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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonant_clusters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonant_clusters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Consonant clusters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonant_clusters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Tones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto-Southern_Kra-Dai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Southern_Kra-Dai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Proto-Southern Kra-Dai</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Southern_Kra-Dai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllable_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllable_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Syllable structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllable_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Proto-Tai" title="Bahasa Proto-Tai – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Proto-Tai" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1" title="ภาษาไทดั้งเดิม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาไทดั้งเดิม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E5%8F%B0%E8%AA%9E" title="原始台語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原始台語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Reconstructed ancestor of the Tai languages</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: lavender;">Proto-Tai</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reconstruction of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Reconstructed<br />ancestor</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Kra%E2%80%93Dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Kra–Dai">Proto-Kra–Dai</a> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Proto-Tai</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> (common ancestor) of all the <a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a>, including modern <a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shan_language" title="Shan language">Shan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lü</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahom_language" title="Ahom language">Ahom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Thai_language" title="Northern Thai language">Northern Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Standard Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Zhuang</a>. The Proto-Tai language is not directly attested by any surviving texts, but has been <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparative method</a>. </p><p>It was reconstructed in 1977 by <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a><sup id="cite_ref-Li1977_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li1977-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by Pittayawat Pittayaporn in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table shows the consonants of Proto-Tai according to <a href="/wiki/Li_Fang-Kuei" title="Li Fang-Kuei">Li Fang-Kuei</a>'s <i>A Handbook of Comparative Tai</i> (1977), considered the standard reference in the field. Li does not indicate the exact quality of the consonants denoted here as [<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕ</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕʰ</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dʑ</span>], which are indicated in his work as [č, čh, ž] and described merely as <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a> <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">affricate consonants</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Tai consonants <br />(Li 1977) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">p </td> <td colspan="2">t </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕ</span> </td> <td colspan="2">k </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a> <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">pʰ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɕʰ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰ</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">b </td> <td colspan="2">d </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">dʑ</span> </td> <td colspan="2">ɡ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">Glottalized</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">ʔb </td> <td colspan="2">ʔd </td> <td colspan="2">ʔj </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ʔ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">f </td> <td colspan="2">s </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">x </td> <td colspan="2">h </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">v </td> <td colspan="2">z </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ɣ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɲ̊</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ̊</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">m </td> <td colspan="2">n </td> <td colspan="2">ɲ </td> <td colspan="2">ŋ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a><br />or <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">w̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">r̥</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">w </td> <td colspan="2">r, l </td> <td colspan="2">j </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Pittayawat Pittayaporn's reconstruction of Proto-Tai.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>: p. 70</sup> Some of the differences are simply different interpretations of Li's consonants: the palatal consonants are interpreted as stops, rather than affricates, and the glottalized consonants are described using symbols for <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosive consonants</a>. However, Pittayaporn's Proto-Tai reconstruction has a number of real differences from Li: </p> <ol><li>Pittayaporn does not allow for <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated consonants</a>, which he reconstructs as secondary developments in <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Tai_languages" title="Southwestern Tai languages">Southwestern Tai languages</a> (after Proto-Tai split up into different languages).</li> <li>He also reconstructs a contrastive series of <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">uvular consonants</a>, namely */q/, */ɢ/, and */χ/. No modern dialect preserves a distinct series of uvular consonants. Pittayaporn's reconstruction of the sounds is based on irregular correspondences in differing modern Tai dialects among the sounds /kʰ/, /x/ and /h/, in particular in the <a href="/wiki/Phuan_language" title="Phuan language">Phuan language</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kapong_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapong District">Kapong</a> dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Phu_Thai_language" title="Phu Thai language">Phu Thai language</a>. The distinction between /kʰ/ and /x/ can be reconstructed from the <a href="/wiki/Tai_D%C3%B3n_language" title="Tai Dón language">Tai Dón language</a>. However, words with /x/ in Tai Dón show three different types of correspondences in Phuan and Kapong Phu Thai: some have /kʰ/ in both languages, some have /h/ in both, and some have /kʰ/ in Phuan but /h/ in Kapong Phu Thai. Pittayaporn reconstructs the correspondence classes as reflecting Proto-Tai /x/, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/χ/</span> and /q/, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009b_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009b-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>There is a total of 33–36 consonants, 10–11 consonantal <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Coda" title="Syllable">syllable codas</a> and 25–26 tautosyllabic consonant clusters. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Tai consonants <br />(Pittayaporn 2009) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">p </td> <td colspan="2">t </td> <td colspan="2">c </td> <td colspan="2">k </td> <td colspan="2">q </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">b </td> <td colspan="2">d </td> <td colspan="2">ɟ </td> <td colspan="2">ɡ </td> <td colspan="2">ɢ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">Glottalized</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">ɓ </td> <td colspan="2">ɗ </td> <td colspan="2"><sup>ʔ</sup>j </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ʔ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">s </td> <td colspan="2">(ɕ) </td> <td colspan="2">x </td> <td colspan="2">χ </td> <td colspan="2">h </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">z </td> <td colspan="2">(ʑ) </td> <td colspan="2">ɣ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɲ̊</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">(ŋ̊)</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">m </td> <td colspan="2">n </td> <td colspan="2">ɲ </td> <td colspan="2">ŋ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a><br />or <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">w̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">r̥</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l̥</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td colspan="2">w </td> <td colspan="2">r, l </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Tai languages have many fewer possible consonants in coda position than in initial position. Li (and most other researchers) construct a Proto-Tai coda inventory that is identical with the system in modern Thai. