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href="#Neoclassicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Neoclassicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoclassicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>20th century to present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Subdisciplines</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subdisciplines subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Philology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Archaeology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Art history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ancient history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Reception studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classical Greece</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Greece-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical Greece subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mythology_and_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mythology_and_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Mythology and religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mythology_and_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Classical Rome</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Rome-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical Rome subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_of_the_classical_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_of_the_classical_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legacy of the classical world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_of_the_classical_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Classics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_klassieke" title="Die klassieke – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Die klassieke" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A" title="أدب كلاسيكي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب كلاسيكي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Антыказнаўства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Антыказнаўства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Класически науки – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Класически науки" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasika" title="Klasika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Klasika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio%C3%B9_klasel" title="Studioù klasel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Studioù klasel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A0ssic" title="Clàssic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Clàssic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtidskundskab" title="Oldtidskundskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oldtidskundskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassische_Altertumswissenschaft" title="Klassische Altertumswissenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Klassische Altertumswissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%AD%CF%82" title="Κλασικές σπουδές – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κλασικές σπουδές" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estudios_cl%C3%A1sicos" title="Estudios clásicos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estudios clásicos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasikaj_studoj" title="Klasikaj studoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Klasikaj studoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasiko" title="Klasiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Klasiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="مطالعات کلاسیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مطالعات کلاسیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanit%C3%A9s_classiques" title="Humanités classiques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Humanités classiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Klassiken" title="De Klassiken – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="De Klassiken" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ann_clasaiceach" title="Léann clasaiceach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Léann clasaiceach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classicee" title="Classicee – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Classicee" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9C%EC%96%91%EA%B3%A0%EC%A0%84%ED%95%99" title="서양고전학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="서양고전학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Դասական – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դասական" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="क्लासिक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्लासिक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasika_studii" title="Klasika studii – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Klasika studii" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasika" title="Klasika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Klasika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Fornfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studi_classici" title="Studi classici – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Studi classici" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="לימודים קלאסיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לימודים קלאסיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_classicae" title="Res classicae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Res classicae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93kortudom%C3%A1ny" title="Ókortudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ókortudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ဂန္ထဝင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂန္ထဝင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_klassieken" title="De klassieken – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="De klassieken" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%AD%A6" title="西洋古典学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="西洋古典学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk" title="Klassisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Klassisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk" title="Klassisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Klassisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassische_Wetenschop_vun_de_Ole_Tied" title="Klassische Wetenschop vun de Ole Tied – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Klassische Wetenschop vun de Ole Tied" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estudos_cl%C3%A1ssicos" title="Estudos clássicos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estudos clássicos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Антиковедение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Антиковедение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%C3%ABrsia_e_vjet%C3%ABr_greke_e_romake" title="Letërsia e vjetër greke e romake – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Letërsia e vjetër greke e romake" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classics" title="Classics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Classics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Класичне науке – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Класичне науке" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiikintutkimus" title="Antiikintutkimus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Antiikintutkimus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasikos" title="Klasikos – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Klasikos" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="ศิลปะคลาสสิก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศิลปะคลาสสิก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasik_%C3%A7al%C4%B1%C5%9Fmalar" title="Klasik çalışmalar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Klasik çalışmalar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Антикознавство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Антикознавство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%85%E9%9B%85%E5%AD%B8" title="故雅學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="故雅學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasika" title="Klasika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Klasika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A7" title="קלאסיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קלאסיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%AD%B8" title="古典學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古典學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%AD%B8" title="古典學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古典學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of classical antiquity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the academic discipline. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Classics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Classics (disambiguation)">Classics (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Classical literature" redirects here. For literature from the ancient world in general, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient literature</a>. For exemplary or noteworthy books, see <a href="/wiki/Classic_book" title="Classic book">Classic book</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Classicist" redirects here. For the art movement, see <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a>. For the discrimination based on class, see <a href="/wiki/Classism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classism">Classism</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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href="/wiki/File:Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg/127px-Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg/191px-Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg/254px-Homeros_Caetani_Louvre_Ma440_n2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2750" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>, the legendary Greek author of the <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:139px;max-width:139px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:M-T-Cicero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/M-T-Cicero.jpg/137px-M-T-Cicero.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/M-T-Cicero.jpg/206px-M-T-Cicero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/M-T-Cicero.jpg/274px-M-T-Cicero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="953" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, the Roman statesman considered the master of Latin prose</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/138px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/207px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/276px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the Greek philosopher and polymath who shaped Western science for centuries</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:128px;max-width:128px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Publius_Vergilius_Maro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Publius_Vergilius_Maro.jpg/126px-Publius_Vergilius_Maro.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Publius_Vergilius_Maro.jpg/189px-Publius_Vergilius_Maro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Publius_Vergilius_Maro.jpg/252px-Publius_Vergilius_Maro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2323" data-file-height="3416" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, usually considered to be the greatest Roman poet</div></div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/175px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/263px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/350px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">Oral literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_play" title="Folk play">folk play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folksong" class="mw-redirect" title="Folksong">folksong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">heroic epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">Performance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">audiobook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoken_word" title="Spoken word">spoken word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saying" title="Saying">Saying</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Major written forms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">closet drama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">narrative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_nonsense" title="Literary nonsense">Nonsense</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonsense_verse" title="Nonsense verse">verse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_literature" title="Ergodic literature">Ergodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_literature" title="Electronic literature">Electronic</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Long prose fiction</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthology" title="Anthology">Anthology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_(literature)" title="Serial (literature)">Serial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a>/<a href="/wiki/Romance_(prose_fiction)" title="Romance (prose fiction)">romance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Short prose