons</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoons</a> are areas that are separated from larger water by natural barriers such as coral reefs or sandbars. There are two types of lagoons, coastal and oceanic/atoll lagoons.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A coastal lagoon is, as the definition above, simply a body of water that is separated from the ocean by a barrier. An atoll lagoon is a circular coral reef or several coral islands that surround a lagoon. Atoll lagoons are often much deeper than coastal lagoons.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most lagoons are very shallow meaning that they are greatly affected by changed in precipitation, evaporation and wind. This means that salinity and temperature are widely varied in lagoons and that they can have water that ranges from fresh to hypersaline.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lagoons can be found in on coasts all over the world, on every continent except Antarctica and is an extremely diverse habitat being home to a wide array of species including birds, fish, crabs, plankton and more.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lagoons are also important to the economy as they provide a wide array of ecosystem services in addition to being the home of so many different species. Some of these services include fisheries, nutrient cycling, flood protection, water filtration, and even human tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Salt_marsh">Salt marsh</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Salt marsh"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marismas_del_Oka_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Marismas_del_Oka_03.jpg/220px-Marismas_del_Oka_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Marismas_del_Oka_03.jpg/330px-Marismas_del_Oka_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Marismas_del_Oka_03.jpg/440px-Marismas_del_Oka_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="3096" /></a><figcaption>Salt marshes</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></div> <p>Salt marshes are a transition from the ocean to the land, where fresh and saltwater mix.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soil in these marshes is often made up of mud and a layer of organic material called peat. Peat is characterized as waterlogged and root-filled decomposing plant matter that often causes low oxygen levels (hypoxia). These hypoxic conditions causes growth of the bacteria that also gives salt marshes the sulfurous smell they are often known for.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salt marshes exist around the world and are needed for healthy ecosystems and a healthy economy. They are extremely productive ecosystems and they provide essential services for more than 75 percent of fishery species and protect shorelines from erosion and flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salt marshes can be generally divided into the high marsh, low marsh, and the upland border. The low marsh is closer to the ocean, with it being flooded at nearly every tide except low tide.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The high marsh is located between the low marsh and the upland border and it usually only flooded when higher than usual tides are present.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The upland border is the freshwater edge of the marsh and is usually located at elevations slightly higher than the high marsh. This region is usually only flooded under extreme weather conditions and experiences much less waterlogged conditions and salt stress than other areas of the marsh.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intertidal_zones">Intertidal zones</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Intertidal zones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg/220px-Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg/330px-Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg/440px-Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Intertidal zones</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zones</a> are the areas that are visible and exposed to air during low tide and covered up by saltwater during high tide.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are four physical divisions of the intertidal zone with each one having its distinct characteristics and wildlife. These divisions are the Spray zone, High intertidal zone, Middle Intertidal zone, and Low intertidal zone. The Spray zone is a damp area that is usually only reached by the ocean and submerged only under high tides or storms. The high intertidal zone is submerged at high tide but remains dry for long periods between high tides.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the large variance of conditions possible in this region, it is inhabited by resilient wildlife that can withstand these changes such as barnacles, marine snails, mussels and hermit crabs.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tides flow over the middle intertidal zone two times a day and this zone has a larger variety of wildlife.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The low intertidal zone is submerged nearly all the time except during the lowest tides and life is more abundant here due to the protection that the water gives.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_surface">Ocean surface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ocean surface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/300px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/450px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg/600px-Ocean_mist_and_spray_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1271" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Sea_spray" title="Sea spray">Sea spray</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">marine microorganisms</a> can be swept high into the atmosphere, where it becomes part of the <a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">aeroplankton</a> and may travel the globe before falling back to earth.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface ecosystem</a></div> <p>Organisms that live freely at the surface, termed <a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">neuston</a>, include <a href="/wiki/Keystone_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Keystone organism">keystone organisms</a> like the golden seaweed <i><a href="/wiki/Sargassum" title="Sargassum">Sargassum</a></i> that makes up the <a href="/wiki/Sargasso_Sea" title="Sargasso Sea">Sargasso Sea</a>, floating <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_snail" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine snail">marine snails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">nudibranchs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cnidarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarian">cnidarians</a>. Many ecologically and economically important fish species live as or rely upon neuston. Species at the surface are not distributed uniformly; the ocean's surface harbours unique neustonic communities and ecoregions found at only certain latitudes and only in specific ocean basins. But the surface is also on the front line of climate change and pollution. Life on the ocean's surface connects worlds. From shallow waters to the deep sea, the open ocean to rivers and lakes, numerous terrestrial and marine species depend on the surface ecosystem and the organisms found there.<sup id="cite_ref-Helm2021_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helm2021-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ocean's surface acts like a skin between the atmosphere above and the water below, and harbours an ecosystem unique to this environment. This sun-drenched habitat can be defined as roughly one metre in depth, as nearly half of <a href="/wiki/UV-B" class="mw-redirect" title="UV-B">UV-B</a> is attenuated within this first meter.