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Tai consonantal syllabic codas <br />(Li 1977) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">-p </td> <td colspan="2">-t </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">-k </td> <td colspan="2">-ʔ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">-m </td> <td colspan="2">-n </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">-ŋ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> </th> <td colspan="2">-w </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">-j </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Pittayaporn's Proto-Tai reconstructed consonantal syllable codas also include *-l, *-c, and possibly *-ɲ, which are not included in most prior reconstructions of Proto-Tai.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>: p. 193</sup> Below is the consonantal syllabic coda inventory: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Tai consonantal syllabic codas <br />(Pittayaporn 2009) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">-p </td> <td colspan="2">-t </td> <td colspan="2">-c </td> <td colspan="2">-k </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">-m </td> <td colspan="2">-n </td> <td colspan="2">(-ɲ) </td> <td colspan="2">-ŋ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> </th> <td colspan="2">-w </td> <td colspan="2">-l </td> <td colspan="2">-j </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Norquest (2021) reconstructs the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless retroflex stop">voiceless retroflex stop</a> /ʈ/ for Proto-Tai. Examples of voiceless retroflex stops in Proto-Tai:<sup id="cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WOL-MSEA-13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>proto-Tai</th> <th>p-North Tai</th> <th>p-Central Tai</th> <th>p-Southwest Tai </th></tr> <tr> <td>‘lift’</td> <td>*ʈaːm</td> <td>*r̥aːm</td> <td>*tʰraːm</td> <td>*haːm </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘head louse’</td> <td>*ʈaw</td> <td>*r̥aw</td> <td>*tʰraw</td> <td>*haw </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘to see’</td> <td>*ʈaȵ</td> <td>*r̥aȵ</td> <td>*tʰran</td> <td>*hen </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘eye’</td> <td>*p-ʈaː</td> <td>*p-ʈaː</td> <td>*p-tʰraː</td> <td>*taː </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘die’</td> <td>*p-ʈaːj</td> <td>*p-ʈaːj</td> <td>*p-tʰraːj</td> <td>*taːj </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘grasshopper’</td> <td>*p-ʈak</td> <td>*p-ʈak</td> <td>*p-tʰrak</td> <td>*tak </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Norquest (2021) also reconstructs a series of <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy</a> voiced initials (*bʱ, *dʱ, *ɡʱ, *ɢʱ) for Proto-Tai. Examples of breathy voiced initials in Proto-Tai:<sup id="cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WOL-MSEA-13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>proto-Tai</th> <th>p-North Tai</th> <th>p-Central Tai</th> <th>p-Southwest Tai </th></tr> <tr> <td>‘person’</td> <td>*bʱuːʔ</td> <td>*buːʔ</td> <td>*pʰuːʔ</td> <td>*pʰuːʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘bowl’</td> <td>*dʱuəjʔ</td> <td>*duəjʔ</td> <td>*tʰuəjʔ</td> <td>*tʰuəjʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘eggplant’</td> <td>*ɡʱɯə</td> <td>*gɯə</td> <td>*kʰɯə</td> <td>*kʰɯə </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘rice’</td> <td>*ɢʱawʔ</td> <td>*ɣawʔ</td> <td>*kʰawʔ</td> <td>*kʰawʔ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some sound correspondences among Proto-Tai, Proto-Northern Tai, and Proto-Southern Tai (i.e., the ancestor of the Central and Southwestern Tai languages) uvular initials given in Ostapirat (2023) are as follows.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostapirat2023_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostapirat2023-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>p-Tai</th> <th>p-Northern Tai</th> <th>p-Southern Tai </th></tr> <tr> <td>*q-</td> <td>*k-</td> <td>*x- </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ɢ-</td> <td>*ɣ-</td> <td>*g- </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ɢʰ-</td> <td>*ɣ-</td> <td>*kʰ- </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Initial velar correspondences, on the other hand, are identical.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostapirat2023_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostapirat2023-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>p-Tai</th> <th>p-Northern Tai</th> <th>p-Southern Tai </th></tr> <tr> <td>*x-</td> <td>*x-</td> <td>*x- </td></tr> <tr> <td>*ɣ-</td> <td>*ɣ-</td> <td>*ɣ- </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonant_clusters">Consonant clusters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonant clusters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Li (1977) reconstructs the following initial clusters: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Tai consonant clusters <br />(Li 1977) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Unvoiced Stop </th> <td colspan="2">pr-, pl- </td> <td colspan="2">tr-, tl- </td> <td colspan="2">kr-, kl-, kw- </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">Aspirated</a> unvoiced stop </th> <td colspan="2">pʰr-, pʰl- </td> <td colspan="2">tʰr-, tʰl- </td> <td colspan="2">kʰr-, kʰl-, kʰw- </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a> Stop </th> <td colspan="2">br-, bl- </td> <td colspan="2">dr-, dl- </td> <td colspan="2">ɡr-, ɡl-, ɡw- </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a> </th> <td colspan="2">ʔbr-, ʔbl- </td> <td colspan="2">ʔdr-, ʔdl- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Voiceless Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2">fr- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">xr-, xw- </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Voiced Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2">vr-, vl- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">mr-, ml- </td> <td colspan="2">nr-, nl- </td> <td colspan="2">ŋr-, ŋl-, ŋw- </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Pittayaporn (2009) reconstructs two types of complex <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Onset" title="Syllable">onsets</a> for Proto-Tai: </p> <ol><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tautosyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tautosyllabic">Tautosyllabic</a> clusters</b> – considered one syllable.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">Sesquisyllabic</a> clusters</b> – "one-and-a-half" syllables. ("Sesquisyllabic" is a term coined by <a href="/wiki/James_Matisoff" title="James Matisoff">James Matisoff</a>.) However, sesquisyllabic clusters are not attested in any modern Tai language.</li></ol> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p><b>Tautosyllabic consonant clusters</b> from Pittayaporn<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>: p. 139</sup> are given below, some of which have the medials *-r-, *-l-, and *-w-. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Tai consonant clusters <br />(Pittayaporn 2009) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Unvoiced Stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">pr-, pl-, pw- </td> <td colspan="2">tr-, tw- </td> <td colspan="2">cr- </td> <td colspan="2">kr-, kl-, kw- </td> <td colspan="2">qr-, qw- </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">Implosive</a> </th> <td colspan="2">br-, bl-, bw- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ɡr-, (ɡl-) </td> <td colspan="2">ɢw- </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">sw- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">xw-, ɣw- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">ʰmw- </td> <td colspan="2">nw- </td> <td colspan="2">ɲw- </td> <td colspan="2">ŋw- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ʰrw-, rw- </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Pittayaporn's Proto-Tai reconstruction also has <b>sesquisyllabic consonant clusters</b>. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Ferlus" title="Michel Ferlus">Michel Ferlus</a> (1990) had also previously proposed sesquisyllables for <i>Proto-Thai-Yay</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larger <a href="/wiki/Tai-Kadai" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai-Kadai">Tai-Kadai</a> family is reconstructed with disyllabic words that ultimately collapsed to monosyllabic words in the modern Tai languages. However, irregular correspondences among certain words (especially in the minority non-Southwestern-Tai languages) suggest to Pittayaporn that Proto-Tai had only reached the sesquisyllabic stage (with a main monosyllable and optional preceding <a href="/wiki/Minor_syllable" title="Minor syllable">minor syllable</a>). The subsequent reduction to monosyllables occurred independently in different branches, with the resulting apparent irregularities in synchronic languages reflecting Proto-Tai sesquisyllables. </p><p>Examples of sesquisyllables include: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <dl><dt>Voiceless stop + voiceless stop (*C̥.C̥-)</dt></dl> <ul><li>*p.t-</li> <li>*k.t-</li> <li>*p.q-</li> <li>*q.p-</li></ul> <dl><dt>Voiceless obstruent + voiced stop (*C̥.C̬-)</dt></dl> <ul><li>*C̥.b-</li> <li>*C̥.d-</li></ul> <dl><dt>Voiced obstruent + voiceless stop (*C̬.C̥-)</dt></dl> <ul><li>*C̬.t-</li> <li>*C̬.k-</li> <li>*C̬.q-</li></ul> <dl><dt>Voiceless stops + liquids/glides (*C̥.r-)</dt></dl> <ul><li>*k.r-</li> <li>*p.r-</li> <li>*C̥.w-</li></ul> <dl><dt>Voiced consonant + liquid/glide</dt></dl> <ul><li>*m.l-</li> <li>*C̬ .r-</li> <li>*C̬ .l-</li></ul> <dl><dt>Clusters with non-initial nasals</dt></dl> <ul><li>*t.n-</li> <li>*C̬ .n-</li></ul> </div> <p><b>Other clusters</b> include *r.t-, *t.h-, *q.s-, *m.p-, *s.c-, *z.