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mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstruktion_(Sprachwissenschaft)" title="Rekonstruktion (Sprachwissenschaft) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rekonstruktion (Sprachwissenschaft)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingva_rekonstruo" title="Lingva rekonstruo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingva rekonstruo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="بازسازی زبان‌شناختی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بازسازی زبان‌شناختی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezi%C4%8Dna_rekonstrukcija" title="Jezična rekonstrukcija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jezična rekonstrukcija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstruksi_linguistik" title="Rekonstruksi linguistik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rekonstruksi linguistik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricostruzione_(linguistica)" title="Ricostruzione (linguistica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ricostruzione (linguistica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Лингвистикалык реконструкция – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Лингвистикалык реконструкция" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refectio_verborum" title="Refectio verborum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Refectio verborum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstruksi_linguistik" title="Rekonstruksi linguistik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Rekonstruksi linguistik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstructie_(taalwetenschap)" title="Reconstructie (taalwetenschap) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Reconstructie (taalwetenschap)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%8D%E6%A7%8B_(%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%AD%A6)" title="再構 (言語学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="再構 (言語学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%BE" title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨਿਕ ਪੁਨਰਸਿਰਜਣਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿਗਿਆਨਿਕ ਪੁਨਰਸਿਰਜਣਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Лингвистическая реконструкция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лингвистическая реконструкция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bnrahan_Snlmean_(Knklaan_krkari)" title="Bnrahan Snlmean (Knklaan krkari) – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Bnrahan Snlmean (Knklaan krkari)" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seediq</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezikoslovna_rekonstrukcija" title="Jezikoslovna rekonstrukcija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jezikoslovna rekonstrukcija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekonstruktion_(lingvistik)" title="Rekonstruktion (lingvistik) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rekonstruktion (lingvistik)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Мовна реконструкція – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мовна реконструкція" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E9%87%8D%E5%BB%BA" title="語言重建 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="語言重建" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%BB%BA_(%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8)" title="重建 (語言學) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="重建 (語言學)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2210319#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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searchaux" style="display:none">Processes of understanding how earlier languages were spoken</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Language reconstruction" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed language</a>.</div> <p><b>Linguistic reconstruction</b> is the practice of establishing the features of an <a href="/wiki/Attested_language" title="Attested language">unattested</a> ancestor language of one or more given languages. There are two kinds of reconstruction: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a> uses irregularities in a single language to make inferences about an earlier stage of that language – that is, it is based on evidence from that language alone.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative reconstruction</a>, usually referred to just as reconstruction, establishes features of the ancestor of two or more related languages, belonging to the same <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a>, by means of the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>. A language reconstructed in this way is often referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> (the common ancestor of all the languages in a given family); examples include <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian_language" title="Proto-Dravidian language">Proto-Dravidian</a>.</li></ul> <p>Texts discussing linguistic reconstruction commonly preface reconstructed forms with an <a href="/wiki/Asterisk" title="Asterisk">asterisk</a> (*) to distinguish them from attested forms. </p><p>An attested word from which a <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> in the proto-language is reconstructed is a <b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="reflex"></span><span class="vanchor-text">reflex</span></span></b>. More generally, a reflex is the known derivative of an earlier form, which may be either attested or reconstructed. A reflex that is predictable from the reconstructed history of the language is a 'regular' reflex. Reflexes of the same source are <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_reconstruction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>First, languages that are thought to have arisen from a common proto-language must meet certain criteria in order to be grouped together; this is a process called subgrouping. Since this grouping is based purely on linguistics, manuscripts and other historical documentation should be analyzed to accomplish this step. However, the assumption that the delineations of linguistics always align with those of culture and ethnicity must not be made. One of the criteria is that the grouped languages usually exemplify shared innovation. This means that the languages must show common changes made throughout history. In addition, most grouped languages have shared retention. This is similar to the first criterion, but instead of changes, they are features that have stayed the same in both languages.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because linguistics, as in other scientific areas, seeks to reflect simplicity, an important principle in the linguistic reconstruction process is to generate the least possible number of phonemes that correspond to available data. This principle is again reflected when choosing the sound quality of phonemes, as the one which results in the fewest changes (with respect to the data) is preferred.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Comparative Reconstruction makes use of two rather general principles: The Majority Principle and the Most Natural Development Principle.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Majority Principle is the observation that if a <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> set displays a certain pattern (such as a repeating letter in specific positions within a word), it is likely that this pattern was retained from its mother language. The Most Natural Development Principle states that some alterations in languages, diachronically speaking, are more common than others. There are four key tendencies: </p> <ol><li>The final vowel in a word may be omitted.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Voiceless</a> sounds, often between vowels, become voiced.</li> <li>Phonetic stops become <a href="/wiki/Fricatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">fricatives</a>.</li> <li>Consonants become voiceless at the end of words.