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisms here must contend with wave action and unique chemical<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and physical properties.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surface is utilised by a wide range of species, from various fish and <a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">cetaceans</a>, to species that ride on <a href="/wiki/Ocean_debris" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean debris">ocean debris</a> (termed <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_dispersal" title="Oceanic dispersal">rafters</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-ThielI_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThielI-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ThielII_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThielII-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ThielIII_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ThielIII-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most prominently, the surface is home to a unique community of free-living organisms, termed <a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">neuston</a> (from the Greek word, υεω, which means both to swim and to float. Floating organisms are also sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">pleuston</a>, though neuston is more commonly used). Despite the diversity and importance of the ocean's surface in connecting disparate habitats, and the risks it faces, not a lot is known about neustonic life.<sup id="cite_ref-Helm2021_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helm2021-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A stream of airborne microorganisms circles the planet above weather systems but below commercial air lanes.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some peripatetic microorganisms are swept up from terrestrial dust storms, but most originate from <a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">marine microorganisms</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sea_spray" title="Sea spray">sea spray</a>. In 2018, scientists reported that hundreds of millions of viruses and tens of millions of bacteria are deposited daily on every square meter around the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ISME-2018_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISME-2018-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deep_sea_and_sea_floor">Deep sea and sea floor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Deep sea and sea floor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea community">Deep sea community</a></div> <p>The deep sea contains up to 95% of the space occupied by living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined with the sea floor (or benthic zone), these two areas have yet to be fully explored and have their organisms documented.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Large_marine_ecosystems">Large marine ecosystems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Large marine ecosystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg/300px-General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg/450px-General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg/600px-General_characteristics_of_a_large_marine_ecosystem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>General characteristics of a large marine ecosystem (Gulf of Alaska)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_map_of_large_marine_ecosystems.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Global_map_of_large_marine_ecosystems.jpg/220px-Global_map_of_large_marine_ecosystems.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Global_map_of_large_marine_ecosystems.jpg/330px-Global_map_of_large_marine_ecosystems.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Global_map_of_large_marine_ecosystems.jpg/440px-Global_map_of_large_marine_ecosystems.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3468" data-file-height="2097" /></a><figcaption>Global map of large marine ecosystems. Oceanographers and biologists have identified 66 LMEs worldwide.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1984, <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> developed the concept of <i>large marine ecosystems</i> (sometimes abbreviated to LMEs), to identify areas of the oceans for <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental conservation</a> purposes and to enable collaborative <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_management" title="Ecosystem-based management">ecosystem-based management</a> in transnational areas, in a way consistent with the 1982 <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a> <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on the Law of the Sea">Convention on the Law of the Sea</a>. This name refers to relatively large regions on the order of 200,000 km<sup>2</sup> (77,000 sq mi) or greater, characterized by their distinct <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">hydrography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">productivity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophically</a> dependent <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a>. Such LMEs encompass coastal areas from river basins and <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuaries</a> to the seaward boundaries of <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> and the outer margins of the major <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean current</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Altogether, there are 66 LMEs, which contribute an estimated $3 trillion annually. This includes being responsible for 90% of global annual marine fishery <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> LME-based conservation is based on recognition that the world's coastal ocean waters are degraded by unsustainable fishing practices, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat degradation">habitat degradation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, toxic pollution, aerosol contamination, and emerging diseases, and that positive actions to mitigate these threats require coordinated actions by governments and civil society to recover depleted fish populations, restore degraded habitats and reduce coastal pollution. Five modules are considered when assessing LMEs: productivity, fish and fisheries, pollution and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_health" title="Ecosystem health">ecosystem health</a>, socioeconomics, and governance.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Periodically assessing the state of each module within a marine LME is encouraged to ensure maintained health of the ecosystem and future benefit to managing governments.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Global Environment Facility (GEF) aids in managing LMEs off the coasts of Africa and Asia by creating resource management agreements between environmental, fisheries, energy and tourism ministers of bordering countries. This means participating countries share knowledge and resources pertaining to local LMEs to promote longevity and recovery of fisheries and other industries dependent upon LMEs.