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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Northern dynasties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Northern_dynasties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Northern dynasties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Northern_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Northern_Wei_(386–535)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Wei_(386–535)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Northern Wei (386–535)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Wei_(386–535)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_to_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_to_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Rise to power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_to_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sinicization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sinicization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Sinicization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sinicization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Split_into_Eastern_Wei_(534–550)_and_Western_Wei_(535–557)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Split_into_Eastern_Wei_(534–550)_and_Western_Wei_(535–557)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Split into Eastern Wei (534–550) and Western Wei (535–557)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Split_into_Eastern_Wei_(534–550)_and_Western_Wei_(535–557)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_Qi_(550–577)_and_Northern_Zhou_(557–581)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_Qi_(550–577)_and_Northern_Zhou_(557–581)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Northern Qi (550–577) and Northern Zhou (557–581)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_Qi_(550–577)_and_Northern_Zhou_(557–581)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Southern dynasties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Southern_dynasties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Southern dynasties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Southern_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Liu_Song_(420–479)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liu_Song_(420–479)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Liu Song (420–479)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liu_Song_(420–479)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Qi_(479–502)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Qi_(479–502)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Southern Qi (479–502)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Qi_(479–502)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liang_(502–557)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liang_(502–557)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Liang (502–557)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liang_(502–557)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chen_(557–589)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chen_(557–589)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Chen (557–589)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chen_(557–589)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diplomacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diplomacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diplomacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diplomacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Other arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Maps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern and Southern dynasties</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">55 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suidelike_en_Noordelike_Dinastie%C3%AB" title="Suidelike en Noordelike Dinastieë – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Suidelike en Noordelike Dinastieë" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="السلالات الحاكمة الجنوبية والشمالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="السلالات الحاكمة الجنوبية والشمالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADes_Meridionales_y_Septentrionales" title="Dinastíes Meridionales y Septentrionales – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastíes Meridionales y Septentrionales" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C9%99nub_v%C9%99_%C5%9Eimal_s%C3%BClal%C9%99l%C9%99ri" title="Cənub və Şimal sülalələri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cənub və Şimal sülalələri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A2m-pak-ti%C3%A2u" title="Lâm-pak-tiâu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lâm-pak-tiâu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%91%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%96_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%96" title="Паўднёвыя і Паўночныя дынастыі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Паўднёвыя і Паўночныя дынастыі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Южни и северни династии – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Южни и северни династии" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierniezhio%C3%B9_ar_su_hag_an_norzh" title="Tierniezhioù ar su hag an norzh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tierniezhioù ar su hag an norzh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasties_Meridionals_i_Septentrionals" title="Dinasties Meridionals i Septentrionals – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinasties Meridionals i Septentrionals" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%BEn%C3%AD_a_severn%C3%AD_dynastie" title="Jižní a severní dynastie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jižní a severní dynastie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCdliche_und_N%C3%B6rdliche_Dynastien" title="Südliche und Nördliche Dynastien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Südliche und Nördliche Dynastien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADas_meridionales_y_septentrionales" title="Dinastías meridionales y septentrionales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastías meridionales y septentrionales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudaj_kaj_Nordaj_Dinastioj" title="Sudaj kaj Nordaj Dinastioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sudaj kaj Nordaj Dinastioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iparraldeko_eta_hegoaldeko_dinastiak" title="Iparraldeko eta hegoaldeko dinastiak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Iparraldeko eta hegoaldeko dinastiak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="دودمان‌های شمالی و جنوبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دودمان‌های شمالی و جنوبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasties_du_Sud_et_du_Nord" title="Dynasties du Sud et du Nord – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dynasties du Sud et du Nord" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A0m-pet-ch%C3%AAu" title="Nàm-pet-chêu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Nàm-pet-chêu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A8%EB%B6%81%EC%A1%B0_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="남북조 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="남북조 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6" title="उत्तरी और दक्षिणी राजवंश – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उत्तरी और दक्षिणी राजवंश" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ju%C5%BEne_i_Sjeverne_dinastije" title="Južne i Sjeverne dinastije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Južne i Sjeverne dinastije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Utara_dan_Selatan" title="Dinasti Utara dan Selatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Utara dan Selatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastie_del_Nord_e_del_Sud" title="Dinastie del Nord e del Sud – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dinastie del Nord e del Sud" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="השושלות הדרומיות והצפוניות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השושלות הדרומיות והצפוניות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanedan%C3%AAn_Bakur_%C3%BB_Ba%C5%9F%C3%BBr" title="Xanedanên Bakur û Başûr – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xanedanên Bakur û Başûr" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australe_et_boreale_imperium" title="Australe et boreale imperium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Australe et boreale imperium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zieme%C4%BCu_un_Dienvidu_dinastijas" title="Ziemeļu un Dienvidu dinastijas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ziemeļu un Dienvidu dinastijas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietini%C5%B3_ir_%C5%A1iaurini%C5%B3_dinastij%C5%B3_laikotarpis" title="Pietinių ir šiaurinių dinastijų laikotarpis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pietinių ir šiaurinių dinastijų laikotarpis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti-dinasti_Utara_dan_Selatan" title="Dinasti-dinasti Utara dan Selatan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti-dinasti Utara dan Selatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A0ng-b%C3%A1e%CC%A4k-di%C3%A8u" title="Nàng-báe̤k-dièu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Nàng-báe̤k-dièu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D3%A8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D3%A9%D0%B4_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%83%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D0%B5" title="Умард ба Өмнөд улсуудын үе – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Умард ба Өмнөд улсуудын үе" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuidelijke_en_Noordelijke_Dynastie%C3%ABn" title="Zuidelijke en Noordelijke Dynastieën – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zuidelijke en Noordelijke Dynastieën" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3_(%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD)" title="南北朝時代 (中国) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="南北朝時代 (中国)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord-_og_S%C3%B8r-dynastienes_tid" title="Nord- og Sør-dynastienes tid – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nord- og Sør-dynastienes tid" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord-_og_S%C3%B8r-dynastia" title="Nord- og Sør-dynastia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nord- og Sør-dynastia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peri%C3%B2de_dei_Dinastias_dau_N%C3%B2rd_e_dau_Sud" title="Periòde dei Dinastias dau Nòrd e dau Sud – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Periòde dei Dinastias dau Nòrd e dau Sud" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%89%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC" title="ਉੱਤਰੀ ਅਤੇ ਦੱਖਣੀ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਉੱਤਰੀ ਅਤੇ ਦੱਖਣੀ ਰਾਜਵੰਸ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8F%D8%A8%DA%BE%D8%A7_%D8%AA%DB%92_%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="اُبھا تے لما راجٹبر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اُبھا تے لما راجٹبر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%84" title="រាជវង្សខាងជើងខាងត្បូង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="រាជវង្សខាងជើងខាងត្បូង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_Po%C5%82udniowe_i_P%C3%B3%C5%82nocne" title="Dynastie Południowe i Północne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dynastie Południowe i Północne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastias_do_Norte_e_do_Sul" title="Dinastias do Norte e do Sul – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinastias do Norte e do Sul" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Южные и Северные Династии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Южные и Северные Династии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2_%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%BA" title="දකුණු රාජ වංශය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දකුණු රාජ වංශය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severne_in_ju%C5%BEne_dinastije" title="Severne in južne dinastije – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Severne in južne dinastije" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Јужне и Сјеверне династије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јужне и Сјеверне династије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ju%C5%BEne_i_Sjeverne_dinastije" title="Južne i Sjeverne dinastije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Južne i Sjeverne dinastije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etel%C3%A4iset_ja_pohjoiset_dynastiat" title="Eteläiset ja pohjoiset dynastiat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Eteläiset ja pohjoiset dynastiat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_sydliga_och_nordliga_dynastierna" title="De sydliga och nordliga dynastierna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="De sydliga och nordliga dynastierna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD-%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%89" title="ยุคราชวงศ์เหนือ-ใต้ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคราชวงศ์เหนือ-ใต้" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCney-Kuzey_Hanedanlar%C4%B1" title="Güney-Kuzey Hanedanları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Güney-Kuzey Hanedanları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%97" title="Південні та Північні династії – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Південні та Північні династії" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nam%E2%80%93B%E1%BA%AFc_tri%E1%BB%81u_(Trung_Qu%E1%BB%91c)" title="Nam–Bắc triều (Trung Quốc) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nam–Bắc triều (Trung Quốc)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D" title="南北朝 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="南北朝" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D" title="南北朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="南北朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D" title="南北朝 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="南北朝" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D" title="南北朝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="南北朝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q49696#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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It may have been generated, in whole or in part, by a computer or by a translator without dual proficiency.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit">enhance the translation</a>. The original article is under "中文" in the <i>"languages"</i> list. <hr /> <small>If <b>you</b> have just labeled this article as needing attention, please add</small><br /><code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Needtrans" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Needtrans">subst:Needtrans</a>|pg=Northern and Southern dynasties |language=zh |comments= }}</code><code> ~~~~</code><br /><small>to the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:PNTCU#November_2024" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:PNTCU">WP:PNTCU</a> section on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pages_needing_translation_into_English" title="Wikipedia:Pages needing translation into English">Wikipedia:Pages needing translation into English</a>.</small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="margin: 0 0 0.8em 0.8em; font-size: 90%;"> <caption>Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Northern dynasties </th> <th colspan="2">Southern dynasties </th></tr> <tr style="height: 2ex"> <td colspan="2" rowspan="3" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> <span style="color:gray">386–535</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a> <span style="color:gray">420–479</span> </td></tr> <tr style="height: 2ex"> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> <span style="color:gray">479–502</span> </td></tr> <tr style="height: 2ex"> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang</a> <span style="color:gray">502–557</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a><br /><span style="color:gray">535–557</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a><br /><span style="color:gray">534–550</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a><br /><span style="color:gray">557–581</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a><br /><span style="color:gray">550–577</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen</a><br /><span style="color:gray">557–589</span> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(555%E2%80%93587)" title="Western Liang (555–587)">Western Liang</a><br /><span style="color:gray">555–587</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Northern and Southern dynasties</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png/250px-Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png/375px-Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png/500px-Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_440_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="537" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Approximate territories of the Northern Wei dynasty (blue) and Liu Song dynasty (red) in 440</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_560_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_560_CE.png/250px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_560_CE.