fiction</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">Novella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novelette_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Novelette (literature)">Novelette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">Short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drabble" title="Drabble">Drabble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sketch_story" title="Sketch story">Sketch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_fiction" title="Flash fiction">Flash fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">Parable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature" title="Wisdom literature">Wisdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Prose genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">Speculative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Realist literature">Realist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">Genre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_fiction" title="Action fiction">action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_fiction" title="Adventure fiction">adventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coming-of-age_story" title="Coming-of-age story">coming-of-age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_literature" title="Erotic literature">erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_fiction" title="Military fiction">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_fiction" title="Paranormal fiction">paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_novel" title="Romance novel">romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural_fiction" title="Supernatural fiction">supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_(genre)" title="Western (genre)">western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">horror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedic_novel" title="Encyclopedic novel">Encyclopedic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">Academic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote">Anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">Epistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">Essay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_writing" title="Life writing">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_writing" title="Nature writing">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasive_writing" title="Persuasive writing">Persuasive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">Travelogue</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Poetry genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">Narrative</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_poetry" title="Children's poetry">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_drama_and_dramatic_verse" title="Verse drama and dramatic verse">Dramatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_novel" title="Verse novel">Verse novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_poetry" title="National poetry">National</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">Lyric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballad" title="Ballad">Ballad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">Elegy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">Epigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">Ghazal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haiku" title="Haiku">Haiku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">Hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limerick_(poetry)" title="Limerick (poetry)">Limerick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ode" title="Ode">Ode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasida" title="Qasida">Qasida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">Sonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanelle" title="Villanelle">Villanelle</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epic_poems" title="List of epic poems">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poetry_groups_and_movements" title="List of poetry groups and movements">Groups and movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poets" title="List of poets">Poets</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Dramatic genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">Libretto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">Play</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)" title="History (theatrical genre)">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screenplay" title="Screenplay">Script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">Tragicomedy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Modernist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Postmodern</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Lists and outlines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_literature" title="Outline of literature">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_literary_terms" title="Glossary of literary terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_books" title="Lists of books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_writers" title="Lists of writers">Writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_movements" title="List of literary movements">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_cycles" title="List of literary cycles">Cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_awards" title="List of literary awards">Literary awards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poetry_awards" title="List of poetry awards">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story_collection" title="Short story collection">Short story collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">Lost literary work</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">criticism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_magazine" title="Literary magazine">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_(language)" title="Composition (language)">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_feud" title="Literary feud">Feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">Estate</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="display:block; margin-top:0.3em; border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top:0.15em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Literature" title="Template:Literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Literature" title="Template talk:Literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Classics</b> or <b>classical studies</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, <i>classics</i> traditionally refers to the study of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman literature">Roman literature</a> and their original languages, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. Classics may also include as secondary subjects <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_art" title="Ancient art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">mythology</a>, and society. </p><p>In Western civilization, the study of the Ancient Greek and Roman classics was considered the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, and they traditionally have been the cornerstone of an elite higher education. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>classics</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin adjective">Latin adjective</a> <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/classicus" class="extiw" title="wikt:classicus">classicus</a></i>, meaning "belonging to the highest class of citizens." The word was originally used to describe the members of the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a>, the highest class in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-17_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-17-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a>, in his <i>Attic Nights</i>, contrasts "classicus" and "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proletarius" class="extiw" title="wikt:proletarius">proletarius</a>" writers.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a second meaning, referring to pupils at a school.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-17_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-17-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the two modern meanings of the word, referring both to literature considered to be of the highest quality and the standard texts used as part of a curriculum, were both derived from Roman use.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-17_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-17-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catullus,_Itally.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a bronze bust of a man. It rests on a stone plinth, on which the words "Gaius Valerius Catullus 87 AC–54 AC" are written." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Catullus%2C_Itally.jpg/220px-Catullus%2C_Itally.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Catullus%2C_Itally.jpg/330px-Catullus%2C_Itally.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Catullus%2C_Itally.jpg/440px-Catullus%2C_Itally.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4912" data-file-height="7360" /></a><figcaption>The Roman poet Catullus was virtually unknown during the medieval period, in contrast to his modern popularity.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, classics and education were tightly intertwined; according to Jan Ziolkowski, there is no era in history in which the link was tighter.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval education taught students to imitate earlier classical models,<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-21_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-21-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Latin continued to be the language of scholarship and culture, despite the increasing difference between literary Latin and the vernacular languages of Europe during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-21_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-21-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Latin was hugely influential, according to thirteenth-century English philosopher <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, "there are not four men in Latin Christendom who are acquainted with the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic grammars."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greek was rarely studied in the West, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_literature" title="Greek literature">Greek literature</a> was known almost solely in Latin translation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The works of even major Greek authors such as <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, along with most of Plato, were unavailable in Christian Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some were rediscovered through Arabic translations; a <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">School of Translators</a> was set up in the border city of <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo, Spain</a>, to translate from Arabic into Latin. </p><p>Along with the unavailability of Greek authors, there were other differences between the classical canon known today and the works valued in the Middle Ages. <a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a>, for instance, was almost entirely unknown in the medieval period.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The popularity of different authors also waxed and waned throughout the period: <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, popular during the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>, was barely read in the twelfth century, while for <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> the reverse is true.<sup id="cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ziolkowski07-22-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> led to the increasing study of both ancient literature and ancient history,<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller78-586_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller78-586-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as a revival of classical styles of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Latin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller78-587_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller78-587-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 14th century, first in Italy and then increasingly across Europe, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a>, an intellectual movement that "advocated the study and imitation of classical antiquity",<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller78-586_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller78-586-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed. Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller78-587_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller78-587-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reintroduction was initiated by <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> (1304–1374) and <a href="/wiki/Boccaccio" class="mw-redirect" title="Boccaccio">Boccaccio</a> (1313–1375) who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the <a href="/wiki/Homeric_poems" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeric poems">Homeric poems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This humanist <a href="/wiki/Education_reform" title="Education reform">educational reform</a> spread from Italy, in Catholic countries as it was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a>, and in countries that became <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> such as England, Germany, and the Low Countries, in order to ensure that future clerics were able to study the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> in the original language.