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Large marine ecosystems include:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></p><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Bering_Sea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Bering Sea (page does not exist)">East Bering Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Alaska" title="Gulf of Alaska">Gulf of Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Current" title="California Current">California Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_California" title="Gulf of California">Gulf of California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southeast_U.S._Continental_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southeast U.S. Continental Shelf (page does not exist)">Southeast U.S. Continental Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeast_U.S._Continental_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf (page does not exist)">Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotian_Shelf" title="Scotian Shelf">Scotian Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Newfoundland-Labrador_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf (page does not exist)">Newfoundland-Labrador Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Insular_Pacific-Hawaiian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Insular Pacific-Hawaiian (page does not exist)">Insular Pacific-Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Central-American_Coastal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pacific Central-American Coastal (page does not exist)">Pacific Central-American Coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patagonian_Shelf" title="Patagonian Shelf">Patagonian Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Brazil_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="South Brazil Shelf (page does not exist)">South Brazil Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Brazil_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Brazil Shelf (page does not exist)">East Brazil Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Brazil_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="North Brazil Shelf (page does not exist)">North Brazil Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Greenland_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West Greenland Shelf (page does not exist)">West Greenland Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Greenland_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Greenland Shelf (page does not exist)">East Greenland Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barents_Sea" title="Barents Sea">Barents Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Norwegian_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norwegian Shelf (page does not exist)">Norwegian Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Celtic-Biscay_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Celtic-Biscay Shelf (page does not exist)">Celtic-Biscay Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Arctic" title="Central Arctic">Central Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iberian_Coastal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iberian Coastal (page does not exist)">Iberian Coastal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Current" title="Canary Current">Canary Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea_Current" title="Guinea Current">Guinea Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benguela_Current" title="Benguela Current">Benguela Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agulhas_Current" title="Agulhas Current">Agulhas Current</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Somali_Coastal_Current&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Somali Coastal Current (page does not exist)">Somali Coastal Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand" title="Gulf of Thailand">Gulf of Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulu-Celebes_Sea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulu-Celebes Sea (page does not exist)">Sulu-Celebes Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indonesian_Sea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indonesian Sea (page does not exist)">Indonesian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Australian_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="North Australian Shelf (page does not exist)">North Australian Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Northeast Australian Shelf/Great Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=East-Central_Australian_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East-Central Australian Shelf (page does not exist)">East-Central Australian Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southeast_Australian_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southeast Australian Shelf (page does not exist)">Southeast Australian Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southwest_Australian_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southwest Australian Shelf (page does not exist)">Southwest Australian Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=West-Central_Australian_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West-Central Australian Shelf (page does not exist)">West-Central Australian Shelf</a></li> <li>Northwest Australian Shelf</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Zealand_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Zealand Shelf (page does not exist)">New Zealand Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_China_Sea" title="East China Sea">East China Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Japan" title="Sea of Japan">Sea of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyashio_Current" title="Oyashio Current">Oyashio Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk" title="Sea of Okhotsk">Sea of Okhotsk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=West_Bering_Sea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="West Bering Sea (page does not exist)">West Bering Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukchi_Sea" title="Chukchi Sea">Chukchi Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaufort_Sea" title="Beaufort Sea">Beaufort Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Siberian_Sea" title="East Siberian Sea">East Siberian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laptev_Sea" title="Laptev Sea">Laptev Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Sea" title="Kara Sea">Kara Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iceland_Shelf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iceland Shelf (page does not exist)">Iceland Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Faroe_Plateau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Faroe Plateau (page does not exist)">Faroe Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Bay" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_Sea" title="Greenland Sea">Greenland Sea</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_ecosystem_services">Role in ecosystem services</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Role in ecosystem services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png/400px-Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png/600px-Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="381" /></a><figcaption>Ecosystem services delivered by <a href="/wiki/Epibenthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epibenthic">epibenthic</a> <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> reefs. Reefs provide coastal protection through erosion control and shoreline stabilization, and modify the physical landscape by <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem engineering">ecosystem engineering</a>, thereby providing habitat for species by facilitative interactions with other habitats such as <a href="/wiki/Tidal_flat" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal flat">tidal flat</a> benthic communities, <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></div> <p>In addition to providing many benefits to the natural world, marine ecosystems also provide social, economic, and biological <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> to humans. Pelagic marine systems regulate the global climate, contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>, maintain biodiversity, provide food and energy resources, and create opportunities for recreation and tourism.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economically, marine systems support billions of dollars worth of capture fisheries, aquaculture, offshore oil and gas, and trade and shipping. </p><p>Ecosystem services fall into multiple categories, including supporting services, provisioning services, regulating services, and cultural services.