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_560_CE.png/375px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_560_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_560_CE.png/500px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_560_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="537" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Approximate territories of the Northern Qi dynasty (dark blue), Northern Zhou dynasty (light blue), Chen dynasty (red), and Western Liang dynasty (pink) in 560</div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hani" style="font-size: 1rem;">南北朝</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Nán běi cháo</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">ㄋㄢˊ ㄅㄟˇ ㄔㄠˊ</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Nan<sup>2</sup> pei<sup>3</sup> ch'ao<sup>2</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Nán běi cháo</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[nǎn pèɪ ʈʂʰǎʊ]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Naàhm Bāk Chìuh</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">naam4 bak1 ciu4</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[nam˩ pɐk̚˥ tsʰiw˩]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Lâm-pak-tiâu</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage mw-no-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></b></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2070</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> BC)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 256 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1046–771 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(771–256 BC)</span> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 770</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 476 BC</span>)</span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> <span class="nowrap">(475–221 BC)</span></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(221–207 BC)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206 BC – 220 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206–202 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BC – 9 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(9–23 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(25–220 AD)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(220–280 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></b></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–420)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–316)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(317–420)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(304–439)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Northern and<br />Southern dynasties</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(420–589)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(581–618)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(618–907)</span> <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> <span class="nowrap">(690–705)</span></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and<br />Ten Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(907–979)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1279)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1127)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1127–1279)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(916–1125)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1038–1227)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1115–1234)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1271–1368)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1368–1644)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1644–1912)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(mainland, 1912–1949)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic<br />of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(Taiwan,<br />1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#History_and_development" title="Chinese art">Art history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Education history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_China" title="Legal history of China">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China#History" title="Music of China">Music history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_music" title="Timeline of Chinese music">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in China">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Northern and Southern dynasties</b> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">南北朝</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Nán běi cháo</span></i>) was a period of political division in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">history of China</a> that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Jin dynasty">Eastern Jin dynasty</a>. It is sometimes considered as the latter part of a longer period known as the <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a> (220–589).<sup id="cite_ref-Gascoigne_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gascoigne-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period featured civil war and political chaos, but was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>. The period saw large-scale migration of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han people</a> to lands south of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>. The period came to an end with the unification of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>. </p><p>During this period, the process of <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicization</a> accelerated among the non-Han ethnicities in the north and among the indigenous peoples in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism in both <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">northern and southern China</a> and Daoism gaining influence as well, with two essential Daoist canons written during this period. Notable technological advances occurred during this period. The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">stirrup</a> during the earlier <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty (266–420)</a> helped spur the development of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalry</a> as a combat standard. Historians also note advances in medicine, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>. Intellectuals of the period include the mathematician and astronomer <a href="/wiki/Zu_Chongzhi" title="Zu Chongzhi">Zu Chongzhi</a> (429–500), and astronomer <a href="/wiki/Tao_Hongjing" title="Tao Hongjing">Tao Hongjing</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/End_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="End of the Han dynasty">End of the Han dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty (266–420)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians" title="Upheaval of the Five Barbarians">Upheaval of the Five Barbarians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></div> <p>After the collapse of a unified <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han dynasty</a> in 220 due in large part to the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice">Five Pecks of Rice</a> rebellions, China eventually coalesced into the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a>. Of these, <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a> was the strongest, followed by <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a>, but they were initially in a relatively stable formation. After a 249 <a href="/wiki/Incident_at_the_Gaoping_Tombs" title="Incident at the Gaoping Tombs">coup</a> by <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi" title="Sima Yi">Sima Yi</a>, the Sima family essentially controlled Cao Wei and the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Shu_by_Wei" title="Conquest of Shu by Wei">conquest of Shu Han by Cao Wei</a> rapidly followed. </p><p>Following a failed coup by the ruling Cao family against the Sima family, the final Cao ruler abdicated. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Jin" title="Emperor Wu of Jin">Sima Yan</a> (Emperor Wu of Jin) then founded the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wu_by_Jin" title="Conquest of Wu by Jin">conquest of Eastern Wu by Western Jin</a> occurred in 280, ending the Three Kingdoms period and reuniting China proper. </p><p>The Western Jin dynasty was severely weakened due to the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Eight_Princes" title="War of the Eight Princes">War of the Eight Princes</a> from 291 to 306. During the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huai_of_Jin" title="Emperor Huai of Jin">Emperor Huai of Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Min_of_Jin" title="Emperor Min of Jin">Emperor Min of Jin</a>, the empire was put into grave danger by the uprising of northern non-Han peoples collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Five_Barbarians" title="Five Barbarians">Five Barbarians</a>. Numerous nomadic tribal groups had been forcibly resettled in northern and northwestern China during previous centuries. When the warring princes heavily drafted these tribes into the military, they mutinied and exploited the civil wars to seize power.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their armies almost destroyed the dynasty in the <a href="/wiki/Disaster_of_Yongjia" title="Disaster of Yongjia">Disaster of Yongjia</a> of 311, when the Five Barbarians sacked <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> met a similar fate in 316. </p><p>However, a scion of the imperial house, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Jin" title="Emperor Yuan of Jin">Sima Rui</a> (Emperor Yuan of Jin) fled south of the <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> and reestablished the dynasty, known in historiography as the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin dynasty</a>. Cementing their power in the south, the Eastern Jin established <a href="/wiki/Jiankang" title="Jiankang">Jiankang</a> on the existing site of Jianye (now <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>) as their new capital. </p><p>In the north, the Five Barbarians established numerous short-lived dynasties, leading to the period known as the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> in historiography. Eventually, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei dynasty</a> conquered the rest of the northern states in 439 and unified northern China. Although the Eastern Jin and successive southern dynasties were well-defended from the northern dynasties by their placement of naval fleets along the Yangtze, they suffered various problems related to the creation and maintenance of military strength. The court's designation of specific households for military service through the <a href="/wiki/Tuntian" title="Tuntian">tuntian</a> system eventually led to a fall in their social status, causing widespread desertion of troops. Faced with shortage of troops, Eastern Jin generals were often sent on campaigns to capture non-Han indigenous peoples in the south to draft them into the military. The Eastern Jin dynasty fell not because of external invasion, however, but because <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Song" title="Emperor Wu of Song">Liu Yu</a> (Emperor Wu of Liu Song) seized the throne from the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Jin" title="Emperor Gong of Jin">Emperor Gong of Jin</a> and founded the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song dynasty</a>, which officially began the Northern and Southern dynasties period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Northern_dynasties">Northern dynasties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Northern dynasties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Northern_dynasties" title="List of emperors of the Northern dynasties">List of emperors of the Northern dynasties</a></div> <p>The Northern dynasties began in 439 when the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> conquered the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> to unite northern China and ended in 589 when the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a> extinguished the <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen dynasty</a>. It can be divided into three time periods: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a>; <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Weis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a>. The Northern, Eastern, and Western Wei along with the Northern Zhou were established by the <a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> people while the Northern Qi was established by a Xianbei-influenced ethnic Han. </p><p>In the north, local ethnic Han gentry clans responded to the chaos by constructing fortified villages. Clans would then carve de facto fiefs out of these highly cohesive family-based self-defense communities. Lesser peasant families would work for the dominant clan as tenants or serfs. The chaos also led these Han gentry families to avoid government service, before the Northern Wei court launched the sinicization movement. Northern gentry were therefore highly militarized as compared to their refined southern counterparts, and this distinction persisted well into the Sui and Tang dynasties centuries later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2009130–135_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2009130–135-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Wei_(386–535)"><span id="Northern_Wei_.28386.E2.80.93535.29"></span>Northern Wei (386–535)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Northern Wei (386–535)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_to_power">Rise to power</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rise to power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_Terracotta_Group_of_Figurines,_Northern_Wei_(tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tomb_Terracotta_Group_of_Figurines%2C_Northern_Wei_%28tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%29.jpg/330px-Tomb_Terracotta_Group_of_Figurines%2C_Northern_Wei_%28tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tomb_Terracotta_Group_of_Figurines%2C_Northern_Wei_%28tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%29.jpg/495px-Tomb_Terracotta_Group_of_Figurines%2C_Northern_Wei_%28tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tomb_Terracotta_Group_of_Figurines%2C_Northern_Wei_%28tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%29.jpg/660px-Tomb_Terracotta_Group_of_Figurines%2C_Northern_Wei_%28tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5167" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Army of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> terracotta soldiers in <a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> uniform, tomb of <a href="/wiki/Sima_Jinlong" title="Sima Jinlong">Sima Jinlong</a>, 484 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> period, the <a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">Tuoba</a> family of the Xianbei were the rulers of the state of <a href="/wiki/Dai_(Sixteen_Kingdoms)" title="Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)">Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)</a>. Although it was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a>, the defeat of the Former Qin at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fei_River" title="Battle of Fei River">Battle of Fei River</a> resulted in the collapse of the Former Qin. The grandson of the last prince of Dai <a href="/wiki/Tuoba_Shiyijian" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuoba Shiyijian">Tuoba Shiyiqian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Daowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei">Tuoba Gui</a> restored the fortunes of the Tuoba clan, renaming his state Wei (now known as Northern Wei) with its capital at Shengle (near modern <a href="/wiki/Hohhot" title="Hohhot">Hohhot</a>). Under the rule of Emperors Daowu (Tuoba Gui), <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Mingyuan_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei">Mingyuan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taiwu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei">Taiwu</a>, the Northern Wei progressively expanded. The establishment of the early Northern Wei state and the economy were also greatly indebted to the father-son pair of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cui_Hong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cui Hong (page does not exist)">Cui Hong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cui_Hao" title="Cui Hao">Cui Hao</a>. Tuoba Gui engaged in numerous conflicts with the <a href="/wiki/Later_Yan" title="Later Yan">Later Yan</a> that ended favorably for the Northern Wei after they received help from Zhang Gun that allowed them to destroy the Later Yan army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Canhe_Slope" title="Battle of Canhe Slope">Battle of Canhe Slope</a>. Following this victory, Tuoba Gui conquered the Later Yan capital of <a href="/wiki/Datong" title="Datong">Pingcheng</a> (modern-day Datong). That same year he declared himself Emperor Daowu. </p><p>Due to Emperor Daowu's cruelty, he was killed by his son Tuoba Shao, but crown prince Tuoba Si managed to defeat Tuoba Shao and took the throne as Emperor Mingyuan. Though he managed to conquer <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Song">Liu Song</a>'s province of Henan, he died soon afterward. Emperor Mingyuan's son Tuoba Tao took the throne as Emperor Taiwu. Due to Emperor Taiwu's energetic efforts, Northern Wei's strength greatly increased, allowing them to repeatedly attack Liu Song. After dealing with the <a href="/wiki/Rouran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouran">Rouran</a> threat to his northern flank, he engaged in a war to unite northern China. With the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> in 439, Emperor Taiwu united northern China, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms period and beginning the Northern and Southern dynasties period with their southern rivals, the Liu Song. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Wei_soldier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Northern_Wei_soldier.jpg/170px-Northern_Wei_soldier.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Northern_Wei_soldier.jpg/255px-Northern_Wei_soldier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Northern_Wei_soldier.jpg/340px-Northern_Wei_soldier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2471" data-file-height="4466" /></a><figcaption>Northern Wei officer. Tomb statuette, <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> Museum.</figcaption></figure> <p>Even though it was a time of great military strength for the Northern Wei, Rouran harassment from the north forced them to divert their focus from their southern expeditions. After uniting the north, Emperor Taiwu also conquered the powerful <a href="/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a> kingdom and subjugated the other kingdoms of <i>Xiyu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a>). In 450, Emperor Taiwu once again attacked the Liu Song and reached Guabu (瓜步, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), threatening to cross the river to attack Jiankang, the Liu Song capital. Though up to this point, the Northern Wei military forces dominated the Liu Song forces, they took heavy casualties. The Northern Wei forces plundered numerous households before returning north. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG/170px-NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG/255px-NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG 2x" data-file-width="336" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wei dynasty">Northern Wei</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddharupa" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddharupa">Buddha</a> Maitreya gilt-bronze figurine, 443</figcaption></figure> <p>At this point, followers of the Buddhist Gai Wu (<span lang="zh">蓋吳</span>) rebelled. After pacifying this rebellion, Emperor Taiwu, under the advice of his Daoist prime minister <a href="/wiki/Cui_Hao" title="Cui Hao">Cui Hao</a>, proscribed Buddhism — the first of the persecutions of Chinese Buddhism known as the <a href="/wiki/Three_Disasters_of_Wu" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Disasters of Wu">Three Disasters of Wu</a>. At this late stage in his life, Emperor Taiwu meted out cruel punishments, which led to his death in 452 at the hands of the eunuch <a href="/wiki/Zong_Ai" title="Zong Ai">Zong Ai</a>. His death sparked off turmoil that only ended with the ascension of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wencheng_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei">Emperor Wencheng</a> later that same year. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wang_Yu_(Northern_Wei)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wang Yu (Northern Wei) (page does not exist)">Wang Yu</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8E%8B%E9%81%87_(%E5%8C%97%E9%AD%8F)" class="extiw" title="zh:王遇 (北魏)">zh</a>]</span>, an ethnic <a href="/wiki/Qiang_(historical_people)" title="Qiang (historical people)">Qiang</a> court eunuch and the favourite of Empress Dowager Wenming, patronized Buddhism lavishly. He constructed Cave 9–10, the most highly decorated of the <a href="/wiki/Yungang_Grottoes" title="Yungang Grottoes">Yungang Grottoes</a>, and had a temple constructed in 488 at Lirun, Fengyi (modern day Chengcheng), which was his birthplace according to the Booke of Wei. Wang Yu may have been castrated during the suppression of a 446 Qiang rebellion since the Northern Wei would castrate rebel tribes' young elite.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first half of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Wei dynasty">Northern Wei dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> steppe tribesmen who dominated northern China kept a policy of strict social distinction between them and their Han subjects. Ethnic Han were drafted into the bureaucracy, employed as officials to collect taxes, etc. However, the Han were kept out of many higher positions of power. They also represented the minority of the populace where centers of power were located. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sinicization">Sinicization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sinicization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Widespread social and cultural transformation in northern China came with <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei</a> (reigned 471–499), whose father was a Xianbei, but whose mother was Han. Although of the <a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">Tuoba</a> Clan from the Xianbei tribe, Emperor Xiaowen asserted his dual Xianbei-Han identity, renaming his own clan "Yuan" (<span lang="zh">元</span>). In the year 493 Emperor Xiaowen instituted a new sinification program that had the Xianbei elites conform to many Han standards. These social reforms included donning Han clothing (banning Xianbei clothing at court), learning the Han language (if under the age of thirty), converting Xianbei family names to one-character Han surnames, and encouraging high-ranking Xianbei and Han families to intermarry. Emperor Xiaowen also moved the capital city from Pingcheng to one of China's old imperial sites, <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, which had been the capital during the earlier Eastern Han and Western Jin dynasties. The new capital at Luoyang was revived and transformed, with roughly 150,000 Xianbei and other northern warriors moved from north to south by the year 495 to serve in the capital. Within a couple of decades, the population rose to about half a million residents and was famed for being home to over a thousand Buddhist temples. Defectors from the south, such as Wang Su of the prestigious Langye Wang family, were largely accommodated and felt at home with the establishment of their own Wu quarter in Luoyang (this quarter of the city was home to over three thousand families). 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style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:140px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Wei_Wood_Head,_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong,_484_AD_(10100471244).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Northern_Wei_Wood_Head%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100471244%29.jpg/93px-Northern_Wei_Wood_Head%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100471244%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Northern_Wei_Wood_Head%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100471244%29.jpg/140px-Northern_Wei_Wood_Head%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100471244%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Northern_Wei_Wood_Head%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100471244%29.jpg/186px-Northern_Wei_Wood_Head%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100471244%29.jpg 2x" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Northern_Wei_Pottery_Figure%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100552803%29.jpg/186px-Northern_Wei_Pottery_Figure%2C_Tomb_of_Sima_Jinlong%2C_484_AD_%2810100552803%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Tomb of Northern Wei General <a href="/wiki/Sima_Jinlong" title="Sima Jinlong">Sima Jinlong</a> and some of its artefacts, 484 CE.</div></div></div></div> <p>Beginning in the 480s, the Northern Wei arranged for Han elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei <a href="/wiki/Tuoba" title="Tuoba">Tuoba</a> imperial family.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson1991_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson1991-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than fifty per cent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats of the southern dynasties, who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several daughters of the Xianbei <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei</a> married Han elites: the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Song">Liu Song</a> royal Liu Hui (<span lang="zh">刘辉</span>), married Princess Lanling (<span lang="zh">蘭陵公主</span>) of the Northern Wei,<sup id="cite_ref-SwartzCampany2013_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SwartzCampany2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Princess Huayang (<span lang="zh">華陽公主</span>) to Sima Fei (<span lang="zh">司馬朏</span>), a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a> royalty, Princess Jinan (<span lang="zh">濟南公主</span>) to Lu Daoqian (<span lang="zh">盧道虔</span>), Princess Nanyang (<span lang="zh">南阳长公主</span>) to <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Baoyin" title="Xiao Baoyin">Xiao Baoyin</a>, a member of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> royalty.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaozhuang_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei</a>'s sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Emperor Wu of Liang</a>'s son <a href="/w/index.php?title=Xiao_Zong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xiao Zong (page does not exist)">Xiao Zong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%95%AD%E7%B6%9C" class="extiw" title="zh:蕭綜">zh</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zhou" title="Book of Zhou">Book of Zhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei">Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei</a>'s sister was married to the ethnic Han Zhang Huan, son of Zhang Qiong.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended, Northern Wei received the Jin prince <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sima_Chuzhi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sima Chuzhi (page does not exist)">Sima Chuzhi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E9%A6%AC%E6%A5%9A%E4%B9%8B" class="extiw" title="zh:司馬楚之">zh</a>]</span> as a refugee, and he married a Northern Wei Princess. Their son <a href="/wiki/Sima_Jinlong" title="Sima Jinlong">Sima Jinlong</a> in turn married <a href="/wiki/Northern_Liang" title="Northern Liang">Northern Liang</a> Xiongnu King <a href="/wiki/Juqu_Mujian" title="Juqu Mujian">Juqu Mujian</a>'s daughter.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the year 523, Prince Dongyang of the Northern Wei was sent to <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> to serve as its governor for a term of fifteen years. With Buddhism gaining mainstream acceptance in Chinese society, Prince Dongyang and local wealthy families set out to establish a monumental project in honor of Buddhism, carving and decorating Cave 285 of the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a> with beautiful statues and murals. Such promotion of the arts would continue for centuries at Dunhuang and is now one of China's greatest tourist attractions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Split_into_Eastern_Wei_(534–550)_and_Western_Wei_(535–557)"><span id="Split_into_Eastern_Wei_.28534.E2.80.93550.29_and_Western_Wei_.28535.E2.80.93557.29"></span>Split into Eastern Wei (534–550) and Western Wei (535–557)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Split into Eastern Wei (534–550) and Western Wei (535–557)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:153px;max-width:153px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:186px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Wei_civil_officer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Western_Wei_civil_officer.jpg/151px-Western_Wei_civil_officer.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Western_Wei_civil_officer.jpg/227px-Western_Wei_civil_officer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Western_Wei_civil_officer.jpg/302px-Western_Wei_civil_officer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1615" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Civil officer, Western Wei, 535–557</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:135px;max-width:135px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:186px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Armored_warriors,_China,_Eastern_Wei_dynasty,_534-550_AD,_ceramic_-_Linden-Museum_-_Stuttgart,_Germany_-_DSC03593.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Armored_warriors%2C_China%2C_Eastern_Wei_dynasty%2C_534-550_AD%2C_ceramic_-_Linden-Museum_-_Stuttgart%2C_Germany_-_DSC03593.jpg/133px-Armored_warriors%2C_China%2C_Eastern_Wei_dynasty%2C_534-550_AD%2C_ceramic_-_Linden-Museum_-_Stuttgart%2C_Germany_-_DSC03593.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Armored_warriors%2C_China%2C_Eastern_Wei_dynasty%2C_534-550_AD%2C_ceramic_-_Linden-Museum_-_Stuttgart%2C_Germany_-_DSC03593.jpg/200px-Armored_warriors%2C_China%2C_Eastern_Wei_dynasty%2C_534-550_AD%2C_ceramic_-_Linden-Museum_-_Stuttgart%2C_Germany_-_DSC03593.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Armored_warriors%2C_China%2C_Eastern_Wei_dynasty%2C_534-550_AD%2C_ceramic_-_Linden-Museum_-_Stuttgart%2C_Germany_-_DSC03593.jpg/266px-Armored_warriors%2C_China%2C_Eastern_Wei_dynasty%2C_534-550_AD%2C_ceramic_-_Linden-Museum_-_Stuttgart%2C_Germany_-_DSC03593.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3422" data-file-height="4798" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Soldiers, Eastern Wei, 534-550</div></div></div></div></div> <p>In the year 523, a revolt of several military garrisons broke out, the Rebellion of the Six Garrisons (<i>Liu Zhen</i>). The revolt was caused by a food shortage far north of Luoyang. After the rebels force was suppressed, the government had 200,000 surrendered garrison rebels deployed to Hebei, which proved later to be a mistake when a former garrison officer organized another rebellion in the years 526–527. The underlying cause of these wars was the growing rift between the governing aristocracy which was increasingly adopting Han-style sedentary policies and lifestyles and their nomadic tribal armies who continued to preserve the old steppe way of life.<sup id="cite_ref-ger_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ger-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Northern Wei court was betrayed by one of their own generals, who had the empress dowager and the young emperor thrown into the Yellow River while establishing his own puppet ruler to maintain authority. As conflict swelled in the north between successive leaders, <a href="/wiki/Gao_Huan" title="Gao Huan">Gao Huan</a> took control of the east and Luoyang (holding <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaojing_of_Eastern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei">Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei</a> as a puppet ruler) by 534, while his rival <a href="/wiki/Yuwen_Tai" title="Yuwen Tai">Yuwen Tai</a> took control of the west and the traditional Chinese capital of <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> by 535. The Western regime was dominated by the sinicized nobles and their Han bureaucrats while the Eastern regime was controlled by the traditional steppe tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-ger_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ger-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Qi_(550–577)_and_Northern_Zhou_(557–581)"><span id="Northern_Qi_.28550.E2.80.93577.29_and_Northern_Zhou_.28557.E2.80.93581.29"></span>Northern Qi (550–577) and Northern Zhou (557–581)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Northern Qi (550–577) and Northern Zhou (557–581)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Zhou_stele.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Northern_Zhou_stele.PNG/220px-Northern_Zhou_stele.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Northern_Zhou_stele.PNG/330px-Northern_Zhou_stele.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Northern_Zhou_stele.PNG/440px-Northern_Zhou_stele.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1896" data-file-height="1533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a> Daoist <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Eventually, Gao Huan's son <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wenxuan_of_Northern_Qi" title="Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi">Gao Yang</a> forced the Eastern Wei emperor to abdicate in favor of his claim to the throne, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a> dynasty (551–577). Afterward, Yuwen Tai's son <a href="/wiki/Yuwen_Jue" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuwen Jue">Yuwen Jue</a> seized the throne of power from <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Gong of Western Wei">Emperor Gong of Western Wei</a>, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a> dynasty (557–580). </p><p>The Northern Qi inherited the primary recruiting grounds of the Northern Wei army; previously, five out of six Northern Wei military officers came from the eastern territories, particularly the local armed forts of Han military families and steppe tribes who had settled in these areas. The members of these military families, both men and women, were often expert riders and archers.<sup id="cite_ref-cosmopo_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cosmopo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like its predecessor the Western Wei, the Northern Zhou reacted against sinicization by trying to revive Xianbei warrior culture: reviving Xianbei tunics, trousers and boots, reverting sinicized surnames into Xianbei names and even giving Han officers Xianbei surnames.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This "tribalization" policy was intended to convert large numbers of Han Chinese army recruits into "Xianbei" who would pay for their own equipment in exchange for tax exemptions. The policy was highly successful in boosting the state's military strength.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Northern Zhou dynasty was able to defeat and conquer Northern Qi in 577, reunifying the north. However, this success was short-lived, as the Northern Zhou was overthrown in 581 by Yang Jian, who became <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a>. </p><p>With greater military power and morale, along with convincing propaganda that the Chen dynasty ruler <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shubao" title="Chen Shubao">Chen Shubao</a> was a decadent ruler who had lost the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>, the Sui Dynasty was able to effectively conquer the south. After this conquest, the whole of China entered a new golden age of reunification under the centralization of the short-lived Sui dynasty and the succeeding <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907). </p><p>The core elite of the Northern dynasties, mixed-culture, and mixed-ethnicity military clans, would later also form the founding elites of the Sui and Tang dynasties. Hence, they tended to have a flexible approach to steppe nomads, viewing them as possible partners rather than intrinsic enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Southern_dynasties">Southern dynasties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Southern dynasties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Southern_dynasties" title="List of emperors of the Southern dynasties">List of emperors of the Southern dynasties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chuning_-_eastern_qilin_-_P1060971.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Chuning_-_eastern_qilin_-_P1060971.JPG/220px-Chuning_-_eastern_qilin_-_P1060971.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Chuning_-_eastern_qilin_-_P1060971.JPG/330px-Chuning_-_eastern_qilin_-_P1060971.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Chuning_-_eastern_qilin_-_P1060971.JPG/440px-Chuning_-_eastern_qilin_-_P1060971.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The eastern <i><a href="/wiki/Qilin" title="Qilin">qilin</a></i> of the Chuning Tomb, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Jin were succeeded by a series of short-lived dynasties: <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a> (420–479), <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> (479–502), <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang</a> (502–557) and <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen</a> (557–589). As all of these dynasties had their capital at Jiankang (except for a brief interlude from 552 to 555), they are sometimes grouped together with Eastern Wu and Eastern Jin under the historiographic term "the <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a>". The rulers of these short-lived dynasties were generals who seized and then held power for several decades but were unable to securely pass power of rule onto their heirs to continue their dynasty successfully. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Emperor Wu of Liang</a> (502–549) was the most notable ruler of his age, being a patron of the arts and of Buddhism. </p><p>The Southern dynasties, except for the last Chen dynasty, were strongly dominated by the <i>shijia</i>, the great families, who monopolized political power until the mid-6th century. This class was created by <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a> during the late <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> when he attempted to consolidate his power by building an endogenous military caste of professional soldiers. His policy led to the rise and usurpation of the Sima family who established the Jin dynasty; subsequent leaders were similarly unable to bring the other great families in line.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jin dynasty's flight south greatly exacerbated the weakness of the central government, and the great families who accompanied the Emperor in his flight, along with the most wealthy clans of earlier settlers along the Zhejiang coast, were the primary power brokers in the Eastern Jin. With the greatly increased importance of proving one's pedigree to receive privileges, there was a rise in compiling of genealogy records, and the great families moved to legally outlaw intermarriage with common families. The lower class Northern migrants were forced to become "guests" (dependents) of the great families who established private guard forces with their new retainers. When the Eastern Jin attempted to draft the dependents of the great families, the court was quickly overthrown.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, with the fall of the Eastern Jin in 420, the balance of power shifted in favour the central government. The subsequent Liu Song, Qi, Liang and Chen dynasties were ruled by military leaders from lowly social backgrounds. They gradually stripped the powerful clans of military power, authority and wealth. The emperors stationed regional armies around the country under the command of their imperial relatives, recruited officers from humble backgrounds and appointed low-ranking officials to monitor the powerful elites occupying the top government posts. The southern aristocracy declined with the rise of the Indian Ocean trade in the mid 5th century, which led to the court revenues shifting to trade and the disappearance of the caste by the Chen dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As landowning aristocrats were unable to convert cash from the produce of their estates, the resurgence of trade and the money-based economy forced them to break up and sell their lands to the burgeoning merchant class. Influential merchants increasingly occupied political offices, displacing the old aristocrats. On the other hand, the economic developments also drove peasants, unable to cope with inflation or to pay taxes in cash, to become mercenary soldiers, wandering through the country selling their services to the warring princes and plundering the populace. These upheavals devastated the south which eased the fall of the south to the Sui dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis200969–73_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis200969–73-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the later waning leadership of the Chen dynasty, the southern Chinese were unable to resist the military power amassed in the north by Yang Jian, who declared himself <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a> and invaded the south. </p><p>Aboriginal chiefs played an important active role in adapting to the dominant Chinese structure, rather than being forcibly subjugated. For instance, the aboriginal chief <a href="/wiki/Lady_Xian" title="Lady Xian">Lady Xian</a> who married the Liang court's governor Feng Bao, helped to extend the dynasties' authority while preserving autonomy and local culture. Lady Xian and Feng Bao played a critical role in assisting Chen Baxian's rise, and in stabilising the region between the Liang, Chen, and Sui dynasties. The court acknowledged her authority by awarding her with official titles and emblems of power.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were many other local chieftains of mixed origins between Guangzhou and modern Vietnam that displayed mixed traits of both aboriginal and sinicized culture, such as the Ning of Qinzhou, the Li of Guizhou-Tengzhou and the Chen of Shuangzhou. These families functioned both as cheftains to the natives and bureaucrats to the court.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liu_Song_(420–479)"><span id="Liu_Song_.28420.E2.80.93479.29"></span>Liu Song (420–479)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Liu Song (420–479)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Wu_of_Song.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Emperor_Wu_of_Song.jpg/220px-Emperor_Wu_of_Song.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Emperor_Wu_of_Song.jpg/330px-Emperor_Wu_of_Song.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Emperor_Wu_of_Song.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>Liu Yu, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Song" title="Emperor Wu of Song">Emperor Wu of Liu Song</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Liu Song founder <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Wu of Liu Song">Liu Yu</a> was originally a leader of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Army_of_the_Northern_Garrison&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Army of the Northern Garrison (page does not exist)">Army of the Northern Garrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">北府軍</span>) that notably won the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fei_River" title="Battle of Fei River">Battle of Fei River</a> in 383. In 404, he helped suppress <a href="/wiki/Huan_Xuan" title="Huan Xuan">Huan Xuan</a>'s rebellion, leading to his dominance over the Eastern Jin court. In order to gain popularity to take the throne he led <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yu%27s_expeditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Yu's expeditions">expeditions</a> against the Sixteen Kingdoms, capturing <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> and, briefly, <a href="/wiki/Guanzhong" title="Guanzhong">Guanzhong</a> by 416. He gave up Guanzhong to try to take the throne. Because he believed in a <a href="/wiki/Emperor_An_of_Jin#Emperor_An's_death" title="Emperor An of Jin">prophecy</a> saying there would be one more emperor after <a href="/wiki/Emperor_An_of_Jin" title="Emperor An of Jin">Emperor An</a>, he deposed the former and, soon afterwards, his replacement, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Jin" title="Emperor Gong of Jin">Emperor Gong</a> in 420, ending the Eastern Jin dynasty. </p><p>Even after crowning himself Emperor Wu, Liu Yu remained frugal. However, he did not care for education and trusted unsavory people. He felt that the nobility had too much power, so he tended to appoint the lower classes to government positions and gave military power to imperial kinsmen. Ironically, because the imperial kinsmen stabilized their military power and wished to gain political power, Emperor Wu was afraid they would have thoughts of usurping the throne. Thus, he also frequently killed his kinsmen. </p><p>After the death of Emperor Wu, his son <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shao_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Shao of Liu Song">Emperor Shao</a> ruled briefly before being judged incompetent and killed by government officials led by <a href="/wiki/Xu_Xianzhi" title="Xu Xianzhi">Xu Xianzhi</a>, replacing him with <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Wen of Liu Song">Emperor Wen</a>, a different son, who soon killed the officials who supported him. Emperor Wen's reign was a period of relative political stability because of his frugality and good government; the period was called the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Yuanjia" title="Reign of Yuanjia">Reign of Yuanjia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh">元嘉之治</span>). </p><p>In 430, Emperor Wen started a number of northern expeditions against Northern Wei. These were ineffective because of insufficient preparations and excessive micromanagement of his generals, increasingly weakening the dynasty. Because of his jealousy of <a href="/wiki/Tan_Daoji" title="Tan Daoji">Tan Daoji</a>, a noted leader of the Army of the Northern Garrison, he deprived himself of a formidable general to the great delight of the Northern Wei. Thus, they were unable to capitalize when Northern Wei suffered the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wuqi_Incident&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wuqi Incident (page does not exist)">Wuqi Incident</a>. Starting in 445, Northern Wei, taking advantage of Liu Song's weakness, made major incursions in the lands between the Yangtze and the Huai (modern Shandong, Hebei, and Henan) and devastating six provinces. Emperor Wen lamented that if Tan were still alive, he would have prevented Northern Wei advances. From then on, Liu Song was in a weakened state. </p><p>Emperor Wen was assassinated by Crown Prince Shao and Second Prince Jun in 453 after planning to punish them for witchcraft. However, they were both defeated by Third Prince Jun, who become <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowu_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Xiaowu of Liu Song">Emperor Xiaowu</a>. proved to be licentious and cruel, supposedly committing incest with the daughters of an uncle who had helped him gain the throne; his rivals also claimed he had incest with his mother. This led to two rebellions by the imperial clan, one of which saw him slaughter the inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Yangzhou" title="Yangzhou">Guangling</a>. The following ballad gives an idea of those times: </p> <dl><dd><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">遙望建康城，</span></span> <i>Looking toward Jiankang city</i></dd> <dd><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">小江逆流縈，</span></span> <i>the little river flows against the current</i></dd> <dd><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">前見子殺父，</span></span> <i>in front, one sees sons killing fathers</i></dd> <dd><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">後見弟殺兄。</span></span> <i>and behind, one sees younger brothers killing older brothers</i> <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Emperor Xiaowu died naturally in 464 and was succeeded by his son, who became <a href="/wiki/Former_Deposed_Emperor_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Former Deposed Emperor of Liu Song">Emperor Qianfei</a>. Emperor Qianfei proved to be similar to his father, engaging in both kin-slaughter and incest. In a scandalous move, because his sister complained about how it was unfair that men were allowed 10,000 concubines, he gave her 30 handsome young men as lovers. His uncle Liu Yu, the Prince of Xiangdong, whom he called the "Prince of Pigs" for his obesity, eventually assassinated him and became <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Ming of Liu Song">Emperor Ming</a>. </p><p>Emperor Ming began his reign by killing all the descendants of Emperor Xiaowu, and his suspicious nature resulted in the loss of the provinces north of the Huai River, which were only briefly regained in the other Southern dynasties. Emperor Ming's young son became <a href="/wiki/Latter_Deposed_Emperor_of_Liu_Song" title="Latter Deposed Emperor of Liu Song">Emperor Houfei</a>. The political situation was volatile. General Xiao Daocheng slowly gained power and eventually deposed Emperor Houfei in favor of his brother, who became <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shun_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Shun of Liu Song">Emperor Shun</a>. After defeating the rival general <a href="/wiki/Shen_Youzhi" title="Shen Youzhi">Shen Youzhi</a>, Xiao forced Emperor Shun to yield the throne and crowned himself <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gao_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Gao of Southern Qi">Emperor Gao of Southern Qi</a>, thus ending the Liu Song dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Qi_(479–502)"><span id="Southern_Qi_.28479.E2.80.93502.29"></span>Southern Qi (479–502)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Southern Qi (479–502)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_Dynasties_Brick_Relief_19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Southern_Dynasties_Brick_Relief_19.jpg/310px-Southern_Dynasties_Brick_Relief_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Southern_Dynasties_Brick_Relief_19.jpg/465px-Southern_Dynasties_Brick_Relief_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Southern_Dynasties_Brick_Relief_19.jpg/620px-Southern_Dynasties_Brick_Relief_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5083" data-file-height="2549" /></a><figcaption>Brick relief from the <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Dengxian_tomb" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Dengxian tomb">Dengxian tomb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengxian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengxian">Dengxian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>. Southern Dynasties, circa 500 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Though distantly related, the Southern Qi and the following Liang dynasty were members of the Xiao (<span lang="zh">蕭</span>) family from Lanling (<span lang="zh">蘭陵</span>, in modern <a href="/wiki/Cangshan_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Cangshan County">Cangshan County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>). Because Emperor Gao had a low social standing, he earned the disdain of nobility. His style of governance was similar to the early style of the Liu Song dynasty and was very economical. He died in the fourth year of his reign and his heir, who was only 13 years younger than him, succeeded him as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Wu of Southern Qi">Emperor Wu of Southern Qi</a>. Emperor Wu made peace with the Northern Wei, content to protect his borders. This period of peace was known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reign_of_Yongming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reign of Yongming (page does not exist)">Yongming Administration</a>. He also used government secretaries appointed with provincial governors and members of the imperial clan to monitor them. </p><p>The short reigns of Emperor Wu's grandsons, <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Zhaoye" title="Xiao Zhaoye">Xiao Zhaoye</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Zhaowen" title="Xiao Zhaowen">Xiao Zhaowen</a> (his first son predeceased him), were dominated by Xiao Luan, Emperor's Wu's first cousin. He killed them in turn and crowned himself as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Ming of Southern Qi">Emperor Ming of Southern Qi</a>. Using the government secretaries, he slaughtered all the sons of Emperors Gao and Wu. Emperor Ming soon became very ill and started following Daoism, changing his whole wardrobe to red. He also passed an edict making officials try to find whitebait (銀魚). He died in 498 and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Baojuan" title="Xiao Baojuan">Xiao Baojuan</a>, who killed high officials and governors at whim, sparking many revolts. The final revolt in 501 started after Xiao Baojuan killed his prime minister Xiao Yi, leading his brother <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Xiao Yan</a> to revolt under the banner of Xiao Baojuan's brother who was declared <a href="/wiki/Emperor_He_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor He of Southern Qi">Emperor He of Southern Qi</a>. Xiao Baojuan was killed by one of his generals during the siege of his capital at Jiankang, and after a short puppet reign by Emperor He, Xiao Yan overthrew the Southern Qi and established the Liang dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liang_(502–557)"><span id="Liang_.28502.E2.80.93557.29"></span>Liang (502–557)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Liang (502–557)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Wu_of_Liang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang.jpg/220px-Emperor_Wu_of_Liang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang.jpg/330px-Emperor_Wu_of_Liang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Emperor Wu of Liang</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Emperor Wu was economical, worked hard at governing, and cared for the common people. His early reign was known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reign_of_Tianjian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reign of Tianjian (page does not exist)">Reign of Tianjian</a>. The Liang dynasty's military strength gradually surpassed the strength of the Northern Wei, who suffered internal strife due to their policy of <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicization</a>. In 503, the Northern Wei invaded but were defeated at Zhongli (modern <a href="/wiki/Bengbu" title="Bengbu">Bengbu</a>). Emperor Wu supported the Northern Expeditions but did not aggressively take advantage of his victory in 516 at <a href="/wiki/Shouyang_County" title="Shouyang County">Shouyang</a> due to heavy casualties. Given the excessive kin-slaughter in the Liu Song and Southern Qi dynasties, Emperor Wu was very lenient to imperial clansmen, not even investigating them when they committed crimes. The Liang reached a cultural peak because he was very learned, supported scholars, and encouraged the flourishing education system. An avid poet, Emperor Wu was fond of gathering many literary talents at court, and even held poetry competitions with prizes of gold or silk for those considered the best. </p><p>In his later years, however, sycophants surrounded him. Three times he dedicated his life to Buddhism and tried to become a monk, but each time he was persuaded to return by extravagant court donations to Buddhism. Furthermore, since Buddhists and Daoists were exempt from taxation, nearly half of the population fraudulently named themselves as such, badly damaging state finances. Imperial clansmen and officials were also greedy and wasteful. </p><p>Emperor Wu was willing to accept generals who defected from Northern Wei. So when Northern Wei suffered major revolts in their <a href="/wiki/Six_Frontier_Towns" title="Six Frontier Towns">northern garrison towns</a>, he