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_590_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller_1978_590-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neoclassicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaminski_2007_57_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaminski_2007_57-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical models were so highly prized that the plays of <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> were rewritten along neoclassical lines, and these "improved" versions were performed throughout the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, the nation's Founders were strongly influenced by the classics, and they looked in particular to the Roman Republic for their form of government.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_591_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller_1978_591-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this period <a href="/wiki/Johann_Winckelmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Winckelmann">Johann Winckelmann</a>'s claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, <a href="/wiki/G._E._Lessing" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. Lessing">G. E. Lessing</a> "returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century. The poet <a href="/wiki/Walter_Savage_Landor" title="Walter Savage Landor">Walter Savage Landor</a> claimed to have been one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at <a href="/wiki/Rugby_School" title="Rugby School">Rugby School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Philhellenism" title="Philhellenism">philhellenism</a> began to emerge in the 1830s, with a turn "from a love of Rome and a focus on classical grammar to a new focus on Greece and the totality of its society, art, and culture."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 19th century saw the influence of the classical world, and the value of a <a href="/wiki/Classical_education_in_the_Western_world" title="Classical education in the Western world">classical education</a>, decline,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> especially in the United States, where the subject was often criticised for its elitism.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 19th century, little new literature was still being written in Latin – a practice which had continued as late as the 18th century – and a command of Latin declined in importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_590_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller_1978_590-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Correspondingly, classical education from the 19th century onwards began to increasingly de-emphasise the importance of the ability to write and speak Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_591_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristeller_1978_591-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United Kingdom this process took longer than elsewhere. Composition continued to be the dominant classical skill in England until the 1870s, when new areas within the discipline began to increase in popularity.<sup id="cite_ref-Stray_1996_81_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stray_1996_81-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same decade came the first challenges to the requirement of Greek at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, though it would not be finally abolished for another 50 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Stray_1996_83_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stray_1996_83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though the influence of classics as the dominant mode of education in Europe and North America was in decline in the 19th century, the discipline was rapidly evolving in the same period. Classical scholarship was becoming more systematic and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a>, especially with the "new <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>" created at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Rommel_2001_169_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rommel_2001_169-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its scope was also broadening: it was during the 19th century that <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">classical archaeology</a> began to be seen as part of classics, rather than separate disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-Stray_1996_81_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stray_1996_81-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century_to_present">20th century to present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 20th century to present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 20th century, the study of classics became less common. In England, for instance, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a> universities stopped requiring students to have qualifications in Greek in 1920,<sup id="cite_ref-Stray_1996_83_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stray_1996_83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in Latin at the end of the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-Stray_1996_85_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stray_1996_85-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the <a href="/wiki/National_Curriculum_(England,_Wales_and_Northern_Ireland)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)">National Curriculum</a> was introduced in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1988, it did not mention the classics.<sup id="cite_ref-Stray_1996_85_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stray_1996_85-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2003, only about 10% of state schools in Britain offered any classical subjects to their students at all.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, <a href="/wiki/AQA" title="AQA">AQA</a>, the largest exam board for <a href="/wiki/A-Levels" class="mw-redirect" title="A-Levels">A-Levels</a> and <a href="/wiki/GCSE" title="GCSE">GCSEs</a> in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, announced that it would be scrapping A-Level subjects in Classical Civilisation, Archaeology, and Art History.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This left just one out of five exam boards in England which still offered Classical Civilisation as a subject. The decision was immediately denounced by archaeologists and historians, with <a href="/wiki/Natalie_Haynes" title="Natalie Haynes">Natalie Haynes</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i> stating that the loss of the A-Level would deprive state school students, 93% of all students, the opportunity to study classics while making it once again the exclusive purview of wealthy private-school students.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the study of classics has not declined as fast elsewhere in Europe. In 2009, a review of <i>Meeting the Challenge</i>, a collection of conference papers about the teaching of Latin in Europe, noted that though there is opposition to the teaching of Latin in Italy, it is nonetheless still compulsory in most secondary schools.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same may also be said in the case of France or Greece. Indeed, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek</a> is one of the compulsory subjects in Greek secondary education, whereas in France, Latin is one of the optional subjects that can be chosen in a majority of middle schools and high schools. Ancient Greek is also still being taught, but not as much as <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subdisciplines">Subdisciplines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Subdisciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most notable characteristics of the modern study of classics is the diversity of the field. Although traditionally focused on ancient Greece and Rome, the study now encompasses the entire ancient Mediterranean world, thus expanding the studies to Northern <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-inside-higher-ed_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inside-higher-ed-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philology">Philology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Philology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Classical philology" redirects here. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Classical_Philology_(journal)" title="Classical Philology (journal)">Classical Philology (journal)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_August_Wolf_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black-and-white image of Friedrich August Wolf in profile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Friedrich_August_Wolf_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/220px-Friedrich_August_Wolf_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Friedrich_August_Wolf_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/330px-Friedrich_August_Wolf_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Friedrich_August_Wolf_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg/440px-Friedrich_August_Wolf_-_Imagines_philologorum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>The eighteenth-century classicist <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_August_Wolf" title="Friedrich August Wolf">Friedrich August Wolf</a> was the author of <i>Prolegomena to Homer</i>, one of the first great works of classical philology.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">study of language</a> preserved in written sources; <b>classical philology</b> is thus concerned with understanding any texts from the classical period written in the classical languages of Latin and Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The roots of classical philology lie in <a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">the Renaissance</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanist</a> intellectuals attempted to return to the Latin of the classical period, especially of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as scholars attempted to produce more accurate editions of ancient texts.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the principles of philology still used today were developed during this period; for instance, the observation that if a manuscript could be shown to be a copy of an earlier extant manuscript, then it provides no further evidence of the original text, was made as early as 1489 by <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Poliziano" class="mw-redirect" title="Angelo Poliziano">Angelo Poliziano</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other philological tools took longer to be developed: the first statement, for instance, of the principle that a more difficult reading should be preferred over a simpler one, was in 1697 by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Leclerc_(theologian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Leclerc (theologian)">Jean Le Clerc</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern discipline of classical philology began in Germany at the turn of the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-Rommel_2001_169_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rommel_2001_169-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was during this period that scientific principles of philology began to be put together into a coherent whole,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in order to provide a set of rules by which scholars could determine which manuscripts were most accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This "new philology", as it was known, centered around the construction of a genealogy of manuscripts, with which a hypothetical common ancestor, closer to the original text than any existing manuscript, could be reconstructed.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeology">Archaeology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_archaeology" title="Classical archaeology">Classical archaeology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_Gate_Mykene_with_Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld_1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black and white photograph of the Lion Gate at Mycenae." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lion_Gate_Mykene_with_Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld_1891.jpg/220px-Lion_Gate_Mykene_with_Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld_1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lion_Gate_Mykene_with_Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld_1891.jpg/330px-Lion_Gate_Mykene_with_Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld_1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Lion_Gate_Mykene_with_Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld_1891.jpg/440px-Lion_Gate_Mykene_with_Wilhelm_D%C3%B6rpfeld_1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Schliemann and Dörpfeld's excavation at Mycenae was one of the earliest excavations in the field of classical archaeology.