ɟ-, *g.r-, *m.n-; *gm̩.r-, *ɟm̩ .r-, *c.pl-, *g.lw-; etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are Proto-Tai vowels from Pittayaporn.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>: p. 192</sup> Unlike Li's system, Pittayaporn's system has vowel length contrast. There is a total of 7 vowels with length contrast and 5 <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:autwidth:30%;"> <caption>Proto-Tai vowels <br />(Pittayaporn 2009) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">  </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th colspan="2">unrounded </th> <th colspan="2">unrounded </th> <th colspan="2">rounded </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th>short</th> <th>long</th> <th>short</th> <th>long</th> <th>short</th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɯ/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɯː/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɤ/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɤː/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span><br /> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aː/</span><br /> </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>diphthongs</b> from Pittayaporn (2009) are: </p> <ul><li>Rising: */iə/, */ɯə/, */uə/</li> <li>Falling: */ɤɰ/, */aɰ/</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia_linguistic_area#Tone_systems" title="Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area">Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area § Tone systems</a></div> <p>Proto-Tai had three contrasting tones on syllables ending with <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> finals ("live syllables"), and no tone contrast on syllables with <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruent</a> finals ("dead syllables"). This is very similar to the situation in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>. For convenience in tracking historical outcomes, Proto-Tai is usually described as having four tones, namely *A, *B, *C, and *D, where *D is a non-phonemic tone automatically assumed by all dead syllables. These tones can be further split into a voiceless (*A1 [1], *B1 [3], *C1 [5], *D1 [7]) and voiced (*A2 [2], *B2 [4], *C2 [6], *D2 [8]) series. The *D tone can also be split into the *DS (short vowel) and *DL (long vowel) tones. With voicing contrast, these would be *DS1 [7], *DS2 [8], *DL1 [9], and *DL2 [10].<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009b_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009b-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Liao2016_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liao2016-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other <a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai languages</a> are transcribed with analogous conventions. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:autwidth:30%;"> <caption>Proto-Tai tone notation </caption> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Type of <a href="/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing" title="Consonant voicing and devoicing">voicing</a> </th> <th>*A </th> <th>*B </th> <th>*C </th> <th>*D </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Voiceless series<br /> (Letter notation) </th> <td>A1 </td> <td>B1 </td> <td>C1 </td> <td>D1 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Voiceless series<br /> (Numerical notation) </th> <td>1 </td> <td>3 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>7 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Voiced series<br /> (Letter notation) </th> <td>A2 </td> <td>B2 </td> <td>C2 </td> <td>D2 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th>Voiced series<br /> (Numerical notation) </th> <td>2 </td> <td>4 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>8 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following table of the phonetic characteristics of Proto-Tai tones was adapted from Pittayaporn.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>: p. 271</sup> Note that *B and *D are phonetically similar. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Proto-Tai tonal characteristics <br />(Pittayaporn 2009) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>*A </th> <th>*B </th> <th>*C </th> <th>*D </th></tr> <tr> <th>Type of final </th> <td>sonorant </td> <td>sonorant </td> <td>sonorant </td> <td>obstruent </td></tr> <tr> <th>Pitch height </th> <td>mid </td> <td>low </td> <td>high </td> <td>low </td></tr> <tr> <th>Contour </th> <td>level </td> <td>low rising </td> <td>high falling </td> <td>low rising </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vowel duration </th> <td>– </td> <td>long </td> <td>short </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voice quality </th> <td>modal </td> <td>creaky </td> <td>glottal <br />constriction </td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Proto-Tai tones take on various tone values and contours in modern <a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a>. These tonal splits are determined by the following conditions: </p> <ol><li>"Friction sounds": Aspirated onset, voiceless fricative, voiceless sonorant</li> <li>Unaspirated onset (voiceless)</li> <li>Glottalized/implosive onset (voiceless)</li> <li>Voiced onset (voiceless)</li></ol> <p>In addition, <a href="/wiki/William_J._Gedney" title="William J. Gedney">William J. Gedney</a> developed a "tone-box" method to help determine historical tonal splits and mergers in modern Tai languages. There is a total of 20 possible slots in what is known as the <b>Gedney's Tone Box</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:autwidth:30%;"> <caption>Gedney Box template </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>*A </th> <th>*B </th> <th>*C </th> <th>*DS </th> <th>*DL </th></tr> <tr> <th>Voiceless<br /> (friction) </th> <td>A1 </td> <td>B1 </td> <td>C1 </td> <td>DS1 </td> <td>DL1 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voiceless<br /> (unaspirated) </th> <td>A1 </td> <td>B1 </td> <td>C1 </td> <td>DS1 </td> <td>DL1 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voiceless<br /> (glottalized) </th> <td>A1 </td> <td>B1 </td> <td>C1 </td> <td>DS1 </td> <td>DL1 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voiced </th> <td>A2 </td> <td>B2 </td> <td>C2 </td> <td>DS2 </td> <td>DL2 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Proto-Tai tones correspond regularly to <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese_tones" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Chinese tones">Middle Chinese tones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Note that <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> did not have tones.) The following tonal correspondences are from Luo (2008). Note that Proto-Tai tone *B corresponds to Middle Chinese tone C, and vice versa. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Sinitic–Tai tonal correspondences </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Tai <br />Tone </th> <th>Notes <br />(Written <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> orthography) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> <br />Tone </th> <th>Chinese name </th> <th>Notes <br />(Middle Chinese) </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">*A </td> <td>Unmarked </td> <td style="text-align:center;">A </td> <td>平 Level (Even) </td> <td>Unmarked </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">*B </td> <td>Marked by -่ (mai ek) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">C </td> <td>去 Departing </td> <td>Marked by -H in <a href="/wiki/Baxter%27s_transcription_for_Middle_Chinese" title="Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese">Baxter's notation</a> (mai tho), historically perhaps from [-s] later [-h] </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">*C </td> <td>Marked by -้ (mai tho) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">B </td> <td>上 Rising </td> <td>Marked by -X in Baxter's notation, historically perhaps from [-ʔ] </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">*D </td> <td>Unmarked or marked by -๊ (mai tri) </td> <td style="text-align:center;">D </td> <td>入 Entering </td> <td>Marked by -p, -t, -k </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Gedney (1972) also included a list of diagnostic words to determine tonal values, splits, and mergers for particular Tai languages. At least three diagnostic words are needed for each cell of the Gedney Box. The diagnostic words preceding the semicolons are from Gedney (1972), and the ones following the semicolons are from Somsonge (2012)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Jackson, <i>et al.</i> (2012).<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Standard <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> (Siamese) words are given below, with <i>italicised</i> transliterations. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:autwidth:100%;"> <caption>Diagnostic words for Tai tones </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>*A </th> <th>*B </th> <th>*C </th> <th>*DS </th> <th>*DL </th></tr> <tr> <th>1: Voiceless<br /> (friction) </th> <td><i>huu</i> หู ear,<br /> <i>khaa</i> ขา leg,<br /> <i>hua</i> หัว head;<br /> <i>sɔɔŋ</i> สอง two,<br /> <i>maa</i> หมา dog </td> <td><i>khay</i> ไข่ egg,<br /> <i>phaa</i> ผ่า to split,<br /> <i>khaw</i> เข่า knee;<br /> <i>may</i> ใหม่ new,<br /> <i>sii</i> สี่ four </td> <td><i>khaaw</i> ข้าว rice,<br /> <i>sɨa</i> เสื้อ shirt,<br /> <i>khaa</i> ฆ่า to kill,<br /> <i>khay</i> ไข้ fever,<br /> <i>haa</i> ห้า five;<br /> <i>thuay</i> ถ้วย cup,<br /> <i>mɔɔ</i> หม้อ pot,<br /> <i>naa</i> หน้า face,<br /> to wait </td> <td><i>mat</i> หมัด flea,<br /> <i>suk</i> สุก cooked/ripe,<br /> <i>phak</i> ผัก vegetable;<br /> <i>hok</i> หก six,<br /> <i>sip</i> สิบ ten </td> <td><i>khaat</i> ขาด broken/torn,<br /> <i>ŋɨak</i> เหงือก gums,<br /> <i>haap</i> หาบ to carry on a shoulder pole;<br /> <i>khuat</i> ขวด bottle,<br /> <i>phuuk</i> ผูก to tie,<br /> <i>sɔɔk</i> ศอก elbow,<br /> <i>khɛɛk</i> แขก guest,<br /> fruit </td></tr> <tr> <th>2: Voiceless<br /> (unaspirated) </th> <td><i>pii</i> ปี year,<br /> <i>taa</i> ตา eye,<br /> <i>kin</i> กิน to eat;<br /> <i>kaa</i> กา teapot,<br /> <i>plaa</i> ปลา fish </td> <td><i>paa</i> ป่า forest,<br /> <i>kay</i> ไก่ chicken,<br /> <i>kɛɛ</i> แก่ old;<br /> <i>taw</i> เต่า turtle,<br /> <i>paw</i> เป่า to blow,<br /> <i>pii</i> ปี flute,<br /> short (height) </td> <td><i>paa</i> ป้า aunt (elder),<br /> <i>klaa</i> กล้า rice seedlings,<br /> <i>tom</i> ต้ม to boil;<br /> <i>kaw</i> เก้า nine,<br /> <i>klay</i> ใกล้ near,<br /> short (length) </td> <td><i>kop</i> กบ frog,<br /> <i>tap</i> ตับ liver,<br /> <i>cep</i> เจ็บ to hurt;<br /> <i>pet</i> เป็ด duck,<br /> <i>tok</i> ตก to fall/drop </td> <td><i>pɔɔt</i> ปอด lung,<br /> <i>piik</i> ปีก wing,<br /> <i>tɔɔk</i> ตอก to pound;<br /> <i>pɛɛt</i> แปด eight,<br /> <i>paak</i> ปาก mouth,<br /> <i>taak</i> ตาก to dry in the sun,<br /> to embrace </td></tr> <tr> <th>3: Voiceless<br /> (glottalized) </th> <td><i>bin</i> บิน to fly,<br /> <i>dɛɛŋ</i> แดง red,<br /> <i>daaw</i> ดาว star;<br /> <i>bay</i> ใบ leaf,<br /> nose </td> <td><i>baa</i> บ่า shoulder,<br /> <i>baaw</i> บ่าว young man,<br /> <i>daa</i> ด่า to scold;<br /> <i>ʔim</i> อิ่ม full,<br /> (water) spring </td> <td><i>baan</i> บ้าน village,<br /> <i>baa</i> บ้า crazy,<br /> <i>ʔaa</i> อ้า to open (mouth);<br /> <i>ʔɔy</i> อ้อย sugarcane,<br /> <i>daam</i> ด้าม handle,<br /> <i>daay</i> ด้าย string </td> <td><i>bet</i> เบ็ด fishhook,<br /> <i>dip</i> ดิบ raw/unripe,<br /> <i>ʔok</i> อก chest;<br /> <i>dɨk</i> ดึก late,<br /> to extinguish </td> <td><i>dɛɛt</i> แดด sunshine,<br /> <i>ʔaap</i> อาบ to bathe,<br /> <i>dɔɔk</i> ดอก flower;<br /> <i>ʔɔɔk</i> ออก exit </td></tr> <tr> <th>4: Voiced </th> <td><i>mɨɨ</i> มือ hand,<br /> <i>khwaay</i> ควาย water buffalo,<br /> <i>naa</i> นา ricefield;<br /> <i>ŋuu</i> งู snake,<br /> house </td> <td><i>phii</i> พี่ older sibling,<br /> <i>phɔɔ</i> พ่อ father,<br /> <i>ray</i> ไร่ dry field;<br /> <i>naŋ</i> นั่ง to sit,<br /> <i>lɨay</i> เลื่อย to saw,<br /> ashes,<br /> urine,<br /> beard </td> <td><i>nam</i> น้ำ water,<br /> <i>nɔɔŋ</i> น้อง younger sibling,<br /> <i>may</i> ไม้ wood,<br /> <i>maa</i> ม้า horse;<br /> <i>lin</i> ลิ้น tongue,<br /> <i>thɔɔŋ</i> ท้อง belly </td> <td><i>nok</i> นก bird,<br /> <i>mat</i> มัด to tie up,<br /> <i>lak</i> ลัก to steal;<br /> <i>sak</i> ซัก to wash (clothes),<br /> <i>mot</i> มด ant,<br /> <i>lep</i> เล็บ nail </td> <td><i>miit</i> มีด knife,<br /> <i>luuk</i> ลูก (one's) child,<br /> <i>lɨat</i> เลือด blood,<br /> <i>nɔɔk</i> นอก outside;<br /> <i>chɨak</i> เชือก rope,<br /> <i>raak</i> ราก root,<br /> nasal mucus,<br /> to pull </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Note that the diagnostic words listed above cannot all be used for other Tai-Kadai branches such as <a href="/wiki/Kam%E2%80%93Sui_languages" title="Kam–Sui languages">Kam–Sui</a>, since tones in other branches may differ. The table below illustrates these differences among Tai and Kam–Sui <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/etyma" class="extiw" title="wikt:etyma">etyma</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:autwidth:25%;"> <caption>Tai vs. Kam–Sui tones </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss </th> <th>Tai </th> <th>Kam–Sui </th></tr> <tr> <th>pig </th> <td>A1 </td> <td>B1 </td></tr> <tr> <th>dog </th> <td>A1 </td> <td>A1 </td></tr> <tr> <th>rat </th> <td>A1 </td> <td>C1 </td></tr> <tr> <th>ricefield </th> <td>A2 (<i>na</i>) </td> <td>B1 (<i>ja</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th>tongue </th> <td>A2 (<i>lin</i>) </td> <td>A2 (<i>ma</i>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Southern_Kra-Dai">Proto-Southern Kra-Dai</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Proto-Southern Kra-Dai"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2007, Peter K. Norquest undertook a preliminary reconstruction of Proto-Southern Kra-Dai, which is ancestral to the <a href="/wiki/Hlai_languages" title="Hlai languages">Hlai languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ong_Be_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ong Be language">Ong Be language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norquest_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norquest-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are 28 consonants, 5–7 vowels, 9 closed rimes (not including vowel length), and at least 1 <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a>, *ɯa(C). </p> <table class="wikitable IPA"> <caption>Proto-Southern Kra-Dai consonants <br />Norquest (2007) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retroflex</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Unvoiced Stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">(C-)p </td> <td colspan="2">(C-)t </td> <td colspan="2">ʈ </td> <td colspan="2">(C-)c </td> <td colspan="2">(C-)k </td> <td colspan="2">(C-)q </td> <td colspan="2">(Cu)ʔ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Voiced Stop</a> </th> <td colspan="2">(C-)b </td> <td colspan="2">(Ci/u)d </td> <td colspan="2">(Cu)ɖ </td> <td colspan="2">(C-)ɟ </td> <td colspan="2">(Ci/u)g </td> <td colspan="2">(C-ɢ) </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Unvoiced Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2">f </td> <td colspan="2">s </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ɕ </td> <td colspan="2">x </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">h </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Voiced Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2">(C[i])v </td> <td colspan="2">z </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ɣ </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Voiced Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">(H-)m </td> <td colspan="2">(H-)n </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">ɲ </td> <td colspan="2">(H-)ŋ(w) </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a> </th> <td colspan="2">(H-)w, j </td> <td colspan="2">(H-)l, r </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Proto-Southern Kra-Dai medial consonants also include: </p> <ul><li>*C<sup>(V)</sup>-m</li> <li>*C<sup>(V)</sup>-n</li> <li>*C<sup>(V)</sup>-ɲ</li> <li>*C<sup>(V)</sup>-ŋ</li> <li>*C<sup>(V)</sup>(i)l</li> <li>*C(u)r</li> <li>*p(i)l</li> <li>*k-l</li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:autwidth:30%;"> <caption>Proto-Southern Kra-Dai open rimes <br />Norquest (2007) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Height </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɯː/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2">(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span>) </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span>) </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛː/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aː/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:autwidth:30%;"> <caption>Proto-Southern Kra-Dai closed rimes <br />Norquest (2007) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Height </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i(ː)C/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɯ(ː)C/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u(ː)C/</span> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e(ː)C/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə(ː)C/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o(ː)C/</span> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><b><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a></b> </th> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛːC/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aːC/</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔC/</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Proto-Southern Kra-Dai also includes the <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a> *ɯa(C). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Syllable structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike its modern-day monosyllabic descendants, Proto-Tai was a <a href="/wiki/Sesquisyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesquisyllabic">sesquisyllabic</a> language (Pittayaporn 2009). Below are some possible Proto-Tai syllable shapes from Pittayaporn.