sent his general <a href="/wiki/Chen_Qingzhi" title="Chen Qingzhi">Chen Qingzhi</a> to support the pretender <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Hao" title="Yuan Hao">Yuan Hao</a>. Despite the fact that Chen was only given 7,000 troops, he still managed to defeat army after army and even captured Luoyang, the capital of Northern Wei. Ultimately, Chen was insufficiently supplied and was defeated by troops ten times his size. After the Northern Wei split into Eastern and Western Wei, Emperor Wu granted asylum to rebel Eastern Wei commander <a href="/wiki/Hou_Jing" title="Hou Jing">Hou Jing</a>, sending him on Northern Expeditions against Eastern Wei. After some initial successes, Liang forces were decisively defeated. Rumors abounded that Emperor Wu intended to give Hou as a peace offering. Despite Emperor Wu's assurances, Hou decided to rebel in the name of <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Dong" title="Xiao Dong">Xiao Dong</a>, the grandson of the former crown prince <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Tong" title="Xiao Tong">Xiao Tong</a> who died in 531 and was removed from crown prince because of conflicts with his father. Hou surprised Emperor Liang by besieging the Liang capital at Jiankang. Attempts by Liang forces to break the siege failed, and Emperor Wu was forced to negotiate a ceasefire and peace. However, Hou thought that peace was unsustainable, so he broke the ceasefire and captured the palace, leading to the slaughter of the nearby populace. Emperor Wu was starved to death and after the short puppet reigns of crown prince <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jianwen_of_Liang" title="Emperor Jianwen of Liang">Xiao Gang</a> and Xiao Dong, Hou seized power and established the Han dynasty. </p><p>In spite of conquering Jiankang, Hou essentially only controlled the nearby areas. The rest of the Liang dynasty lands were under the control of members of the imperial clan. Their squabbling amongst themselves weakened their efforts to defeat Hou. In the end, Xiao Yi with the aid of his generals <a href="/wiki/Wang_Sengbian" title="Wang Sengbian">Wang Sengbian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chen_Baxian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen Baxian">Chen Baxian</a> defeated Hou, crowning himself <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Liang" title="Emperor Yuan of Liang">Emperor Yuan of Liang</a>. His brother <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Ji" title="Xiao Ji">Xiao Ji</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> was still a major threat. Emperor Yuan asked for assistance from Western Wei to defeat Xiao Ji, but after subduing Xiao Ji, they kept Sichuan. Due to a diplomatic faux pas, he incited the anger of Yuwen Tai, the leading general of Western Wei, which resulted in him being deposed and dying. Western Wei set up the puppet state of <a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(555%E2%80%93587)" title="Western Liang (555–587)">Western Liang</a> with capital at Jiangling. Northern Qi also had designs on the Liang throne and sent an expedition under the banner of a cousin of Emperor Yuan. Chen Baxian and Wang Sengbian set up the last surviving son of Emperor Yuan, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Liang" title="Emperor Jing of Liang">Xiao Fangzhi</a>, as Liang ruler, but he was not given the imperial title. After some defeats to the forces of Northern Qi, Wang Sengbian allowed their pretender, <a href="/wiki/Xiao_Yuanming" title="Xiao Yuanming">Xiao Yuanming</a> to establish himself as Emperor Min of Liang. However, Chen Baxian was displeased with the arrangements, and in a surprise move killed Wang and deposed Emperor Min in favor of Xiao Fangzhi who became Emperor Jing of Liang. After a short reign, Chen deposed Emperor Jing and took power himself as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Chen" title="Emperor Wu of Chen">Emperor Wu of Chen</a> in 557. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chen_(557–589)"><span id="Chen_.28557.E2.80.93589.29"></span>Chen (557–589)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Chen (557–589)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen dynasty</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_Yongning_of_the_Ts%27en_Dynasty.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tomb_Yongning_of_the_Ts%27en_Dynasty.JPG/300px-Tomb_Yongning_of_the_Ts%27en_Dynasty.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tomb_Yongning_of_the_Ts%27en_Dynasty.JPG/450px-Tomb_Yongning_of_the_Ts%27en_Dynasty.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Tomb_Yongning_of_the_Ts%27en_Dynasty.JPG/600px-Tomb_Yongning_of_the_Ts%27en_Dynasty.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>One of the two <i><a href="/wiki/Pixiu" title="Pixiu">pixiu</a></i> statues from the Yongning Tomb of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Chen" title="Emperor Wen of Chen">Emperor Wen of Chen</a> (r. 559–566 AD), <a href="/wiki/Chen_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen Dynasty">Chen Dynasty</a>, Qixia District, <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Emperor Wu of Chen came from the region of <a href="/wiki/Wu-speaking_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu-speaking peoples">Wu</a> (a region near modern-day Shanghai). At that time, due to the Hou Jing rebellion, the Qiao and Wu clans were greatly weakened, and many independent regimes emerged. Emperor Wu could not pacify all the independent regimes, so he adopted conciliatory measures. After the sudden death of Emperor Wu, his nephew Chen Qian took power as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Chen" title="Emperor Wen of Chen">Emperor Wen of Chen</a>. After the fall of Liang, the general <a href="/wiki/Wang_Lin_(general)" title="Wang Lin (general)">Wang Lin</a> had established an independent kingdom based in modern-day Hunan and Hubei provinces and was now starting to cause trouble. Wang Lin allied with <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a> to conquer the Chen capital at Jiankang. Emperor Wen first defeated the combined forces of Northern Qi and Wang Lin before preventing the forces of Northern Zhou from entering the South at <a href="/wiki/Yueyang" title="Yueyang">Yueyang</a>. Furthermore, through Emperor Wen's extensive efforts at good governance, the economic situation of the South was greatly improved, restoring his kingdom's national strength. </p><p>Following the death of Emperor Wen, his son, the weak-willed Chen Bozong, took power and became <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Fei_of_Chen" title="Emperor Fei of Chen">Emperor Fei of Chen</a>. His uncle, Chen Xu, after essentially controlling the country through his short reign, eventually deposed him and took power as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuan_of_Chen" title="Emperor Xuan of Chen">Emperor Xuan of Chen</a>. At that time, the Northern Zhou intended to conquer Northern Qi and thus invited the Chen dynasty to help. Emperor Xuan agreed to help because he wanted to recover the lost territories south of the Huai River. In 573, he sent general <a href="/wiki/Wu_Mingche" title="Wu Mingche">Wu Mingche</a> to assist the effort; in two years, he managed to recover he lost territories south of the Huai River. At the time, Northern Qi was in a precarious situation with little military strength and Emperor Xuan could have taken advantage of the opportunity to entirely defeat Northern Qi. However, he only wanted to protect his territories south of the Huai River. Northern Zhou instead took advantage of Northern Qi's weakness and following their defeat of Northern Qi, in 577, they sent troops to the territories south of the Huai River, where they decisively defeated the Chen dynasty forces. The Chen dynasty was in imminent danger. </p><p>In a stroke of fortune, Northern Zhou's Emperor Wu suddenly died and his general <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Yang Jian</a> attempted to take the throne. This stopped the southern advance of the northern troops. The respite was short though, as after Yang Jian defeated his rival General <a href="/wiki/Yuchi_Jiong" title="Yuchi Jiong">Yuchi Jiong</a>, he usurped the throne from <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou">Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou</a> and established the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, crowning himself <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a>. He proceeded to invade the south to reunify China. Emperor Xuan had just died and his incompetent son <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shubao" title="Chen Shubao">Chen Shubao</a> (Houzhu of Chen) took power. He was licentious and wasteful, resulting in chaos and corruption in the government; many officials heavily exploited the people, causing great suffering. In planning to defeat the Chen dynasty, Emperor Wen of Sui took the suggestion of his general <a href="/wiki/Gao_Jiong" title="Gao Jiong">Gao Jiong</a> and waited until the South were harvesting their crops to entirely burn the farmland, crippling the strength of the Chen dynasty. In 588, Emperor Wen of Sui sent his son Yang Guang (who would become <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yang_of_Sui" title="Emperor Yang of Sui">Emperor Yang of Sui</a>) to finally vanquish the Chen dynasty. Chen Shubao relied on the natural barrier of the Yangtze River and continued as always with his festive and licentious activities. The next year, Sui forces captured the Chen capital of Jiankang. Chen Shubao and his favorite concubine <a href="/wiki/Consort_Zhang_Lihua" class="mw-redirect" title="Consort Zhang Lihua">Zhang Lihua</a> attempted to hide in a well but eventually were captured by Sui forces, thus ending the Chen dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Diplomacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the failure of the Liu Song's efforts to form an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Rouran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouran">Rouran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuyuhun" title="Tuyuhun">Tuyuhun</a> and smaller local powers to defeat the Northern Wei, the North and South were forced into tacitly acknowledging their equal status, for example, by granting each other the highest positions as the most esteemed envoys.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <i>Wei Shu</i> and <i>Song Shu</i> testify, there was a shift from imperial rhetoric denouncing the other side as illegitimate barbarians, towards a new conception referring to the two as distinct 'Northern' and Southern' parallels, using unique local customs to distinguish themselves and compete for legitimacy.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was during the Northern and Southern dynasties period that the earliest recorded mass migration of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han</a> to southern China (south of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>) took place. This sinicisation helped to develop the region from its previous state of being inhabited by isolated communities separated by vast uncolonized wilderness and other non-Han ethnic groups. During this period, the south went from being nearly a frontier to being on a path to the thriving, urbanized, sinicized region that it became in later centuries. In his book <i>Buddhism in Chinese History</i>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_F._Wright" title="Arthur F. Wright">Arthur F. Wright</a> points out this fact by stating: </p> <blockquote> <p>"When we speak of the area of the Yangtze valley and below in the period of disunion, we must banish from our minds the picture of the densely populated, intensively cultivated South China of recent centuries. When the aristocrats of the remnants of the Chin [Jin] ruling house fled to the Nanking [Nanjing] area early in the 4th century, the south contained perhaps a tenth of the population of China. There were centers of Chinese culture and administration, but around most of these lay vast uncolonized areas into which Chinese settlers were slow to move".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>During the Northern and Southern dynasties, the Yangtze valley transformed from a backwater frontier region with less than 25% of China's population to a major cultural center of China with 40% of China's population, and after China was subsequently unified under the Tang dynasty, they became the core area of Chinese culture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis20092,_6–7_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis20092,_6–7-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the Jin court fled south they continued to speak in the refined common language, <i>tongyu</i>, from the Central Plains in the North, which was regarded as highly prestigious. However, many local southern Chinese resisted adopting the speech of the newcomers. During the Southern dynasties period, beginning in the mid-4th century and spreading widely by the 5th century, elite northern emigres and southern locals around the capital of Jiankang developed a new elite speech form, with clearly distinctive pronunciation and phrasing that set it apart from the Central Plains speech. However, some of the emigres also resisted this new trend to "prize the speech of Wu", which they regarded as "seductive and frivolous". Meanwhile, the process of Han Chinese courtiers learning Xianbei and Xianbei learning Chinese led to the court speech of the North changing as well. By the 6th century, southern elites looked down on the accent of Luoyang as "crude and clumsy".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang,_Xinzhou,_Mural,_Building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_Building.jpg/200px-Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_Building.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_Building.jpg/300px-Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_Building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_Building.jpg/400px-Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_Building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang,_Xinzhou,_Mural,_West_Wall_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_West_Wall_1.jpg/200px-Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_West_Wall_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_West_Wall_1.jpg/300px-Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_West_Wall_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_West_Wall_1.jpg/400px-Tomb_of_Northern_Qi_Dynasty_in_Jiuyuangang%2C_Xinzhou%2C_Mural%2C_West_Wall_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="661" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Murals from a tomb of <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Qi Dynasty">Northern Qi Dynasty</a> (550–577 AD) in Jiuyuangang, <a href="/wiki/Xinzhou" title="Xinzhou">Xinzhou</a></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>'s unchallenged domination of Chinese culture and thought was greatly weakened during the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin dynasty</a>, which led to a wide diversification of political thought and philosophy by the time of the Northern and Southern dynasties. This era produced a myriad of writers that advocated practical systems of governance and administration, such as <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang" title="Zhuge Liang">Zhuge Liang</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Kingdoms Period">Three Kingdoms Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Dao" title="Wang Dao">Wang Dao</a> and Bao Jingyan of the Eastern Jin, as well as <a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhen" title="Fan Zhen">Fan Zhen</a>, Xing Shao (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">邢邵</span>), and Fan Xun (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">樊遜</span>) of the Northern and Southern period. Much of the philosophy of the period is despondent and dispirited, and a number of scholars and poets became reclusive mountain <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">hermits</a> living apart from society.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these various trends, the most influential was <a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neo-Daoism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">玄學</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Xuánxué</span></i>). Neo-Daoism was highly influential during the Southern Dynasty, to the point that <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Wen of Liu Song">Emperor Wen of Liu Song</a> established a Neo-Daoist Academy and promoted it, along with Confucianism, literature, and history, as the four great subjects of study. A phenomenon known as "empty chat" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">清談</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Qīng tán</span></i>) became common, where educated men would meet and talk about philosophy all day without paying any attention to "mundane" things such as their profession or family. The phenomenon gradually waned during the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, though it did not fully disappear until the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties_poetry" title="Six Dynasties poetry">Six Dynasties poetry</a></div> <p>Literature was particularly vibrant during the Southern Dynasty and tended to be flowery and frilly, while Northern Dynasty literature was rougher and more straightforward. Notable writers include <a href="/wiki/Yu_Xin" title="Yu Xin">Yu Xin</a>, Xing Fang, <a href="/wiki/Wei_Shou" title="Wei Shou">Wei Shou</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wen_Zisheng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wen Zisheng (page does not exist)">Wen Zisheng</a> of the Northern Dynasty. In poetry, <a href="/wiki/Fu_(poetry)" title="Fu (poetry)"><i>fu</i> poetry</a> continued to be a dominant genre, though the five-syllable form that achieved great prominence during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> gradually increased in popularity. In the Southern Dynasty, a type of essay known as <i>pian wen</i> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">駢文</span>), which used <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metered_rhyme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metered rhyme (page does not exist)">metered rhyme</a>, flowery language, and classical allusions, became popular. Writings often spoke of removing oneself from everyday material existence and jettisoning cares and anxiety. </p><p>Poets of the Northern and Southern dynasties focused on imitating older classical poets of <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient China</a>, formalizing the rhyme patterns and meters that governed poem composition. However, scholars realized that ancient songs and poems, like those of the <a href="/wiki/Shijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Shijing">Shijing</a>, in many instances no longer rhymed due to <a href="/wiki/Sound_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound shift">sound shifts</a> over the previous centuries. The introduction of Buddhism to China, which began in the late <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> and continued through the Tang dynasty, introduced Chinese scholars to <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a>, with its sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> organization, arrived in China in the 5th century, and was studied by <a href="/wiki/Xie_Lingyun" title="Xie Lingyun">Xie Lingyun</a>, who produced a (since-lost) glossary of Chinese transcriptions of Sanskrit terms "arranged according to the 14 sounds".