</figcaption></figure> <p>Classical archaeology is the oldest branch of archaeology,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with its roots going back to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">J. J. Winckelmann</a>'s work on <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> in the 1760s.<sup id="cite_ref-Renfrew80-288_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renfrew80-288-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until the last decades of the 19th century, however, that classical archaeology became part of the tradition of Western classical scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-Renfrew80-288_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renfrew80-288-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was included as part of Cambridge University's <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tripos" title="Classical Tripos">Classical Tripos</a> for the first time after the reforms of the 1880s, though it did not become part of Oxford's <a href="/wiki/Literae_Humaniores" class="mw-redirect" title="Literae Humaniores">Greats</a> until much later.<sup id="cite_ref-Stray_1996_83_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stray_1996_83-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second half of the 19th century saw <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Schliemann</a>'s excavations of <a href="/wiki/Troy" title="Troy">Troy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</a>; the first excavations at <a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a>' work in Crete, particularly on <a href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period also saw the foundation of important archaeological associations (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a> in 1879),<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including many foreign archaeological institutes in Athens and Rome (the <a href="/wiki/American_School_of_Classical_Studies_at_Athens" title="American School of Classical Studies at Athens">American School of Classical Studies at Athens</a> in 1881, <a href="/wiki/British_School_at_Athens" title="British School at Athens">British School at Athens</a> in 1886, <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_in_Rome" title="American Academy in Rome">American Academy in Rome</a> in 1895, and <a href="/wiki/British_School_at_Rome" title="British School at Rome">British School at Rome</a> in 1900).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, classical archaeology has taken little part in the theoretical changes in the rest of the discipline,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> largely ignoring the popularity of "<a href="/wiki/New_Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="New Archaeology">New Archaeology</a>", which emphasized the development of general laws derived from studying material culture, in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New Archaeology is still criticized by traditional minded scholars of classical archaeology despite a wide acceptance of its basic techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_history">Art history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Art history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art history</a></div> <p>Some art historians focus their study on the development of art in the classical world. Indeed, the art and architecture of ancient Rome and Greece is very well regarded and remains at the heart of much of our art today. For example, ancient Greek architecture gave us the classical orders: <a href="/wiki/Doric_order" title="Doric order">Doric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> is still the architectural symbol of the classical world. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Greek sculpture</a> is well known and we know the names of several ancient Greek artists: for example, <a href="/wiki/Phidias" title="Phidias">Phidias</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With philology, archaeology, and art history, scholars seek understanding of the history and culture of a civilization, through critical study of the extant literary and physical artefacts, in order to compose and establish a continual historic narrative of the Ancient World and its peoples. The task is difficult due to a dearth of physical evidence: for example, <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> was a leading Greek <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a>, yet little evidence of it survives to study, and what is available comes from <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, Sparta's principal rival; likewise, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> destroyed most evidence (cultural artefacts) of earlier, conquered civilizations, such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></div> <p>The English word <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></i> comes from the Greek word φιλοσοφία, meaning "love of wisdom", probably coined by Pythagoras. Along with the word itself, the discipline of philosophy as we know it today has its roots in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek thought</a>, and according to Martin West "philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient philosophy was traditionally divided into three branches: logic, physics, and ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_1996_178_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann_1996_178-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not all of the works of ancient philosophers fit neatly into one of these three branches. For instance, Aristotle's <i>Rhetoric</i> and <i>Poetics</i> have been traditionally classified in the West as "ethics", but in the Arabic world were grouped with logic; in reality, they do not fit neatly into either category.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_1996_178_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann_1996_178-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the last decade of the eighteenth century, scholars of ancient philosophy began to study the discipline historically.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Previously, works on ancient philosophy had been unconcerned with chronological sequence and with reconstructing the reasoning of ancient thinkers; with what Wolfgang-Ranier Mann calls "New Philosophy", this changed.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reception_studies">Reception studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reception studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_reception_studies" title="Classical reception studies">Classical reception studies</a></div> <p>Another discipline within the classics is "reception studies",<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which developed in the 1960s at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Konstanz" title="University of Konstanz">University of Konstanz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kallendorf07-02_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kallendorf07-02-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reception studies is concerned with how students of classical texts have understood and interpreted them.<sup id="cite_ref-Kallendorf07-02_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kallendorf07-02-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, reception studies is interested in a two-way interaction between reader and text,<sup id="cite_ref-Martindale07-298_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martindale07-298-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> taking place within a historical context.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though the idea of an "aesthetics of reception" was first put forward by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Robert_Jauss" title="Hans Robert Jauss">Hans Robert Jauss</a> in 1967, the principles of reception theory go back much earlier than this.<sup id="cite_ref-Martindale07-298_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martindale07-298-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As early as 1920, <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> wrote that "the past [is] altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past";<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles Martindale describes this as a "cardinal principle" for many versions of modern reception theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Martindale07-298_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martindale07-298-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Greece">Classical Greece</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Classical Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline of ancient Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline of ancient Greece</a></div> <p>Ancient Greece was the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a>, beginning in the eighth century BC, to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Greece">Roman conquest of Greece</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)" title="Battle of Corinth (146 BC)">Battle of Corinth</a> in 146 BC. The <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical period</a>, during the fifth and fourth centuries BC, has traditionally been considered the height of Greek civilisation.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Classical period of Greek history is generally considered to have begun with the <a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">first</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">second Persian invasions of Greece</a> at the start of the Greco-Persian wars,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to have ended with the death of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. </p><p>Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean region</a> and Europe; thus Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AncientGreekDialects_(Woodard)_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/AncientGreekDialects_%28Woodard%29_en.svg/220px-AncientGreekDialects_%28Woodard%29_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/AncientGreekDialects_%28Woodard%29_en.svg/330px-AncientGreekDialects_%28Woodard%29_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/AncientGreekDialects_%28Woodard%29_en.svg/440px-AncientGreekDialects_%28Woodard%29_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="660" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the regional dialects of Greek during the Classical period</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenaean Greek language">Mycenaean Greek language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a></div> <p>Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8th</span> to 6th centuries BC), Classical (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span> to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3rd</span> century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine ("common") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects. </p><p>Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Ancient Greek literature</a></div> <p>The earliest surviving works of Greek literature are <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i> are the earliest to survive to us today, probably composed in the eighth century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early epics were oral compositions, created without the use of writing.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the same time that the Homeric epics were composed, the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> was introduced; the earliest surviving inscriptions date from around 750 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirk-45_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirk-45-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> was invented in ancient Greece. Traditionally this was attributed to <a href="/wiki/Thespis" title="Thespis">Thespis</a>, around the middle of the sixth century BC,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the earliest surviving work of Greek drama is <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>' tragedy <i><a href="/wiki/The_Persians" title="The Persians">The Persians</a></i>, which dates to 472 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-WIGEK-258_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIGEK-258-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early Greek tragedy was performed by a chorus and two actors, but by the end of Aeschylus' life, a third actor had been introduced, either by him or by <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WIGEK-258_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIGEK-258-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last surviving Greek tragedies are the <i><a href="/wiki/Bacchae" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacchae">Bacchae</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> and Sophocles' <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_at_Colonus" title="Oedipus at Colonus">Oedipus at Colonus</a>, both from the end of the fifth century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surviving Greek comedy begins later than tragedy; the earliest surviving work, <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Acharnians" class="mw-redirect" title="Acharnians">Acharnians</a></i>, comes from 425 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Handley-355_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handley-355-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, comedy dates back as early as 486 BC, when the <a href="/wiki/Dionysia" title="Dionysia">Dionysia</a> added a competition for comedy to the much earlier competition for tragedy.