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>: p. 64</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Tai syllable structure <br />(Pittayaporn 2009) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Open syllable </th> <th>Closed syllable </th></tr> <tr> <th>Monosyllable </th> <td>*C(C)(C)V(:)<sup>T</sup> </td> <td>*C(C)(C)V(:)C<sup>T</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Sesquisyllable </th> <td>*C(C).C(C)(C)V(:)<sup>T</sup> </td> <td>*C(C).C(C)(C)V(:)C<sup>T</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i>Legend</i>: </p> <ul><li>C = consonant</li> <li>V = vowel</li> <li>(:) = optional vowel length</li> <li><sup>T</sup> = tone</li></ul> <p>During the evolution from Proto-Tai to modern Tai languages, monosyllabification involved a series of five steps.<sup id="cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>: p. 181</sup> </p> <ol><li>Weakening (segment becomes less "consonant-like")</li> <li>Implosivization</li> <li>Metathesis</li> <li>Assimilation</li> <li>Simplification (syllable drops at least one constituent)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2014</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._W._Dixon" title="Robert M. W. Dixon">Robert M. W. Dixon</a> (1998) suggests that the Proto-Tai language was <a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">fusional</a> in its <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> because of related sets of words among the language's descendants that appear to be related through <a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">ablaut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dixon_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dixon-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Tai had a SVO (<a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a>) word order like <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> and almost all modern <a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai languages</a>. Its syntax was heavily influenced by Chinese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexical_isoglosses">Lexical isoglosses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Lexical isoglosses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Examples of Kra-Hlai-Tai isoglosses as identified by Norquest (2021):<sup id="cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WOL-MSEA-13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>p-Tai</th> <th>p-Be</th> <th>p-Hlai</th> <th>p-Kra</th> <th></th> <th>p-Kam-Sui</th> <th>p-Biao-Lakkja </th></tr> <tr> <td>‘beard’</td> <td>*mumh</td> <td>*mumX</td> <td>*hmɯːmʔ</td> <td>*mumʔ </td> <th> </th> <td>*m-nrut</td> <td>*m-luːt </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘wet field’</td> <td>*naː</td> <td>*njaː</td> <td>*hnaːɦ</td> <td>*naː </td> <th> </th> <td>*ʔraːh</td> <td>*raːh </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘crow’</td> <td>*kaː</td> <td>*ʔak</td> <td>*ʔaːk</td> <td>*ʔak </td> <th> </th> <td>*qaː</td> <td>*kaː </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘needle’</td> <td>*qjem</td> <td>*ŋaːʔ</td> <td>*hŋuc</td> <td>*ŋot </td> <th> </th> <td>*tɕʰəm</td> <td>*tɕʰəm </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘mortar’</td> <td>*grok</td> <td>*ɦoːk</td> <td>*ɾəw</td> <td>*ʔdru </td> <th> </th> <td>*krˠəm</td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Examples of Hlai-Be-Tai isoglosses as identified by Norquest (2021):<sup id="cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WOL-MSEA-13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>p-Tai</th> <th>p-Be</th> <th>p-Hlai</th> <th></th> <th>p-Kra</th> <th>p-Kam-Sui</th> <th>p-Biao-Lakkja </th></tr> <tr> <td>‘tongue’</td> <td>*linʔ</td> <td>*liːnX</td> <td>*hliːnʔ </td> <th> </th> <td>*l-maː</td> <td>*maː</td> <td>*m-laː </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘wing’</td> <td>*piːk</td> <td>*pik</td> <td>*pʰiːk </td> <th> </th> <td>*ʀwaː</td> <td>*C-faːh</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘skin’</td> <td>*n̥aŋ</td> <td>*n̥aŋ</td> <td>*n̥əːŋ </td> <th> </th> <td>*taː</td> <td>*ŋʀaː</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘to shoot’</td> <td>*ɲɯː</td> <td>*ɲəː</td> <td>*hɲɯː </td> <th> </th> <td>–</td> <td>*pɛŋh</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘to fly’</td> <td>*ʔbil</td> <td>*ʔbjən</td> <td>*ɓin </td> <th> </th> <td>–</td> <td>*C-pˠənʔ</td> <td>*[C-]pənh </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Examples of Be-Tai isoglosses as identified by Norquest (2021):<sup id="cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WOL-MSEA-13-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>p-Tai</th> <th>p-Be</th> <th></th> <th>p-Hlai</th> <th>p-Kra</th> <th>p-Kam-Sui</th> <th>p-Biao-Lakkja </th></tr> <tr> <td>‘bee’</td> <td>*prɯŋʔ</td> <td>*ʃaːŋX </td> <th> </th> <td>*kəːj</td> <td>*reː</td> <td>*luk</td> <td>*mlet </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘vegetable’</td> <td>*prak</td> <td>*ʃak </td> <th> </th> <td>*ɓɯː ʈʂʰəj</td> <td>*ʔop</td> <td>*ʔmaː</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘red’</td> <td>*C-djeːŋ</td> <td>*r̥iŋ </td> <th> </th> <td>*hraːnʔ</td> <td>–</td> <td>*hlaːnʔ</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘to bite’</td> <td>*ɢɦap</td> <td>*gap </td> <th> </th> <td>*hŋaːɲʔ</td> <td>*ʈajh</td> <td>*klət</td> <td>*kat </td></tr> <tr> <td>‘to descend’</td> <td>*N-ɭoŋ</td> <td>*roːŋ </td> <th> </th> <td>*l̥uːj</td> <td>*caɰʔ</td> <td>*C-ɭuːjh</td> <td>*lojʔ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proto-Tai_prenasalized_nasals_and_Old_Chinese">Proto-Tai prenasalized nasals and Old Chinese</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Proto-Tai prenasalized nasals and Old Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ostapirat (2023) notes that as in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_language" title="Proto-Hmong–Mien language">Proto-Hmong–Mien</a>, prenasalized consonant initials in Proto-Tai often correspond with prenasalized consonant initials in <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> (with the Old Chinese reconstructions below from Baxter & Sagart 2014<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-Ostapirat2023_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostapirat2023-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gloss</th> <th>Proto-Tai</th> <th>Old Chinese </th></tr> <tr> <td>collapse</td> <td>*mbaŋ A</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B4%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:崩">崩</a> *Cə.pˤəŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>daughter-in-law</td> <td>*mbaɰ C</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A9%A6" class="extiw" title="wikt:婦">婦</a> *mə.bəʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>bet</td> <td>*ndaː C</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B3%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:賭">賭</a> *mə.tˤaʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ford</td> <td>*ndaː B</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B8%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:渡">渡</a> *[d]ˤak-s </td></tr> <tr> <td>price</td> <td>*ŋgaː B</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:價">價</a> *mə.qˤaʔ-s (?) </td></tr> <tr> <td>hold in mouth</td> <td>*ŋgam A</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:含">含</a> *Cə-m-kˤ[ə]m </td></tr> <tr> <td>early</td> <td>*ndʑaw C</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%97%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:早">早</a> *Nə.tsˤuʔ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:List_of_Proto-Tai_reconstructions" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:List of Proto-Tai reconstructions">List of Proto-Tai reconstructions</a> (Wiktionary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Kra_language" title="Proto-Kra language">Proto-Kra language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hlai_language" title="Proto-Hlai language">Proto-Hlai language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Austronesian_language" title="Proto-Austronesian language">Proto-Austronesian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Tai_languages" title="Austro-Tai languages">Austro-Tai languages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Notes</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Li1977-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Li1977_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Li, Fang-Kuei. (1977). <i>A handbook of comparative Tai</i>. Manoa: University Press of Hawaii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pittayaporn2009a-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009a_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. (2009a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/13855/Pittayaporn,%20Pittayawat.pdf"><i>The Phonology of Proto-Tai (Doctoral dissertation)</i>.</a> Department of Linguistics, Cornell University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPikePike" class="citation book cs1">Pike, Kenneth Lee; Pike, Evelyn G. <i>Comparative Kadai: Linguistic Studies Beyond Tai</i>. Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1977. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0883120666" title="Special:BookSources/0883120666"><bdi>0883120666</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Kadai%3A+Linguistic+Studies+Beyond+Tai&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics%2C+1977&rft.isbn=0883120666&rft.aulast=Pike&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lee&rft.au=Pike%2C+Evelyn+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pittayaporn2009b-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009b_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pittayaporn2009b_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2009b). Proto-Southwestern-Tai Revised: A New Reconstruction. <i>Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, 2</i>, 121–144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WOL-MSEA-13-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WOL-MSEA-13_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorquest2021" class="citation book cs1">Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". <i>The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia</i>. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142-013">10.1515/9783110558142-013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110558142" title="Special:BookSources/9783110558142"><bdi>9783110558142</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238672319">238672319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classification+of+%28Tai-%29Kadai%2FKra-Dai+languages&rft.btitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Mainland+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=225-246&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A238672319%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142-013&rft.isbn=9783110558142&rft.aulast=Norquest&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostapirat2023-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ostapirat2023_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostapirat2023_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostapirat2023_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstapirat2023" class="citation conference cs1">Ostapirat, Weera (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://seals32.human.cmu.ac.th/"><i>Proto-Kra–Dai consonants: an outline and outstanding issues</i></a>. 32nd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 2023), May 18, 2023. Chiang Mai University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Proto-Kra%E2%80%93Dai+consonants%3A+an+outline+and+outstanding+issues&rft.place=Chiang+Mai+University&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Ostapirat&rft.aufirst=Weera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fseals32.human.cmu.ac.th%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferlus, Michel (1990). <i>Remarques sur le Consonnantisme du Proto-Thai-yay.</i> Paper presented at the 23rd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics. University of Texas at Arlington, Oct. 5–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liao2016-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Liao2016_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liao, Han-Bo. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inter.payap.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/linguistics_students/Hanbo-Final-TONAL-DEVELOPMENT-OF-TAI-LANGUAGES.pdf"><i>Tonal Development of Tai Languages (master's thesis)</i>.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200501010406/https://inter.payap.ac.th/wp-content/uploads/linguistics_students/Hanbo-Final-TONAL-DEVELOPMENT-OF-TAI-LANGUAGES.pdf">Archived</a> 1 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Payap University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gedney, William J. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/gedney1989checklist.pdf">A Checklist for Determining Tones in Tai Dialects.</a> In M. E. Smith (Ed.). <i>Studies in Linguistics: In Honor of George L. Trager</i> (pp. 423–437). Mouton.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Owen, R. W. (2012). A tonal analysis of contemporary Tai Khuen varieties. <i>Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (JSEALS), 5</i>, 12–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manson, Ken. (2009). Prolegomena to Reconstructing Proto-Karen. <i>La Trobe Papers in Linguistics, 12</i>. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://arrow.latrobe.edu.au:8080/vital/access/manager/Repository/latrobe:33118?exact=title%3A%22Prolegomena+to+reconstructing+Proto-Karen.%22">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morey, Stephen. (2014). Studying tones in North East India: Tai, Singpho and Tangsa. <i>Language Documentation & Conservation, 8</i>, 637–671.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowner1963" class="citation book cs1">Downer, G.B. (1963). "Chinese, Thai, and Miao-Yao". In Shorto, H.L. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/downer1963chinese.pdf"><i>Linguistic Comparison in South East Asia and the Pacific</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. pp. 133–139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese%2C+Thai%2C+and+Miao-Yao&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Comparison+in+South+East+Asia+and+the+Pacific&rft.pages=133-139&rft.pub=School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies%2C+University+of+London&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Downer&rft.aufirst=G.B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsealang.net%2Fsala%2Farchives%2Fpdf8%2Fdowner1963chinese.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuo2008" class="citation book cs1">Luo, Yong-Xian (2008). "Sino-Tai and Tai–Kadai: Another Look". In Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerold A.; Luo, Yong-Xian (eds.). <i>The Tai–Kadai Languages</i>. Routledge Language Family Series. Psychology Press. pp. 9–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1457-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1457-5"><bdi>978-0-7007-1457-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sino-Tai+and+Tai%E2%80%93Kadai%3A+Another+Look&rft.btitle=The+Tai%E2%80%93Kadai+Languages&rft.series=Routledge+Language+Family+Series&rft.pages=9-28&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1457-5&rft.aulast=Luo&rft.aufirst=Yong-Xian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170221220001/http://pacling.anu.edu.au/series/SEALS-PDFs/Somsonge2012tones.pdf">"Tones of Thai Song Varieties"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Pacling.anu.edu.au</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pacling.anu.edu.au/series/SEALS-PDFs/Somsonge2012tones.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 21 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pacling.anu.edu.au&rft.atitle=Tones+of+Thai+Song+Varieties&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpacling.anu.edu.au%2Fseries%2FSEALS-PDFs%2FSomsonge2012tones.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson, Eric M., Emily H.S. Jackson, and Shuh Huey Lau (2012). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2012-036">A sociolinguistic survey of the Dejing Zhuang dialect area</a></i>. <i>SIL Electronic Survey Reports</i> 2012-036, SIL International, East Asia Group.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norquest-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Norquest_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norquest, Peter K. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gradworks.umi.com/32/84/3284367.html"><i>A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Hlai</i></a>. PhD dissertation. Tucson: Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dixon-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dixon_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixon1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._W._Dixon" title="Robert M. W. Dixon">Dixon, R. M. W.</a> (1998). <i>The Rise and Fall of Languages</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 42–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62654-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62654-5"><bdi>978-0-521-62654-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Languages&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62654-5&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=R.+M.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxterSagart2014" class="citation web cs1">Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/">"The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese (Version 1.1, 20 September 2014)"</a>. University of Michigan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Baxter-Sagart+reconstruction+of+Old+Chinese+%28Version+1.1%2C+20+September+2014%29&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Focbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Tai+language" class="Z3988"></span> (supplementary data for: Baxter, William H., and Laurent Sagart. 2014. <i>Old Chinese: a new reconstruction</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <dl><dt>Sources</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. <i>William J. Gedney's Southwestern Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts and Translations.</i> [Ann Arbor, Mich.]: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1994. Print.</li> <li>Thurgood, Graham. 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csuchico.edu/~gthurgood/Papers/GedneyPaperUpdated.pdf">"A comment on Gedney's proposal for another series of voiced initials in Proto-Tai revisited."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171116074241/http://www.csuchico.edu/~gthurgood/Papers/GedneyPaperUpdated.pdf">Archived</a> 16 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Studies in Southeast Asian Languages</i>, edited by Robert Bauer. Pacific Linguistics. pp. 169–183. (updated 2006)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Akharawatthanakun, Phinnarat. (2010). Phonological Variation in Phuan. <i>MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, 13</i>(2), 50–87.