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Four_tones_(Middle_Chinese)" title="Four tones (Middle Chinese)">four tones</a> of early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> were first described by <a href="/wiki/Shen_Yue" title="Shen Yue">Shen Yue</a> and Zhou Yong.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_arts">Other arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_paintings_Yungang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Buddhist_paintings_Yungang.jpg/170px-Buddhist_paintings_Yungang.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Buddhist_paintings_Yungang.jpg/255px-Buddhist_paintings_Yungang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Buddhist_paintings_Yungang.jpg/340px-Buddhist_paintings_Yungang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Northern Wei wall <a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">murals</a> and painted figurines from the <a href="/wiki/Yungang_Grottoes" title="Yungang Grottoes">Yungang Grottoes</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The southern dynasties of China were rich in cultural achievement, with the flourishing of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>, especially the latter as two new canons of scriptural writings were created for the <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Supreme Purity sect</a> and its rival the <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Numinous Treasure Sect</a>. The southern Chinese were influenced greatly by the writings of Buddhist monks such as <a href="/wiki/Huiyuan_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huiyuan (Buddhist)">Huiyuan</a>, who applied familiar Daoist terms to describe Buddhism for other Chinese. The Chinese were in contact and influenced by cultures of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and trading partners farther south, such as the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Funan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Funan">Funan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a> (located in modern-day Cambodia and Vietnam). </p><p>The sophistication and complexity of the Chinese arts of poetry, calligraphy, painting, and playing of music reached new heights during this age. The earlier <a href="/wiki/Cao_Zhi" title="Cao Zhi">Cao Zhi</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a>, is regarded as one of the greatest poets of his day. His style and deep emotional expression in writing influenced later poets of this new age, such as <a href="/wiki/Tao_Yuanming" title="Tao Yuanming">Tao Qian</a> (365–427) or Tao Yuanming. Even during his lifetime, the written calligraphy of the "Sage of Calligraphy", <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xizhi" title="Wang Xizhi">Wang Xizhi</a> (307–365), was prized by many and considered a true form of personal expression like other arts. Painting became highly prized with artists such as <a href="/wiki/Gu_Kaizhi" title="Gu Kaizhi">Gu Kaizhi</a> (344–406), who largely established the tradition of landscape art in classical <a href="/wiki/Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting">Chinese painting</a> (to learn more, refer to the "Far East" section of the article for <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a>). </p><p>Institutions of learning in the south were also renowned, including the <a href="/wiki/Zongmingguan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zongmingguan">Zongmingguan</a> (Imperial Nanjing University), where the famed Zu Chongzhi (mentioned above) had studied. Zu Chongzhi devised the new Daming Calendar in 465, calculated one year as 365.24281481 days (which is very close to 365.24219878 days as we know today), and calculated the number of overlaps between sun and moon as 27.21223 (which is very close to 27.21222 as we know today). Using this number he successfully predicted 4 eclipses during a period of 23 years (from 436 to 459). </p><p>Although multiple-story towers such as guard towers and residential apartments existed in previous periods,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during this period the distinct <a href="/wiki/Chinese_pagoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese pagoda">Chinese pagoda</a> tower (for storing Buddhist scriptures) evolved from the <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a>, the latter originating from Buddhist traditions of protecting sutras in ancient <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:1808px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhigongtu_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Song dynasty (960–1279) copy of a lost Liang dynasty original from 526-539: Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang by Xiao Yi. Foreign emissaries to the Liang court, from right to left: Uar(Hephthalites); Persia; Baekje; Qiuci; Wo (Japan); Langkasuka; Dengzhi (鄧至) of Qiang ethnic group; Karghalik (Yarkand, 周古柯), Kabadiyan (呵跋檀), Kumedhan (胡蜜丹), Baiti (白題, of similar Hephthalite stocks), whom dwell close to Hephthalite; Mo (Qiemo) (且末). National Museum of China."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Zhigongtu_full.jpg/1800px-Zhigongtu_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="1800" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Zhigongtu_full.jpg/2700px-Zhigongtu_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Zhigongtu_full.jpg/3600px-Zhigongtu_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3641" data-file-height="460" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhigongtu_full.jpg" title="File:Zhigongtu full.jpg"> </a></div>A <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) copy of a lost <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a> original from 526-539: <i><a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Periodical_Offering" title="Portraits of Periodical Offering">Portraits of Periodical Offering</a></i> of Liang by Xiao Yi. Foreign emissaries to the Liang court, from right to left: Uar(<a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>); <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a>; <a href="/wiki/Qiuci" class="mw-redirect" title="Qiuci">Qiuci</a>; Wo (<a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>); <a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dengzhi" title="Dengzhi">Dengzhi</a> (鄧至) of Qiang ethnic group; <a href="/wiki/Kargilik_County" title="Kargilik County">Karghalik</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkand</a>, 周古柯), <a href="/wiki/Kabadiyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabadiyan">Kabadiyan</a> (呵跋檀), <a href="/wiki/Kumedhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kumedhan">Kumedhan</a> (胡蜜丹), <a href="/wiki/Baiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Baiti">Baiti</a> (白題, of similar <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">Hephthalite</a> stocks), whom dwell close to Hephthalite; Mo (<a href="/wiki/Qiemo_Town" title="Qiemo Town">Qiemo</a>) (且末). <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_China" title="National Museum of China">National Museum of China</a>.</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maps">Maps</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_1.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 460: Northern Wei and Liu Song"><img alt="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 460: Northern Wei and Liu Song" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_1.png/120px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_1.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_1.png/180px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_1.png/240px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 460: Northern Wei and Liu Song</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 497: Northern Wei and Southern Qi"><img alt="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 497: Northern Wei and Southern Qi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_2.png/120px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_2.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_2.png/180px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_2.png/240px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 497: Northern Wei and Southern Qi</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_3.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 541: Eastern Wei, Western Wei and Liang"><img alt="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 541: Eastern Wei, Western Wei and Liang" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_3.png/120px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_3.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_3.png/180px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_3.png/240px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_3.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 541: Eastern Wei, Western Wei and Liang</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_4.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 562: Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, Liang and Chen"><img alt="Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 562: Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, Liang and Chen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_4.png/120px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_4.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_4.png/180px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_4.png/240px-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_4.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Northern and Southern Dynasties circa 562: Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, Liang and Chen</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Military history of the Northern and Southern dynasties">Military history of the Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Timeline of the Northern and Southern dynasties">Timeline of the Northern and Southern dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">Northern and southern China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_sovereign" title="Chinese sovereign">Chinese sovereign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tributaries of Imperial China">List of tributaries of Imperial China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Hu_(Northern_Wei)" title="Empress Dowager Hu (Northern Wei)">Empress Dowager Hu (Northern Wei)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Zhitui" title="Yan Zhitui">Yan Zhitui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinping_Commandery" title="Jinping Commandery">Jinping Commandery</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">His name is given as Zhang Xin in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Northern_Qi" title="Book of Northern Qi">Book of Northern Qi</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Dynasties" title="History of the Northern Dynasties">History of the Northern Dynasties</a> which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a <a href="/wiki/Naming_taboo" title="Naming taboo">naming taboo</a> on the emperor's name. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The ballad rhymes in the original <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a>. Note the antithesis between fathers and sons on the one hand, and younger brothers and older brothers on the other, both of which crimes are considered acts of great impiety according to the Confucian tenet known as the <a href="/wiki/Confucianism#Themes_in_Confucian_thought" title="Confucianism">Five Bonds</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gascoigne-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gascoigne_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGascoigne2003" class="citation book cs1">Gascoigne, Bamber (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dynastiesofchina00gasc"><i>The Dynasties of China: A History</i></a>. New York: Carroll & Graf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-786-71219-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-786-71219-9"><bdi>978-0-786-71219-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dynasties+of+China%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-786-71219-9&rft.aulast=Gascoigne&rft.aufirst=Bamber&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdynastiesofchina00gasc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Gernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Gernet (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a></span> (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/180">180</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521497817" title="Special:BookSources/0521497817"><bdi>0521497817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=180&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0521497817&rft.au=Jacques+Gernet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchinese00gern_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2009130–135-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2009130–135_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 130–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDien2007" class="citation book cs1">Dien, Albert E. (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0zp6iMZoqt0C&pg=PA223"><i>Six Dynasties Civilization</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07404-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07404-8"><bdi>978-0-300-07404-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Six+Dynasties+Civilization&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07404-8&rft.aulast=Dien&rft.aufirst=Albert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0zp6iMZoqt0C%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2004" class="citation book cs1">Watt, James C. Y. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&q=Wang+Yu+%28d.+after+500%29+began+his+career+as+a+palace+eunuch+in+his+youth+and+achieved+senior+positions+at+court%2C+...+hundred+miles+northeast+of+Xi%27an%2C+was+the+ancient+town+of+Lirun%2C+where+there+was+a+great+concentration+of+Qiang+people.&pg=PA23"><i>China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD</i></a>. Angela Falco Howard, Boris Ilʹich Marshak, Su Bai, Zhao Feng, Maxwell K. Hearn, Denise Patry Leidy, Chao-Hui Jenny Lui, Valentina Ivanova Raspopova, Zhixin Sun (illustrated ed.). Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1588391264" title="Special:BookSources/1588391264"><bdi>1588391264</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+Dawn+of+a+Golden+Age%2C+200-750+AD&rft.pages=23&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1588391264&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=James+C.+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJbdS-R3y72MC%26q%3DWang%2BYu%2B%2528d.%2Bafter%2B500%2529%2Bbegan%2Bhis%2Bcareer%2Bas%2Ba%2Bpalace%2Beunuch%2Bin%2Bhis%2Byouth%2Band%2Bachieved%2Bsenior%2Bpositions%2Bat%2Bcourt%252C%2B...%2Bhundred%2Bmiles%2Bnortheast%2Bof%2BXi%2527an%252C%2Bwas%2Bthe%2Bancient%2Btown%2Bof%2BLirun%252C%2Bwhere%2Bthere%2Bwas%2Ba%2Bgreat%2Bconcentration%2Bof%2BQiang%2Bpeople.%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson1991-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watson1991_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubie_Sharon_Watson1991" class="citation book cs1">Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80"><i>Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 80–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07124-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07124-7"><bdi>978-0-520-07124-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marriage+and+Inequality+in+Chinese+Society&rft.pages=80-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07124-7&rft.au=Rubie+Sharon+Watson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgAIcwz3V_JsC%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTang2016" class="citation thesis cs1">Tang, Qiaomei (May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/33493331/TANG-DISSERTATION-2016.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y"><i>Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China (First through Sixth Century)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (A dissertation presented by Qiaomei Tang to The Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of East Asian Languages and Civilizations). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. pp. 151, 152, 153.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Divorce+and+the+Divorced+Woman+in+Early+Medieval+China+%28First+through+Sixth+Century%29&rft.inst=Harvard+University&rft.date=2016-05&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=Qiaomei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F33493331%2FTANG-DISSERTATION-2016.pdf%3Fsequence%3D4%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SwartzCampany2013-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SwartzCampany2013_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2014">Lee (2014)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess"><i>Papers on Far Eastern History</i></a>. Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. 1983. p. 86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papers+on+Far+Eastern+History&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Australian+National+University%2C+Department+of+Far+Eastern+History.