<sup id="cite_ref-Handley-355_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handley-355-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The comedy of the fifth century is known as <a href="/wiki/Old_Comedy" title="Old Comedy">Old Comedy</a>, and it comes down to us solely in the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, along with a few fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-Handley-355_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handley-355-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sixty years after the end of Aristophanes' career, the next author of comedies to have any substantial body of work survive is <a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a>, whose style is known as <a href="/wiki/New_Comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="New Comedy">New Comedy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mythology_and_religion">Mythology and religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mythology and religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in ancient Greece">Religion in ancient Greece</a></div> <p>Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">heroes</a>, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to the myths and study them in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself. </p><p>Greek religion encompassed the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. These different groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or "cults" in the plural, though most of them shared similarities. Also, the Greek religion extended out of Greece and out to neighbouring islands. </p><p>Many Greek people recognized the major gods and goddesses: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Ares, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Athena, Hermes, Demeter, Hestia and Hera; though philosophies such as <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and some forms of <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> used language that seems to posit a transcendent single deity. Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_2">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A bust of Socrates" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg/220px-Socrates_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg/330px-Socrates_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg/440px-Socrates_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>So influential was Socrates to classical philosophy that earlier philosophers are today known as <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratics">pre-Socratics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest surviving philosophy from ancient Greece dates back to the 6th century BC, when according to Aristotle <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> was considered to have been the first Greek philosopher.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other influential pre-Socratic philosophers include <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>. The most famous and significant figures in classical Athenian philosophy, from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BC, are <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, his student <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who studied at <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Academy">Plato's Academy</a> before founding his own school, known as the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a>. Later Greek schools of philosophy, including the <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epicureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicureans">Epicureans</a>, continued to be influential after the Roman annexation of Greece, and into the post-Classical world. </p><p>Greek philosophy dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, as well as disciplines which are not today thought of as part of philosophy, such as biology and rhetoric. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Rome">Classical Rome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Classical Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture of ancient Rome</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_2">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Praeneste_fibula.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of a gold brooch" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Praeneste_fibula.JPG/220px-Praeneste_fibula.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Praeneste_fibula.JPG/330px-Praeneste_fibula.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Praeneste_fibula.JPG/440px-Praeneste_fibula.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1449" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Praeneste_fibula" title="Praeneste fibula">Praeneste fibula</a> is believed to bear the oldest known Latin inscription. The inscription means "Manius made me for Numerius".</figcaption></figure> <p>The language of ancient Rome was Latin, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic family of languages</a>. The earliest surviving inscription in Latin comes from the 7th century BC, on a <a href="/wiki/Praeneste_fibula" title="Praeneste fibula">brooch from Palestrina</a>. Latin from between this point and the early 1st century BC is known as <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a>. Most surviving Latin literature is <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>, from the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD. Latin then evolved into <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a>, in use during the <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antique period</a>. Late Latin survived long after the end of classical antiquity, and was finally replaced by written Romance languages around the 9th century AD. Along with literary forms of Latin, there existed various vernacular dialects, generally known as <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, in use throughout antiquity. These are mainly preserved in sources such as graffiti and the <a href="/wiki/Vindolanda_tablets" title="Vindolanda tablets">Vindolanda tablets</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_2">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a></div> <p>Latin literature seems to have started in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a play adapted from the Greek by Livius Andronicus. Andronicus also translated Homer's <i>Odyssey</i> into Saturnian verse. The poets Ennius, Accius, and Patruvius followed. Their work survives only in fragments; the earliest Latin authors whose work we have full examples of are the playwrights <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a>. Much of the best known and most highly thought of Latin literature comes from the classical period, with poets such as <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>; historians such as <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>; orators such as <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>; and philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>. Late Latin authors include many Christian writers such as <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a>; non-Christian authors, such as the historian <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, are also preserved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of ancient Rome">Timeline of ancient Rome</a></div> <p>According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC;<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in reality, there had been a settlement on the site since around 1000 BC, when the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a> was settled.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city was originally ruled by kings, first Roman, and then Etruscan – according to Roman tradition, the first Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, ruled from 616 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of the 6th century BC, the city expanded its influence over the entirety of <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the end of the 6th century – traditionally in 510 BC – the kings of Rome were driven out, and the city became a republic.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 387 BC, Rome was sacked by the Gauls following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Battle of the Allia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It soon recovered from this humiliating defeat, however, and in 381 the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Tusculum" title="Tusculum">Tusculum</a> in Latium were made Roman citizens. This was the first time Roman citizenship was extended in this way.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome went on to expand its area of influence, until by 269 the entirety of the Italian peninsula was under Roman rule.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon afterwards, in 264, the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> began; it lasted until 241.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> began in 218, and by the end of that year, the Carthaginian general <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a> had invaded Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war saw Rome's worst defeat to that point at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Cannae</a>; the largest army Rome had yet put into the field was wiped out, and one of the two consuls leading it was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Rome continued to fight, annexing much of Spain<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and eventually defeating Carthage, ending her position as a major power and securing Roman preeminence in the Western Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_of_the_classical_world">Legacy of the classical world</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Legacy of the classical world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The classical languages of the ancient Mediterranean world influenced every European language, imparting to each a learned vocabulary of international application. Thus, Latin grew from a highly developed cultural product of the Golden and Silver eras of Latin literature to become the <i>international lingua franca</i> in matters diplomatic, scientific, philosophic and religious, until the 17th century. Long before this, Latin had evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> and Ancient Greek into <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Greek dialects">dialects</a>. In the specialised science and technology vocabularies, the influence of <a href="/wiki/Latin_influence_in_English" title="Latin influence in English">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_words_of_Greek_origin" title="English words of Greek origin">Greek</a> is notable. <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a>, the Roman Catholic Church's official language, remains a living legacy of the classical world in the contemporary world. </p><p>Latin had an impact far beyond the classical world. It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, Galician, Catalan) all derive from Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The legacy of the classical world is not confined to the influence of classical languages. The Roman Empire was taken as a model by later European empires, such as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British empires</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical art has been taken as a model in later periods – medieval Romanesque architecture<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Enlightenment-era neoclassical literature<sup id="cite_ref-Kaminski_2007_57_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaminski_2007_57-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were both influenced by classical models, to take but two examples, while <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a></i> is one of the most influential works of twentieth-century literature.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Books_of_the_Western_World" title="Great Books of the Western World">Great Books of the Western World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_classical_studies" title="Outline of classical studies">Outline of classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline of ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline of ancient Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ziolkowski07-17-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-17_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-17_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-17_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZiolkowski2007">Ziolkowski 2007</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aulus Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticae</i>, 19.8.15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZiolkowski2007">Ziolkowski 2007</a>, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ziolkowski07-21-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-21_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-21_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZiolkowski2007">Ziolkowski 2007</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, p. 591</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ziolkowski07-22-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ziolkowski07-22_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZiolkowski2007">Ziolkowski 2007</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kristeller78-586-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller78-586_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller78-586_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKristeller1978">Kristeller 1978</a>, p. 586</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kristeller78-587-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller78-587_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller78-587_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKristeller1978">Kristeller 1978</a>, p. 587</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pade, M. (2007). The Reception of Plutarch's Lives in Fifteenth-Century Italy. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kristeller_1978_590-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_590_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_590_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKristeller1978">Kristeller 1978</a>, p. 590</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaminski_2007_57-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kaminski_2007_57_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kaminski_2007_57_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaminski2007">Kaminski 2007</a>, p. 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaminski2007">Kaminski 2007</a>, p. 65</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mortimer N.S. Sellers, <i>Founding Fathers in America</i> in <i>The Classical Tradition</i> pp. 367, 368 (Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Most, & Salvatore Settis, eds. 2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kristeller_1978_591-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_591_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kristeller_1978_591_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKristeller1978">Kristeller 1978</a>, p. 591</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaminski2007">Kaminski 2007</a>, p. 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStray1996">Stray 1996</a>, p. 79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caroline Winterer, <i>The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Cultural Life, 1780–1910</i>, pp. 3–4 (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker2001">Becker 2001</a>, p. 309</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBecker2001">Becker 2001</a>, p. 313. Educator Benjamin Rush, for instance, deemed the classics to be "remnants of an aristocratic education unsuited to a republican nation and an industrial economy." 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href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOstler2009">Ostler 2009</a>, pp. xi–xii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOstler2009">Ostler 2009</a>, p. 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOstler2009">Ostler 2009</a>, p. xiii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOstler2009">Ostler 2009</a>, p. xii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZiolkowski2007">Ziolkowski 2007</a>, p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMartindale2007">Martindale 2007</a>, p. 310</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Works cited</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalbo2009" class="citation journal cs1">Balbo, Andrea (2009). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Teaching+Classics+in+Europe%3A+An+Overview&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Bulwer&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epea.gr%2Fcontent%2Fcontent%2Ffiles%2FBULWER_TeachingClassicsinEurope.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2003" class="citation news cs1">Cook, Stephen (2003-02-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2003/feb/18/schools.secondaryschools">"Latin Types"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Latin+Types&rft.date=2003-02-18&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Feducation%2F2003%2Ffeb%2F18%2Fschools.secondaryschools&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyson1993" class="citation journal cs1">Dyson, Stephen L. 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"The Great Tradition versus the Great Divide: Archaeology as Anthropology". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>84</b> (3): 287–298. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F504703">10.2307/504703</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/504703">504703</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162343789">162343789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Great+Tradition+versus+the+Great+Divide%3A+Archaeology+as+Anthropology&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=287-298&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162343789%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F504703%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F504703&rft.aulast=Renfrew&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRommel2001" class="citation journal cs1">Rommel, Georg (2001). "The Cradle of Titans: Classical Philology in Greifswald and its History from 1820". <i>Illinois Classical Studies</i>. <b>26</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Illinois+Classical+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Cradle+of+Titans%3A+Classical+Philology+in+Greifswald+and+its+History+from+1820&rft.volume=26&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Rommel&rft.aufirst=Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandys1921" class="citation book cs1">Sandys, Sir John Edwin (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-cA8AAAAIAAJ&q=there+are+not+four+men+in+Latin+Christendom+who+are+acquainted+with+the+Greek%2C+Hebrew%2C+and+Arabic+grammars.&pg=PA591"><i>A History of Classical Scholarship; Volume One: From the Sixth Century B.C. to the End of the Middle Ages</i></a> (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 591. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108027069" title="Special:BookSources/9781108027069"><bdi>9781108027069</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Classical+Scholarship%3B+Volume+One%3A+From+the+Sixth+Century+B.C.+to+the+End+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=591&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.isbn=9781108027069&rft.aulast=Sandys&rft.aufirst=Sir+John+Edwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-cA8AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dthere%2Bare%2Bnot%2Bfour%2Bmen%2Bin%2BLatin%2BChristendom%2Bwho%2Bare%2Bacquainted%2Bwith%2Bthe%2BGreek%252C%2BHebrew%252C%2Band%2BArabic%2Bgrammars.%26pg%3DPA591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro2007" class="citation book cs1">Shapiro, H. A. (2007). "Introduction". In Shapiro, H. A. (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Archaic+Greece&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=H.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShorey1906" class="citation journal cs1">Shorey, Paul (1906). "Philology and Classical Philology". <i>The Classical Journal</i>. <b>1</b> (6).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Journal&rft.atitle=Philology+and+Classical+Philology&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=6&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Shorey&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStray1996" class="citation journal cs1">Stray, Christopher (1996). "Culture and Discipline: Classics and Society in Victorian England". <i>International Journal of the Classical Tradition</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 77–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02676905">10.1007/BF02676905</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144110386">144110386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+the+Classical+Tradition&rft.atitle=Culture+and+Discipline%3A+Classics+and+Society+in+Victorian+England&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77-85&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02676905&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144110386%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stray&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStray2010" class="citation journal cs1">Stray, Christopher (2010). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Patriots and Professors': A Century of Roman Studies". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0075435810000018">10.1017/s0075435810000018</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162987340">162987340</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=%27Patriots+and+Professors%27%3A+A+Century+of+Roman+Studies&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0075435810000018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162987340%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stray&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrivedi2007" class="citation book cs1">Trivedi, Harish (2007). "Western Classics, Indian Classics: Postcolonial Contestations". In Hardwick, Lorna; Gillespie, Carol (eds.). <i>Classics in Post-Colonial Worlds</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Western+Classics%2C+Indian+Classics%3A+Postcolonial+Contestations&rft.btitle=Classics+in+Post-Colonial+Worlds&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Trivedi&rft.aufirst=Harish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest2001" class="citation book cs1">West, Martin (2001). "Early Greek Philosophy". In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.). <i>The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World</i>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Greek+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Greece+and+the+Hellenistic+World&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinnington-IngramGouldEasterlingKnox1985" class="citation book cs1">Winnington-Ingram, R. P.; <a href="/wiki/John_Gould_(classicist)" title="John Gould (classicist)">Gould, John</a>; Easterling, P. E.; Knox, Bernard M. W. (1985). "Tragedy". In Easterling, P. E.; Knox, Bernard M. W. (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Classical Literature</i>. Vol. 1. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tragedy&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Classical+Literature&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Winnington-Ingram&rft.aufirst=R.+P.&rft.au=Gould%2C+John&rft.au=Easterling%2C+P.+E.&rft.au=Knox%2C+Bernard+M.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiolkowski2007" class="citation book cs1">Ziolkowski, Jan M. (2007). "Middle Ages". In Kallendorf, Craig W. (ed.). <i>A Companion to the Classical Tradition</i>. Malden, Massachusetts; Oxford, England; Carlton, Victoria: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Middle+Ages&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Classical+Tradition&rft.place=Malden%2C+Massachusetts%3B+Oxford%2C+England%3B+Carlton%2C+Victoria&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Ziolkowski&rft.aufirst=Jan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt><dl><dt>General</dt></dl></dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeardHenderson2000" class="citation book cs1">Beard, Mary; Henderson, John (2000). <i>Classics: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192853851" title="Special:BookSources/9780192853851"><bdi>9780192853851</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classics%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780192853851&rft.aulast=Beard&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft.au=Henderson%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornblowerSpawforth2012" class="citation book cs1">Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony, eds. (2012). <i>Oxford Classical Dictionary</i> (4th ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199545568" title="Special:BookSources/9780199545568"><bdi>9780199545568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780199545568&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt><dl><dt>Art and archaeology</dt></dl></dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoardman1996" class="citation book cs1">Boardman, John (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekart00boar_0"><i>Greek Art</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500202920" title="Special:BookSources/9780500202920"><bdi>9780500202920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Art&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780500202920&rft.aulast=Boardman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreekart00boar_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>History, Greek</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipley2000" class="citation book cs1">Shipley, Graham (2000). <i>The Greek World After Alexander 323–30 BC</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415046183" title="Special:BookSources/9780415046183"><bdi>9780415046183</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+World+After+Alexander+323%E2%80%9330+BC&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780415046183&rft.aulast=Shipley&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsborne2009" class="citation book