</li> <li>Brown, J. Marvin. <i>From Ancient Thai to Modern Dialects</i>. Bangkok: Social Science Association Press of Thailand, 1965.</li> <li>Ferlus, Michel. 1990. "Remarques sur le consonantisme de Proto Thai-Yay (Révision du pro tai de Li Fangkuei)." Paper presented at the 23 rd International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics. University of Texas at Arlington</li> <li>Gedney, William J. 1989. "Future directions in Comparative Tai Linguistics." <i>Selected papers on Comparative Tai Studies</i>, ed. by Robert J. Bickner, John Hartmann, Thomas John Hudak and Patcharin Peyasantiwong, 7–116. Ann Arbor: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan.</li> <li>Li, Fang-kuei. 1977. <i>Handbook of Comparative Tai</i>. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʼi Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/141129.htm#11282346">What the *-hɛːk is going on?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/140118.htm#01162254">Proto-Tai *j-, *ˀj-, or *ʄ-?</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/140111.htm#01101641">Is Thai <i>yuan</i> 'Vietnamese' a loanword from Lao?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/140215.htm#02092227">Tone codes: XK'G- + -vqhslc</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/141122.htm#11222352">Black and white evidence for Vietnamese phonological history</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/141122.htm#11212354">D-ou-b-led letters in Tai Viet</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/140412.htm#04092350">*(C).r-usters in Black Tai and Bao Yen</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/140412.htm#04072356">S-implificaition in Black Tai and Bao Yen</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/131019.htm#10132306">Dyeing in the south: evidence for earlier Southern Chinese *-om</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/131012.htm#10082252">Saek</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2013. The other Kra-Dai numerals (Parts <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/131005.htm#10052320">1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/131012.htm#10062359">2</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/120929.htm#09252301">Pondering over water</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/120929.htm#09252112">3itting on fire</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/120929.htm#09242359">Speaking of heaven in Zhuang</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/110423.htm#04172359">Can Proto-Tai live without *ʔy-(uu)?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/110416.htm#04162359">From 'you' to 'yuu'</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/111231.htm#12272345">The roots of rawness</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/111231.htm#12262359"><i>Sawgun</i> stratography?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/101030.htm#10260026">Brown's (1979) "Vowel length in Thai"</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/100417.htm#04130257">Was there a *<i>krp</i>-orate cluster in 'cloth'?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/100410.htm">Lao <i>x ex</i> ... ?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/080405.htm#04051949">Proto-Tai 'nine': evidence for unexpected emphasis?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/080405.htm#04051824">Li Fang-kuei's Proto-Tai diphthongs</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/080301.htm#02280321">布央 Cloth center consonants</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/080301.htm#02270327">A fiery theory</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/080223.htm#02210339">ƧЗЧƼƄ</a></li> <li>Ostapirat, Weera. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JLC/article/view/20210">Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c</a>. <i>Journal of Language and Culture, 28</i>(2), 41–56.</li> <li>Ostapirat, Weera. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/bcl/7/1/article-p189_6.xml">The Rime System of Proto-Tai</a>. <i>Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 7</i>(1), 189–227.</li> <li>Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~ppittaya/publications/pswt08.pdf">"Proto-Southwestern Tai: A New Reconstruction"</a>. Paper presented at the 18th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi.</li> <li>Puttachart, P. & Thananan, T. (1998). The position of Tak Bai in Tai dialects. In S. Burusphat (Ed.), <i>Proceedings of the International Conference on Tai Studies</i> (pp. 313–322).</li> <li>Sarawit, Mary. 1973. <i>The Proto-Tai Vowel System</i>. University of Michigan, Department of Linguistics: PhD dissertation.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Tai_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170413020146/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=698">ABVD: Proto-Tai word list</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170413020449/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=684">ABVD: Proto-Southwestern Tai word list</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abvd.shh.mpg.de/austronesian/classification.php?node=Tai-Kadai">ABVD: word lists of Kra-Dai languages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031135614/https://abvd.shh.mpg.de/austronesian/classification.php?node=Tai-Kadai">Archived</a> 31 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <p><b>Dictionaries</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?basename=\data\thai\kdaiet&root=config&morpho=0">Database query to Tai–Kadai etymology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sealang.net/crcl/proto/">Thai Lexicography Resources</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Template:Kra–Dai languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Template talk:Kra–Dai languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kra–Dai languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kra–Dai_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra_languages" title="Kra languages">Kra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laha_language" title="Laha language">Laha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachi_language" title="Lachi language">Lachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paha_language" title="Paha language">Paha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyang_language" title="Buyang language">Buyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/En_language" title="En language">En</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qabiao_language" title="Qabiao language">Qabiao</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gelao" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gelao_languages" title="Gelao languages">Gelao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vandu_language" title="Vandu language">Vandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%27ou_language" title="A'ou language">A'ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulao_language_(Kra)" title="Mulao language (Kra)">Mulao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagei_language" title="Hagei language">Hagei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telue_language" title="Telue language">Telue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qau_language" title="Qau language">Qau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kam%E2%80%93Sui_languages" title="Kam–Sui languages">Kam–Sui</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mulam_language" title="Mulam language">Mulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam_language" title="Kam language">Kam</a> (Dong)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Miao_language" title="Cao Miao language">Cao Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuoxi_language" title="Nuoxi language">Nuoxi</a> (Naxi Yao)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Then_language" title="Then language">Then</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maonan_language" title="Maonan language">Maonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadong_language" title="Chadong language">Chadong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_language" title="Sui language">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mak_language" title="Mak language">Mak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Cham_language" title="Ai-Cham language">Ai-Cham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biao_language" title="Biao language">Biao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biao_language" title="Biao language">Biao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lakkia_language" title="Lakkia language">Lakkia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakkia_language" title="Lakkia language">Lakkia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hlai_languages" title="Hlai languages">Hlai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouhin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bouhin language">Bouhin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ha_Em_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ha Em language">Ha Em</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauhut_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Lauhut language">Lauhut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzha_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongzha language">Tongzha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zandui_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zandui