&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBdtBAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dliu%2Bhui%2Bwei%2Bprincess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinsch2018" class="citation book cs1">Hinsch, Bret (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=84BqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97"><i>Women in Early Medieval China</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1538117972" title="Special:BookSources/978-1538117972"><bdi>978-1538117972</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Early+Medieval+China&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1538117972&rft.aulast=Hinsch&rft.aufirst=Bret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D84BqDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinsch2016" class="citation book cs1">Hinsch, Bret (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1L7kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72"><i>Women in Imperial China</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442271661" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442271661"><bdi>978-1442271661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Imperial+China&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1442271661&rft.aulast=Hinsch&rft.aufirst=Bret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1L7kDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2014" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Jen-der (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AeiIl2y6vJQC&pg=PA161">"9. Crime and Punishment The Case of Liu Hui in the Wei Shu"</a>. In Swartz, Wendy; Campany, Robert Ford; Lu, Yang; Choo, Jessey (eds.). <i>Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook</i> (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 156–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231531009" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231531009"><bdi>978-0231531009</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9.+Crime+and+Punishment+The+Case+of+Liu+Hui+in+the+Wei+Shu&rft.btitle=Early+Medieval+China%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.pages=156-165&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0231531009&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Jen-der&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAeiIl2y6vJQC%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_National_University._Dept._of_Far_Eastern_History1983" class="citation book cs1">Australian National University. Dept. of Far Eastern History (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+lanling"><i>Papers on Far Eastern History, Volumes 27–30</i></a>. Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. pp. 86, 87, 88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Papers+on+Far+Eastern+History%2C+Volumes+27%E2%80%9330&rft.pages=86%2C+87%2C+88&rft.pub=Australian+National+University%2C+Department+of+Far+Eastern+History.&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Australian+National+University.+Dept.+of+Far+Eastern+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBdtBAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dliu%2Bhui%2Blanling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang1953" class="citation journal cs1">Wang, Yi-t’ung (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718246">"Slaves and Other Comparable Social Groups During The Northern Dynasties (386-618)"</a>. <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>. <b>16</b> (3/4). Harvard-Yenching Institute: 322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718246">10.2307/2718246</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718246">2718246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Slaves+and+Other+Comparable+Social+Groups+During+The+Northern+Dynasties+%28386-618%29&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=322&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718246&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718246%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Yi-t%E2%80%99ung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&q=Xiao+Baoyin&pg=PA30"><i>China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD</i></a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. pp. 30–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-126-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-126-1"><bdi>978-1-58839-126-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+Dawn+of+a+Golden+Age%2C+200%E2%80%93750+AD&rft.pages=30-&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-126-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJbdS-R3y72MC%26q%3DXiao%2BBaoyin%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&q=Xiao+Baoyin&pg=PA1566"><i>Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four</i></a>. BRILL. 22 September 2014. pp. 1566–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27185-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27185-2"><bdi>978-90-04-27185-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+Chinese+Literature+%28vol.3+%26+4%29%3A+A+Reference+Guide%2C+Part+Three+%26+Four&rft.pages=1566-&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2014-09-22&rft.isbn=978-90-04-27185-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOWLPBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DXiao%2BBaoyin%26pg%3DPA1566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamek2017" class="citation book cs1">Adamek, Piotr (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WzQrDwAAQBAJ&q=zhang+emperor+xiaowu&pg=PA242"><i>Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values</i></a>. Routledge. p. 242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1351565219" title="Special:BookSources/978-1351565219"><bdi>978-1351565219</bdi></a>. <q>... Southern Song.105 We read the story of a certain Zhang Huan 張歡 in the Zhoushu, who married a sister of Emperor Xiaowu 宣武帝 of the Northern Wei (r.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Good+Son+is+Sad+If+He+Hears+the+Name+of+His+Father%3A+The+Tabooing+of+Names+in+China+as+a+Way+of+Implementing+Social+Values&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1351565219&rft.aulast=Adamek&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWzQrDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dzhang%2Bemperor%2Bxiaowu%26pg%3DPA242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA18"><i>China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD</i></a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. pp. 18–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-126-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-126-1"><bdi>978-1-58839-126-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+Dawn+of+a+Golden+Age%2C+200%E2%80%93750+AD&rft.pages=18-&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-126-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJbdS-R3y72MC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ger-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ger_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ger_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Gernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Gernet (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a></span> (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/192">192</a>–193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521497817" title="Special:BookSources/0521497817"><bdi>0521497817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=192-193&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0521497817&rft.au=Jacques+Gernet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchinese00gern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cosmopo-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cosmopo_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Edward_Lewis2012" class="citation book cs1">Mark Edward Lewis (2012). <i>China's Cosmopolitan Empire The Tang Dynasty</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674265417" title="Special:BookSources/9780674265417"><bdi>9780674265417</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Cosmopolitan+Empire+The+Tang+Dynasty&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780674265417&rft.au=Mark+Edward+Lewis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicola_Di_Cosmo,_Don_J_Wyatt2005" class="citation book cs1">Nicola Di Cosmo, Don J Wyatt (2005). <i>Political Frontiers, Ethnic Boundaries and Human Geographies in Chinese History</i>. Routledge. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135790950" title="Special:BookSources/9781135790950"><bdi>9781135790950</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Frontiers%2C+Ethnic+Boundaries+and+Human+Geographies+in+Chinese+History&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781135790950&rft.au=Nicola+Di+Cosmo%2C+Don+J+Wyatt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDien2007" class="citation book cs1">Dien, Albert E. (1 January 2007). <i>Six Dynasties Civilization</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07404-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07404-8"><bdi>978-0-300-07404-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Six+Dynasties+Civilization&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07404-8&rft.aulast=Dien&rft.aufirst=Albert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_S._Abramson2011" class="citation book cs1">Marc S. Abramson (2011). <i>Ethnic Identity in Tang China</i>. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 15, 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812201017" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812201017"><bdi>978-0812201017</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Identity+in+Tang+China&rft.pages=15%2C+143&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0812201017&rft.au=Marc+S.+Abramson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Gernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Gernet (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a></span> (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/177">177</a>–178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521497817" title="Special:BookSources/0521497817"><bdi>0521497817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=177-178&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0521497817&rft.au=Jacques+Gernet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchinese00gern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Gernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Gernet (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a></span> (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/181">181</a>–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521497817" title="Special:BookSources/0521497817"><bdi>0521497817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=181-183&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0521497817&rft.au=Jacques+Gernet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchinese00gern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Gernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Gernet (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a></span> (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0/page/172">172</a>, 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521497817" title="Special:BookSources/0521497817"><bdi>0521497817</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Civilization&rft.pages=172%2C+184&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0521497817&rft.au=Jacques+Gernet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchinese00gern_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis200969–73-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis200969–73_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 69–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHe_Xi2013" class="citation book cs1">He Xi (2013). "The Past tells it differently: the Myth of Native Subjugation in the Creation of Lineage Society in South China". In Cuiping He; David Faure; Ts'ui-p'ing Ho (eds.). <i>Chieftains Into Ancestors Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China</i>. UBC Press. pp. 138–142, 163–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780774823685" title="Special:BookSources/9780774823685"><bdi>9780774823685</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Past+tells+it+differently%3A+the+Myth+of+Native+Subjugation+in+the+Creation+of+Lineage+Society+in+South+China&rft.btitle=Chieftains+Into+Ancestors+Imperial+Expansion+and+Indigenous+Society+in+Southwest+China&rft.pages=138-142%2C+163-164&rft.pub=UBC+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780774823685&rft.au=He+Xi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatherine_Churchman2016" class="citation book cs1">Catherine Churchman (2016). <i>The People between the Rivers: The Rise and Fall of a Bronze Drum Culture, 200-750 CE</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 172–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442258600" title="Special:BookSources/9781442258600"><bdi>9781442258600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+People+between+the+Rivers%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+a+Bronze+Drum+Culture%2C+200-750+CE&rft.pages=172-195&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781442258600&rft.au=Catherine+Churchman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Late 5th to early 6th century" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValenstein2007" class="citation book cs1">Valenstein, Suzanne G. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3OY4ohjy-pMC&pg=PA42"><i>Cultural Convergence in the Northern Qi Period: A Flamboyant Chinese Ceramic Container : a Research Monograph</i></a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-211-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-211-4"><bdi>978-1-58839-211-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Convergence+in+the+Northern+Qi+Period%3A+A+Flamboyant+Chinese+Ceramic+Container+%3A+a+Research+Monograph&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-211-4&rft.aulast=Valenstein&rft.aufirst=Suzanne+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3OY4ohjy-pMC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuliano1980" class="citation journal cs1">Juliano, Annette L. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1522695.pdf">"Teng-Hsien: An Important Six Dynasties Tomb"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Artibus Asiae. Supplementum</i>. <b>37</b>: III–83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1522695">10.2307/1522695</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1423-0526">1423-0526</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1522695">1522695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artibus+Asiae.+Supplementum&rft.atitle=Teng-Hsien%3A+An+Important+Six+Dynasties+Tomb&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=III-83&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=1423-0526&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1522695%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1522695&rft.aulast=Juliano&rft.aufirst=Annette+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fpdf%2F1522695.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuning_Liu2020" class="citation book cs1">Puning Liu (2020). <i>China's Northern Wei Dynasty, 386-535: The Struggle for Legitimacy</i>. Routledge. pp. 88–89, 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000283143" title="Special:BookSources/9781000283143"><bdi>9781000283143</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Northern+Wei+Dynasty%2C+386-535%3A+The+Struggle+for+Legitimacy&rft.pages=88-89%2C+95&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781000283143&rft.au=Puning+Liu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Felt, David Jonathan. “The Metageography of the Northern and Southern Dynasties.” T’oung Pao 103, no. 4–5 (2017): 334–87. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26566294">https://www.jstor.org/stable/26566294</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, Arthur F. (1959). <i>Buddhism in Chinese History</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Page 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis20092,_6–7-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis20092,_6–7_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis 2009</a>, pp. 2, 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Chittick2020" class="citation book cs1">Andrew Chittick (2020). <i>The Jiankang Empire in Chinese and World History</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190937560" title="Special:BookSources/9780190937560"><bdi>9780190937560</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jiankang+Empire+in+Chinese+and+World+History&rft.pages=92-93&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780190937560&rft.au=Andrew+Chittick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zou Jiwan 邹纪万, 1992. <i>Wei-Jin-Nan-Bei Chao de Xueshu yu Xinyang</i> 魏晋南北朝的学术与信仰, in <i>Zhongguo Tongshi</i> 中国通史, vol. 5, 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zou, 168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. 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"Chinese traditional phonology". <i>Asia Major</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 101–137. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41645549">41645549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Chinese+traditional+phonology&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-137&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41645549%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxter1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Baxter" title="William H. Baxter">Baxter, William H.</a> (1992). <i>A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology</i>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-012324-1"><bdi>978-3-11-012324-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Old+Chinese+Phonology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=303&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-012324-1&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collection.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/results.do;jsessionid=A0082D7F7A6F75A8FF3C7AEFB2CE697C?view=detail&db=object&id=24275">Art Gallery NSW</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoodberg1938" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_A._Boodberg" title="Peter A. Boodberg">Boodberg, Peter A.