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The productivity of a marine ecosystem can be measured in several ways. Measurements pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a> biodiversity and <a href="/wiki/Species_composition" class="mw-redirect" title="Species composition">species composition</a>, zooplankton biomass, water-column structure, photosynthetically active radiation, transparency, chlorophyll-a, nitrate, and primary production are used to assess changes in LME productivity and potential fisheries yield.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sensors attached to the bottom of ships or deployed on floats can measure these metrics and be used to quantitatively describe changes in productivity alongside physical changes in the water column such as temperature and salinity.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This data can be used in conjunction with satellite measurements of chlorophyll and sea surface temperatures to validate measurements and observe trends on greater spatial and temporal scales. </p><p>Bottom-trawl surveys and pelagic-species acoustic surveys are used to assess changes in fish biodiversity and abundance in LMEs. Fish populations can be surveyed for stock identification, length, stomach content, age-growth relationships, fecundity, coastal pollution and associated pathological conditions, as well as multispecies trophic relationships. Fish trawls can also collect sediment and inform us about ocean-bottom conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">anoxia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Threats">Threats</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Threats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png/360px-Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png/540px-Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png/720px-Drivers_of_change_in_marine_ecosystems.png 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>Drivers of change in marine ecosystems<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ocean#Threats" title="Ocean">Ocean § Threats</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_impact_on_marine_life&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/300px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/450px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png/600px-Global_cumulative_human_impact_on_the_ocean.png 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="466" /></a><figcaption>Global cumulative human impact on the ocean<sup id="cite_ref-Human_impact_on_marine_life_Halpern2019_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_impact_on_marine_life_Halpern2019-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Human activities affect <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a> through <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat loss</a>, the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">ocean pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean warming">ocean warming</a>. These impact marine ecosystems and <a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">food webs</a> and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and continuation of marine life forms.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ocean can be described as the world's largest ecosystem and it is home for many species of marine life. Different activities carried out and caused by human beings such as global warming, ocean acidification, and pollution affect marine life and its habitats. For the past 50 years, more than 90 percent of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">global warming</a> resulting from human activity has been absorbed into the ocean. This results in the rise of ocean temperatures and ocean acidification which is harmful to many fish species and causes damage to habitats such as <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With coral producing materials such as carbonate rock and calcareous sediment, this creates a unique and valuable ecosystem not only providing food/homes for marine creatures but also having many benefits for humans too. Ocean acidification caused by rising levels of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> leads to coral bleaching where the rates of calcification is lowered affecting coral growth.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, another issue caused by humans which impacts marine life is <a href="/wiki/Marine_plastic_pollution" title="Marine plastic pollution">marine plastic pollution</a>, which poses a threat to marine life.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a> (2019), since 1950 "many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as <a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">wilderness</a>, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_exploitation_and_development">Human exploitation and development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Human exploitation and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coastal marine ecosystems experience growing population pressures with nearly 40% of people in the world living within 100 km of the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans often aggregate near coastal habitats to take advantage of ecosystem services. For example, coastal capture fisheries from mangroves and coral reef habitats are estimated to be worth a minimum of $34 billion per year.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, many of these habitats are either marginally protected or not protected. Mangrove area has declined worldwide by more than one-third since 1950,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 60% of the world's coral reefs are now immediately or directly threatened.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human development, aquaculture, and industrialization often lead to the destruction, replacement, or degradation of coastal habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moving offshore, pelagic marine systems are directly threatened by <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Global fisheries landings peaked in the late 1980s, but are now declining, despite increasing <a href="/wiki/Fishing_effort" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing effort">fishing effort</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fish <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mean_trophic_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean trophic level">average trophic level</a> of fisheries landing are decreasing, leading to declines in marine biodiversity. In particular, local extinctions have led to declines in large, long-lived, slow-growing species, and those that have narrow geographic ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biodiversity declines can lead to associated declines in ecosystem services. A long-term study reports the decline of 74–92% of catch per unit effort of sharks in Australian coastline from the 1960s to 2010s.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such biodiversity losses impact not just species themselves, but humans as well, and can contribute to climate change across the globe. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) states that managing and protecting marine ecosystems is crucial in attempting to conserve biodiversity in the face of Earth’s rapidly changing climate.