cs1">Osborne, Robin (2009). <i>Greece in the Making 1200–479 BC</i> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415469920" title="Special:BookSources/9780415469920"><bdi>9780415469920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greece+in+the+Making+1200%E2%80%93479+BC&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780415469920&rft.aulast=Osborne&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornblower2011" class="citation book cs1">Hornblower, Simon (2011). <i>The Greek World 479–323 BC</i> (4th ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415602921" title="Special:BookSources/9780415602921"><bdi>9780415602921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+World+479%E2%80%93323+BC&rft.place=London&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415602921&rft.aulast=Hornblower&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt><dl><dt>History, Roman</dt></dl></dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1989" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Peter (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldoflateantiq0000brow"><i>The World of Late Antiquity 150–750</i></a></span>. New York: W. W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780393958034" title="Special:BookSources/9780393958034"><bdi>9780393958034</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Late+Antiquity+150%E2%80%93750&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780393958034&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldoflateantiq0000brow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford1993" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, M. (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanrepublic00craw"><i>The Roman Republic</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780006862505" title="Special:BookSources/9780006862505"><bdi>9780006862505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Republic&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780006862505&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanrepublic00craw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCornell1995" class="citation book cs1">Cornell, T. J. (1995). <i>The Beginnings of Rome</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415015967" title="Special:BookSources/9780415015967"><bdi>9780415015967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Rome&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780415015967&rft.aulast=Cornell&rft.aufirst=T.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillar2002" class="citation book cs1">Millar, F. (2002). <i>Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Roman Republic and the Augustan Revolution</i>. Vol. 1. Chapel Hill: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807849903" title="Special:BookSources/9780807849903"><bdi>9780807849903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%2C+the+Greek+World%2C+and+the+East%3A+The+Roman+Republic+and+the+Augustan+Revolution&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780807849903&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt><dl><dt>Literature</dt></dl></dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitmarsh2004" class="citation book cs1">Whitmarsh, Tim (2004). <i>Ancient Greek Literature</i>. Cambridge: Polity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745627915" title="Special:BookSources/9780745627915"><bdi>9780745627915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greek+Literature&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780745627915&rft.aulast=Whitmarsh&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt><dl><dt>Philology</dt></dl></dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick2014" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, John (2014). <i>The Decipherment of Linear B</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107691766" title="Special:BookSources/9781107691766"><bdi>9781107691766</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decipherment+of+Linear+B&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107691766&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt><dl><dt>Philosophy</dt></dl></dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin1988" class="citation book cs1">Irwin, Terence (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/classicalthought00tere"><i>Classical Thought</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192891778" title="Special:BookSources/9780192891778"><bdi>9780192891778</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Thought&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780192891778&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Terence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fclassicalthought00tere&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnas2000" class="citation book cs1">Annas, Julia (2000). <i>Ancient Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192853578" title="Special:BookSources/9780192853578"><bdi>9780192853578</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Philosophy%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780192853578&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShields2012" class="citation book cs1">Shields, Christopher (2012). <i>Ancient Philosophy: A Contemporary Introduction</i> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415896603" title="Special:BookSources/9780415896603"><bdi>9780415896603</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Philosophy%3A+A+Contemporary+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780415896603&rft.aulast=Shields&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AClassics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Classics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/">website</a> at Tufts University</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpheios_Project" title="Alpheios Project">Alpheios Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alpheios.net/">website</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="HistoryGeography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman Greece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Ancient Greek colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="City_statesPoliticsMilitary" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Kerkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lissus_(Crete)" title="Lissus (Crete)">Lissus (Crete)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bithynia" title="Kingdom of Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federations</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">Confederations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doric Hexapolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 560 BC</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiotes#Italiote_League" title="Italiotes">Italiote League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>–389 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_League" title="Ionian League">Ionian League</a> (c. 650–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>–366 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 595</span>–279 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a> (c. 500–31 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Hellenic League</a> (499–449 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (478–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League" title="Chalcidian League">Chalcidian League</a> (430–348 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotia#Boeotian_League" title="Boeotia">Boeotian League</a> (c. 424–c. 395 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> (c. 400–188 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Athenian_League" title="Second Athenian League">Second Athenian League</a> (378–355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalian_League" title="Thessalian League">Thessalian League</a> (374–196 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadian_League" title="Arcadian League">Arcadian League</a> (370–c. 230 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a> (370–168 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> (338–322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euboean_League" title="Euboean League">Euboean League</a> (c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> (280–146 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_city_(classical_antiquity)" title="Free city (classical antiquity)">Free city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">Koinon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxeny" title="Proxeny">Proxeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasis_(ancient_Greece)" title="Stasis (ancient Greece)">Stasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">Tagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areopagus" title="Areopagus">Areopagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">Graphe paranomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliaia" title="Heliaia">Heliaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(Sparta)" title="Ecclesia (Sparta)">Ekklesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Greece" title="List of wars involving Greece">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_military" title="Athenian military">Athenian military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_archers" title="Scythian archers">Scythian archers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippeis" title="Hippeis">Hippeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Hetairoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Mycenaean_Greece" title="Military of Mycenaean Greece">Military of Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">Peltast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">Pezhetairos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">Sarissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Band_of_Thebes" title="Sacred Band of Thebes">Sacred Band of Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciritae" title="Sciritae">Sciritae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_army" title="Seleucid army">Seleucid army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">Strategos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxotai" title="Toxotai">Toxotai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">Xiphos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xyston" title="Xyston">Xyston</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greeks" title="Category:Ancient Greeks">People</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_ancient_Greeks"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">List of ancient Greeks</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rulers_of_Greece#Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of rulers of Greece">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Argos" title="List of kings of Argos">Kings of Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">Archons of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Athens" title="List of kings of Athens">Kings of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Kings of Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">Kings of Paionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid kings of Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Kings of Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tyrants_of_Syracuse" title="List of tyrants of Syracuse">Tyrants of Syracuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_historians" title="List of ancient Greek historians">Historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of ancient Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">Playwrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_poets" title="List of ancient Greek poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_writers" title="List of ancient Greek writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Authors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacchylides" title="Bacchylides">Bacchylides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipponax" title="Hipponax">Hipponax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibycus" title="Ibycus">Ibycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimnermus" title="Mimnermus">Mimnermus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyassis" title="Panyassis">Panyassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philocles" title="Philocles">Philocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos" title="Simonides of Ceos">Simonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stesichorus" title="Stesichorus">Stesichorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theognis_of_Megara" title="Theognis of Megara">Theognis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocreon" title="Timocreon">Timocreon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Athenian_statesmen" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Athenian statesmen">Athenian statesmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_lawgivers" title="List of ancient Greek lawgivers">Lawgivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Olympic_victors" title="List of ancient Olympic victors">Olympic victors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tyrants" title="List of ancient Greek tyrants">Tyrants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tribes" title="List of ancient Greek tribes">Ancient Greek tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thracian_Greeks" title="List of Thracian Greeks">Thracian Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="SocietyCulture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece" title="Culture