</a> (1938). "Marginalia to The Histories of The Northern Dynasties". <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>. <b>3</b> (3/4): 223–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2717838">10.2307/2717838</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717776">2717776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Marginalia+to+The+Histories+of+The+Northern+Dynasties&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=223-253&rft.date=1938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2717838&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2717776%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Boodberg&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoodberg1939" class="citation journal cs1">——— (1939). "Marginalia to The Histories of The Northern Dynasties". <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (3/4): 230–283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2717776">10.2307/2717776</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717776">2717776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Marginalia+to+The+Histories+of+The+Northern+Dynasties&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=230-283&rft.date=1939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2717776&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2717776%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Boodberg&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraff2002" class="citation book cs1">Graff, David A. (2002). <i>Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300–900</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23954-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23954-0"><bdi>0-415-23954-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Chinese+Warfare%2C+300%E2%80%93900&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-23954-0&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="citation book cs1">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0"><bdi>978-0-618-13384-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-618-13384-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rft.au=Palais%2C+James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feastasiacultural00ebre_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2009" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinabetweenempi00lewi"><i>China between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02605-6"><bdi>978-0-674-02605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+between+Empires%3A+The+Northern+and+Southern+Dynasties&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02605-6&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Mark+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinabetweenempi00lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANorthern+and+Southern+dynasties" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Miller, Roy Andrew (1959): <i>Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty</i>. University of California Press.</li> <li>Wright, Arthur F. (1959). <i>Buddhism in Chinese History</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_and_Southern_dynasties&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Southern_and_Northern_Dynasties_in_China" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Southern and Northern Dynasties in China">Southern and Northern Dynasties in China</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsdy/hd_nsdy.htm">Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://e-asia.uoregon.edu/earlychina/">Early Imperial China: A Working Collection of Resources </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100625031315/http://e-asia.uoregon.edu/earlychina/">Archived</a> 25 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin dynasty</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">Dynasties in Chinese history</a> </b><br />420–589 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_(420–589)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:NS_dynasties" title="Template:NS dynasties"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:NS_dynasties" title="Template talk:NS dynasties"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:NS_dynasties" title="Special:EditPage/Template:NS dynasties"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_(420–589)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Northern and Southern dynasties</a> (420–589)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Emperors_of_China%27s_Northern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Emperors of China's Northern Dynasties">Northern dynasties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> → (<a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a> | <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a> → <a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Emperors_of_China%27s_Southern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Emperors of China's Southern Dynasties">Southern dynasties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Liu_Song_dynasty" title="Liu Song dynasty">Liu Song</a> → <a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a> → <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(555%E2%80%93587)" title="Western Liang (555–587)">Western Liang</a>) → <a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emperors_of_the_Northern_dynasties" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Northern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template:Northern dynasties emperors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Northern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template talk:Northern dynasties emperors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Northern_dynasties_emperors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Northern dynasties emperors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emperors_of_the_Northern_dynasties" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Emperors_of_China%27s_Northern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Emperors of China's Northern Dynasties">Emperors</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern dynasties">Northern dynasties</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Daowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei">Daowu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Mingyuan_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei">Mingyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taiwu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei">Taiwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuoba_Yu" title="Tuoba Yu">Prince Yin of Nan'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wencheng_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei">Wencheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xianwen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei">Xianwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowen_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei">Xiaowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuanwu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei">Xuanwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaoming_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei">Xiaoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daughter_of_Emperor_Xiaoming_of_Northern_Wei" title="Daughter of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei">Daughter of Xiaoming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Zhao" title="Yuan Zhao">Youzhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaozhuang_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei">Xiaozhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Ye_(emperor)" title="Yuan Ye (emperor)">Prince of Changguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jiemin_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei">Jiemin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Lang" title="Yuan Lang">Houfei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowu_of_Northern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei">Xiaowu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wei" title="Eastern Wei">Eastern Wei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaojing_of_Eastern_Wei" title="Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei">Xiaojing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Wei" title="Western Wei">Western Wei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Wen of Western Wei">Wen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Fei_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Fei of Western Wei">Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gong_of_Western_Wei" title="Emperor Gong of Western Wei">Gong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Qi" title="Northern Qi">Northern Qi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wenxuan_of_Northern_Qi" title="Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi">Wenxuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Fei_of_Northern_Qi" title="Emperor Fei of Northern Qi">Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaozhao_of_Northern_Qi" title="Emperor Xiaozhao of Northern Qi">Xiaozhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wucheng_of_Northern_Qi" title="Emperor Wucheng of Northern Qi">Wucheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gao_Wei" title="Gao Wei">Houzhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gao_Heng" title="Gao Heng">Youzhu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Zhou" title="Northern Zhou">Northern Zhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaomin_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Xiaomin of Northern Zhou">Xiaomin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Ming of Northern Zhou">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuan_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou">Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Northern_Zhou" title="Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou">Jing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Xia" title="Template:Kings of Xia">Xia</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Shang" title="Template:Kings of Shang">Shang</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Zhou" title="Template:Kings of Zhou">Zhou</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Monarchs_of_Qin" title="Template:Monarchs of Qin">Qin</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Han_emperors" title="Template:Han emperors">Han</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Three_Kingdoms_emperors" title="Template:Three Kingdoms emperors">3 Kingdoms</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Jin_emperors_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Template:Jin emperors (266–420)">Jìn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Sixteen_Kingdoms_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Sixteen Kingdoms rulers">16 Kingdoms</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Southern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template:Southern dynasties emperors">S. Dynasties</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Northern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template:Northern dynasties emperors">N. Dynasties</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Sui_emperors" title="Template:Sui emperors">Sui</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Tang_emperors" title="Template:Tang emperors">Tang</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_rulers" title="Template:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms rulers">5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Liao_emperors" title="Template:Liao emperors">Liao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Song_emperors" title="Template:Song emperors">Song</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Western_Xia_emperors" title="Template:Western Xia emperors">W. Xia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Jin_emperors_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Template:Jin emperors (1115–1234)">Jīn</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Yuan_emperors" title="Template:Yuan emperors">Yuan</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Ming_emperors" title="Template:Ming emperors">Ming</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_emperors" title="Template:Qing emperors">Qing</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:Presidents of the Republic of China">ROC</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Paramount_leaders_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Template:Paramount leaders of the People's Republic of China">PRC</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emperors_of_the_Southern_dynasties" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Southern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template:Southern dynasties emperors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Southern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template talk:Southern dynasties emperors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Southern_dynasties_emperors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Southern dynasties emperors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emperors_of_the_Southern_dynasties" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Emperors_of_China%27s_Southern_Dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Emperors of China's Southern Dynasties">Emperors</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern dynasties">Southern dynasties</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Song">Liu Song</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Song" title="Emperor Wu of Song">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shao_of_Song" title="Emperor Shao of Song">Shao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Song" title="Emperor Wen of Song">Wen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Shao_(Liu_Song)" title="Liu Shao (Liu Song)">Liu Shao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xiaowu_of_Song" title="Emperor Xiaowu of Song">Xiaowu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Ziye" title="Liu Ziye">Former Deposed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Song" title="Emperor Ming of Song">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Deposed_Emperor_of_Liu_Song" title="Latter Deposed Emperor of Liu Song">Latter Deposed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shun_of_Song" title="Emperor Shun of Song">Shun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Qi" title="Southern Qi">Southern Qi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gao_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Gao of Southern Qi">Gao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Wu of Southern Qi">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Zhaoye" title="Xiao Zhaoye">Prince of Yulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Zhaowen" title="Xiao Zhaowen">Prince of Hailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor Ming of Southern Qi">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Baojuan" title="Xiao Baojuan">Marquess of Donghun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_He_of_Southern_Qi" title="Emperor He of Southern Qi">He</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Liang" title="Emperor Wu of Liang">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jianwen_of_Liang" title="Emperor Jianwen of Liang">Jianwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Dong" title="Xiao Dong">Prince of Yuzhang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Liang" title="Emperor Yuan of Liang">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Yuanming" title="Xiao Yuanming">Min</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Liang" title="Emperor Jing of Liang">Jing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Liang_(555%E2%80%93587)" title="Western Liang (555–587)">Western Liang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Cha" title="Xiao Cha">Xiao Cha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Kui" title="Xiao Kui">Xiao Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiao_Cong" title="Xiao Cong">Xiao Cong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chen_dynasty" title="Chen dynasty">Chen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wu_of_Chen" title="Emperor Wu of Chen">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Chen" title="Emperor Wen of Chen">Wen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Fei_of_Chen" title="Emperor Fei of Chen">Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuan_of_Chen" title="Emperor Xuan of Chen">Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Shubao" title="Chen Shubao">Houzhu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Xia" title="Template:Kings of Xia">Xia</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Shang" title="Template:Kings of Shang">Shang</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Zhou" title="Template:Kings of Zhou">Zhou</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Monarchs_of_Qin" title="Template:Monarchs of Qin">Qin</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Han_emperors" title="Template:Han emperors">Han</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Three_Kingdoms_emperors" title="Template:Three Kingdoms emperors">3 Kingdoms</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Jin_emperors_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Template:Jin emperors (266–420)">Jìn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Sixteen_Kingdoms_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Sixteen Kingdoms rulers">16 Kingdoms</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Southern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template:Southern dynasties emperors">S. Dynasties</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Northern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template:Northern dynasties emperors">N. Dynasties</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Sui_emperors" title="Template:Sui emperors">Sui</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Tang_emperors" title="Template:Tang emperors">Tang</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_rulers" title="Template:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms rulers">5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Liao_emperors" title="Template:Liao emperors">Liao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Song_emperors" title="Template:Song emperors">Song</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Western_Xia_emperors" title="Template:Western Xia emperors">W. Xia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Jin_emperors_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Template:Jin emperors (1115–1234)">Jīn</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Yuan_emperors" title="Template:Yuan emperors">Yuan</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Ming_emperors" title="Template:Ming emperors">Ming</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_emperors" title="Template:Qing emperors">Qing</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:Presidents of the Republic of China">ROC</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Paramount_leaders_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Template:Paramount leaders of the People's Republic of China">PRC</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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title="Portal:China">China</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/19px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/29px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 1.5x, 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