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sound_construction">Sound construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_reconstruction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sound construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Majority Principle is applied in identifying the most likely pronunciation of the predicted etymon, the original word from which the cognates originated. The Most Natural Development Principle describes the general directions in which languages appear to change and so one can search for those indicators. For example, from the words <i>cantar</i> (Spanish) and <i>chanter</i> (French), one may argue that because phonetic stops generally become fricatives, the cognate with the stop [k] is older than the cognate with the fricative [ʃ] and so the former is most likely to more closely resemble the original pronunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_reconstruction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">Language change</a> – Modification or development of a language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">Sound change</a> – Process of language change that affects pronunciation or sound system structure</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_reconstruction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFox1995" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Anthony (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RlU-nGcDrw4C"><i>Linguistic Reconstruction: An Introduction to Theory and Method</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198700012" title="Special:BookSources/9780198700012"><bdi>9780198700012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Reconstruction%3A+An+Introduction+to+Theory+and+Method&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780198700012&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRlU-nGcDrw4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+reconstruction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithBentleyHoggvan_Bergen1998–2000" class="citation book cs1">Smith, John Charles; Bentley, Delia; Hogg, Richard M.; van Bergen, Linda (1998–2000). <i>Historical linguistics 1995: selected papers from the 12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Manchester, August 1995</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027236666" title="Special:BookSources/9027236666"><bdi>9027236666</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/746925995">746925995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+linguistics+1995%3A+selected+papers+from+the+12th+International+Conference+on+Historical+Linguistics%2C+Manchester%2C+August+1995&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1998%2F2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F746925995&rft.isbn=9027236666&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=John+Charles&rft.au=Bentley%2C+Delia&rft.au=Hogg%2C+Richard+M.&rft.au=van+Bergen%2C+Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+reconstruction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYule2020" class="citation book cs1">Yule, George (2 January 2020). <i>The Study of Language 2019</i>. New York, NY: Cambridge University Printing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108499453" title="Special:BookSources/9781108499453"><bdi>9781108499453</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+Language+2019&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Printing+House&rft.date=2020-01-02&rft.isbn=9781108499453&rft.aulast=Yule&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+reconstruction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_reconstruction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anthony Fox, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RlU-nGcDrw4C">Linguistic Reconstruction: An Introduction to Theory and Method</a></i> (Oxford University Press, 1995) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-870001-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-870001-6">0-19-870001-6</a>.</li> <li>George Yule, <i>The Study of Language (7th Ed.)</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2019) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-73070-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-73070-9">978-1-108-73070-9</a>.</li> <li>Henry M. Hoenigswald, <i>Language Change and Linguistic Reconstruction</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1960) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-34741-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-34741-9">0-226-34741-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output 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dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Long-range_comparative_linguistics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Long-range_comparative_linguistics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Long-range <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">Etymological dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">Lexicostatistics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistic reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">Macrofamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_comparison" title="Mass comparison">Mass comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolinguistics" title="Paleolinguistics">Paleolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-human_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-human language">Proto-human</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Uralic_languages" title="Sino-Uralic languages">Sino-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Bengtson" title="John Bengtson">John Bengtson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Bla%C5%BEek" title="Václav Blažek">Václav Blažek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Bomhard" title="Allan R. Bomhard">Allan R. Bomhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Burlak" title="Svetlana Burlak">Svetlana Burlak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Dolgopolsky" title="Aharon Dolgopolsky">Aharon Dolgopolsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dybo" title="Vladimir Dybo">Vladimir Dybo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_C._Fleming" title="Harold C. Fleming">Harold C. Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Eugene Helimski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Illich-Svitych" title="Vladislav Illich-Svitych">Vladislav Illich-Svitych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Manaster_Ramer" title="Alexis Manaster Ramer">Alexis Manaster Ramer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikolaev_(linguist)" title="Sergei Nikolaev (linguist)">Sergei Nikolaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Paliga" title="Sorin Paliga">Sorin Paliga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)" title="Holger Pedersen (linguist)">Holger Pedersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilia_Peiros" title="Ilia Peiros">Ilia Peiros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martine_Robbeets" title="Martine Robbeets">Martine Robbeets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merritt_Ruhlen" title="Merritt Ruhlen">Merritt Ruhlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Shevoroshkin" title="Vitaly Shevoroshkin">Vitaly Shevoroshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Georgiy Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Trombetti" title="Alfredo Trombetti">Alfredo Trombetti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Language_Relationship" title="Journal of Language Relationship">Journal of Language Relationship</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Tongue_(journal)" title="Mother Tongue (journal)">Mother Tongue</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_Altaic_Languages" title="Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages">Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions and schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Human_Languages" title="Evolution of Human Languages">Evolution of Human Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Linguistics_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences">Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_School_of_Comparative_Linguistics" title="Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics">Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_State_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Russian State University for the Humanities">Russian State University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 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