of Greece">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_calendars" title="Ancient Greek calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">Emporium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euergetism" title="Euergetism">Euergetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_folklore" title="Ancient Greek folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Greece" title="Marriage in ancient Greece">Wedding customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Arts</a> and science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures" title="List of Greek mythological figures">mythological figures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Underworld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:left;">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleusis">Eleusis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_Treasury" title="Athenian Treasury">Athenian Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_Gate" title="Lion Gate">Lion Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walls" title="Long Walls">Long Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Aphaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Aphaea">Aphaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike" title="Temple of Athena Nike">Athena Nike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus" title="Temple of Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hera,_Olympia" title="Temple of Hera, Olympia">Hera, Olympia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia" title="Temple of Zeus, Olympia">Zeus, Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_Greek" title="Epirote Greek">Epirote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Writing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Greek_colonisation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonisation</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mainland<br />Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lecce" title="Lecce">Alision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brindisi" title="Brindisi">Brentesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caulonia_(ancient_city)" title="Caulonia (ancient city)">Caulonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casabona" title="Casabona">Chone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Lucania" title="Heraclea Lucania">Heraclea Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibo_Valentia" title="Vibo Valentia">Hipponion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Hydrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krimisa" title="Krimisa">Krimisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%C3%BCs" title="Laüs">Laüs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medma" title="Medma">Medma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metauros" title="Metauros">Metauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Neápolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandosia_(Lucania)" title="Pandosia (Lucania)">Pandosia (Lucania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paestum" title="Paestum">Poseidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policastro_Bussentino" title="Policastro Bussentino">Pixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Rhegion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scylletium" title="Scylletium">Scylletium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siris_(Magna_Graecia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siris (Magna Graecia)">Siris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris_on_the_Traeis" title="Sybaris on the Traeis">Sybaris on the Traeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terina_(ancient_city)" title="Terina (ancient city)">Terina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurii" title="Thurii">Thurii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrai" title="Akrai">Akrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrillai" title="Akrillai">Akrillai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Sicily)" title="Apollonia (Sicily)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caronia" title="Caronia">Calacte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casmenae" title="Casmenae">Casmenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gela" title="Gela">Gela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helorus" title="Helorus">Helorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enna" title="Enna">Henna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Gereatis" title="Hybla Gereatis">Hybla Gereatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Heraea" title="Hybla Heraea">Hybla Heraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamarina,_Sicily" title="Kamarina, Sicily">Kamarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentini" title="Lentini">Leontinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara_Hyblaea" title="Megara Hyblaea">Megara Hyblaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxos_(Sicily)" title="Naxos (Sicily)">Naxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taormina" title="Taormina">Tauromenion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciacca" title="Sciacca">Thermae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tindari" title="Tindari">Tyndaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salina,_Sicily" title="Salina, Sicily">Didyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panarea" title="Panarea">Euonymos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alicudi" title="Alicudi">Ereikousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basiluzzo" title="Basiluzzo">Hycesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipari" title="Lipari">Lipara/Meligounis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filicudi" title="Filicudi">Phoenicusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Strongyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Therassía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayda,_Libya" title="Bayda, Libya">Balagrae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barca_(ancient_city)" title="Barca (ancient city)">Barca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Berenice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apollonia,_Cyrenaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia, Cyrenaica">Apollonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villajoyosa" title="Villajoyosa">Alonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%BAries" title="Empúries">Emporion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elche" title="Elche">Helike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9nia" title="Dénia">Hemeroscopion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aljaraque" title="Aljaraque">Kalathousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mart%C3%AD_d%27Emp%C3%BAries" title="Sant Martí d'Empúries">Kypsela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainake_(Greek_settlement)" title="Mainake (Greek settlement)">Mainake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Puerto_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="El Puerto de Santa María">Menestheus's Limin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Pola" title="Santa Pola">Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roses,_Girona" class="mw-redirect" title="Roses, Girona">Rhode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salou" title="Salou">Salauris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagunto" title="Sagunto">Zacynthos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspalathos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspalathos">Aspalathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Illyria)" title="Apollonia (Illyria)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB#Early_history" title="Vlorë">Aulon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidamnos" title="Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidaurum" title="Epidaurum">Epidauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issa (polis)">Issa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melaina_Korkyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melaina Korkyra">Melaina Korkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Illyria)" title="Nymphaeum (Illyria)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oricum" title="Oricum">Orikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharos_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos (polis)">Pharos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragurion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragurion">Tragurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thronion_(Illyria)" title="Thronion (Illyria)">Thronion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a><br />basin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akra_(Crimmerian_Bosporus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akra (Crimmerian Bosporus)">Akra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezan_Island" title="Berezan Island">Borysthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charax,_Crimea" title="Charax, Crimea">Charax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhumi" title="Sukhumi">Dioscurias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapa" title="Anapa">Gorgippia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Hermonassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalos_Limen" title="Kalos Limen">Kalos Limen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepoi" title="Kepoi">Kepoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Kerkinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimmerikon" title="Kimmerikon">Kimmerikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmekion" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmekion">Myrmekion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikonion">Nikonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaion_(Crimea)" title="Nymphaion (Crimea)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olbia_(Pontic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbia (Pontic)">Olbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantikapaion" title="Pantikapaion">Pantikapaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitsunda" title="Pitsunda">Pityus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanais" title="Tanais">Tanais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Theodosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyras" title="Tyras">Tyras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyritake" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyritake">Tyritake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abonoteichos" title="Abonoteichos">Abonoteichos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsun" title="Samsun">Amisos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomorie" title="Pomorie">Anchialos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozopol" title="Sozopol">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazar,_Rize" title="Pazar, Rize">Athina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Bathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balchik" title="Balchik">Dionysopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordu" title="Ordu">Cotyora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytorus" title="Cytorus">Cytorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eupatoria_(Pontus)" title="Eupatoria (Pontus)">Eupatoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giresun" title="Giresun">Kerasous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesebar" title="Nesebar">Mesambria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Odessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cnye" title="Ünye">Oinòe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasis_(town)" title="Phasis (town)">Phasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatsa" title="Fatsa">Polemonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rize" title="Rize">Rhizos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1y%C4%B1k%C3%B6y" title="Kıyıköy">Salmydessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amasra" title="Amasra">Sesamus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terme" title="Terme">Thèrmae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tium" title="Tium">Tium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trapezous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripolis_(Pontus)" title="Tripolis (Pontus)">Tripolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaliche" title="Zaliche">Zaliche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_ancient_Epirus" title="List of cities in ancient Epirus">in Epirus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stoae" title="List of stoae">Stoae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples" title="List of Ancient Greek temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">Theatres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greece" title="Category:Ancient Greece">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Humanities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Humanities" title="Template:Humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanities" title="Template talk:Humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Humanities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_Humanities_field" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> 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