language">Zandui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baoting_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Baoting language">Baoting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cun_language" title="Cun language">Cun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadou_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadou language">Nadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changjiang_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Changjiang language">Changjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moyfaw_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Moyfaw language">Moyfaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baisha_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Baisha language">Baisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuanmen_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuanmen language">Yuanmen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jiamao_language" title="Jiamao language">Jiamao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiamao_language" title="Jiamao language">Jiamao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Be_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Be language">Be</a>–<a href="/wiki/Jizhao_language" title="Jizhao language">Jizhao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Be_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Be language">Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizhao_language" title="Jizhao language">Jizhao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tai_languages" title="Tai languages">Tai</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Zhuang_languages" title="Zhuang languages">Zhuang</a>, etc.)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tai_languages" title="Northern Tai languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Zhuang" title="Standard Zhuang">Standard Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bouyei_language" title="Bouyei language">Bouyei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezhang_Buyi_language" title="Hezhang Buyi language">Hezhang Buyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yei_Zhuang_language" title="Yei Zhuang language">Yei Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longsang_Zhuang_language" title="Longsang Zhuang language">Longsang Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_language" title="E language">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saek_language" title="Saek language">Saek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Yo_language" title="Tai Yo language">Tai Yo</a> (Nyaw)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoy_language" title="Yoy language">Yoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Pao_language" title="Tai Pao language">Tai Pao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Tai_languages" title="Central Tai languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nong_Zhuang_language" title="Nong Zhuang language">Nong Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhuang_language" title="Dai Zhuang language">Dai Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Zhuang_language" title="Min Zhuang language">Min Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhuang_language" title="Yang Zhuang language">Yang Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyang_Zhuang_language" title="Pyang Zhuang language">Pyang Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myang_Zhuang_language" title="Myang Zhuang language">Myang Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%B9ng_language_(Tai)" title="Nùng language (Tai)">Nùng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_language" title="Tày language">Tày</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ts%CA%BB%C3%BCn-Lao_language" title="Tsʻün-Lao language">Tsʻün-Lao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Tai_languages" title="Southwestern Tai languages">Southwestern</a><br />(Thai)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Northwestern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shan_language" title="Shan language">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Ya_language" title="Tai Ya language">Tai Ya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Nuea_language" title="Tai Nuea language">Tai Nuea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Long_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Long language">Tai Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Hongjin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Hongjin language">Tai Hongjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamti_language" title="Khamti language">Khamti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Laing_language" title="Tai Laing language">Tai Laing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phake_language" title="Phake language">Phake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aiton_language" title="Aiton language">Aiton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamyang_language" title="Khamyang language">Khamyang</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ahom_language" title="Ahom language">Ahom</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turung_language" title="Turung language">Turung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Lao–Phutai</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phu_Thai_language" title="Phu Thai language">Phu Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isan_language" title="Isan language">Isan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Yo_language" title="Tai Yo language">Tai Yo</a> (Nyaw)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_Nyo_language" title="Lao Nyo language">Lao Nyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaloeng_language" title="Kaloeng language">Kaloeng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Chiang Saen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a> (Siamese)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Thai_language" title="Northern Thai language">Northern Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Daeng_language" title="Tai Daeng language">Tai Daeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Meuay_language" title="Tai Meuay language">Tai Meuay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_D%C3%B3n_language" title="Tai Dón language">Tai Dón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Hang_Tong_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Hang Tong language">Tai Hang Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Lue_language" title="Tai Lue language">Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yong_language" title="Yong language">Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Dam_language" title="Tai Dam language">Tai Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kh%C3%BCn_language" title="Khün language">Khün</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuan_language" title="Phuan language">Phuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Song_language" title="Thai Song language">Thai Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_Tac_language" title="Tày Tac language">Tày Tac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Thai_language" title="Southern Thai language">Southern Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">(other)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapa_language" title="Sapa language">Sapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa_Di_language" title="Pa Di language">Pa Di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Muong_Vat_language" title="Tai Muong Vat language">Tai Muong Vat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Thanh_language" title="Tai Thanh language">Tai Thanh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tay_Khang_language" title="Tay Khang language">Tai Khang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuan_language_(Laos)" title="Kuan language (Laos)">Kuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">(<a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Lan_language" title="Cao Lan language">Cao Lan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(<i><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed origins</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hezhang_Buyi_language" title="Hezhang Buyi language">Hezhang Buyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_language" title="E language">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Lan_language" title="Cao Lan language">Cao Lan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiamao_language" title="Jiamao language">Jiamao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>proposed groupings</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kam%E2%80%93Tai_languages" title="Kam–Tai languages">Kam–Tai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Kra%E2%80%93Dai_language" title="Proto-Kra–Dai language">Proto-Kra–Dai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Kra_language" title="Proto-Kra language">Proto-Kra</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Tai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Kam%E2%80%93Sui_language" title="Proto-Kam–Sui language">Proto-Kam–Sui</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hlai_language" title="Proto-Hlai language">Proto-Hlai</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct 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