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution">Pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_pollution&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a> occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as <a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">industrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">residential</a> <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">waste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>, excess <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Invasive_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasive organism">invasive organisms</a> enter the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although <a href="/wiki/Marine_Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine Transportation">marine transportation</a> significantly contributes as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Marine_pollution_:03_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marine_pollution_:03-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since most inputs come from land, either via the <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> or the atmosphere, it means that <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a> are more vulnerable to pollution. <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a> is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, silicon, sulfur, <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a> or dust particles into the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pollution often comes from <a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">nonpoint sources</a> such as agricultural <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a>, wind-blown <a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">debris</a>, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown <a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">debris</a> and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">ship pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bilge_pollution" title="Bilge pollution">bilge pollution</a>, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">deep sea mining</a>. </p> The types of marine pollution can be grouped as pollution from <a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">marine debris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic_soup" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic soup">plastic pollution</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">nutrient pollution</a>, toxins and underwater noise. Plastic pollution in the ocean is a type of marine pollution by <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">plastics</a>, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a> formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Plastic pollution is harmful to <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine life</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasive_species">Invasive species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Invasive species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></div> <ul><li>Global aquarium trade</li> <li>Ballast water transport</li> <li>Aquaculture</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Effects of climate change on oceans</a></div> <ul><li>Warming temperatures (see <a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">ocean heat content</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marine_heat_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine heat wave">marine heat wave</a>)</li> <li>Increased frequency/intensity of storms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_goals">Global goals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Global goals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By integrating socioeconomic metrics with ecosystem management solutions, scientific findings can be utilized to benefit both the environment and economy of local regions. Management efforts must be practical and cost-effective. In 2000, the Department of Natural Resource Economics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rhode_Island" title="University of Rhode Island">University of Rhode Island</a> has created a method for measuring and understanding the human dimensions of LMEs and for taking into consideration both socioeconomic and environmental costs and benefits of managing Large Marine Ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>International attention to address the threats of coasts has been captured in <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_14" title="Sustainable Development Goal 14">Sustainable Development Goal 14</a> "Life Below Water" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving coastal ecosystems and supporting more <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable economic practices</a> for coastal communities.<sup id="cite_ref-:173_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:173-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the United Nations has declared 2021-2030 the <a href="/wiki/UN_Decade_on_Ecosystem_Restoration" title="UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration">UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration</a>, but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention.<sup id="cite_ref-:34_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine habitats">Marine habitats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)#Ocean_biomass" title="Biomass (ecology)">Marine biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade#Marine_trophic_cascades" title="Trophic cascade">Marine trophic cascades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_marine_climate" title="Tropical marine climate">Tropical marine climate</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marine_ecosystem&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190103114836/http://oceanicinstitute.org/aboutoceans/aquafacts.html">"Oceanic Institute"</a>. <i>www.oceanicinstitute.org</i>. 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Buelow, Christina; Simenstad, Charles; Nagelkerken, Ivan; Claassens, Louw; Wen, Colin K-C; Barletta, Mario (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2020.00071">"UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030—What Chance for Success in Restoring Coastal Ecosystems?"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Marine Science</i>. <b>7</b>: 71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2020.00071">10.3389/fmars.2020.00071</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2440%2F123896">2440/123896</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-7745">2296-7745</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Marine+Science&rft.atitle=UN+Decade+on+Ecosystem+Restoration+2021%E2%80%932030%E2%80%94What+Chance+for+Success+in+Restoring+Coastal+Ecosystems%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=71&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2440%2F123896&rft.issn=2296-7745&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffmars.2020.00071&rft.aulast=Waltham&rft.aufirst=Nathan+J.&rft.au=Elliott%2C+Michael&rft.au=Lee%2C+Shing+Yip&rft.au=Lovelock%2C+Catherine&rft.au=Duarte%2C+Carlos+M.&rft.au=Buelow%2C+Christina&rft.au=Simenstad%2C+Charles&rft.au=Nagelkerken%2C+Ivan&rft.au=Claassens%2C+Louw&rft.au=Wen%2C+Colin+K-C&rft.au=Barletta%2C+Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffmars.2020.00071&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMarine+ecosystem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Groups_of_organisms_in_aquatic_ecosystems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aquatic_organisms" title="Template:Aquatic organisms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_organisms" title="Template talk:Aquatic organisms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_organisms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic organisms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Groups_of_organisms_in_aquatic_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Groups of organisms</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li></ul></li> <li>Herpon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li>Pechton / Pecton / Pekton</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li>Plocon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seston" title="Seston">Seston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripton" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripton">Tripton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" 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