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(1538–1541)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minister_in_Strasbourg_(1538–1541)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reform_in_Geneva_(1541–1549)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reform_in_Geneva_(1541–1549)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Reform in Geneva (1541–1549)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reform_in_Geneva_(1541–1549)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discipline_and_opposition_(1546–1553)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discipline_and_opposition_(1546–1553)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Discipline and opposition (1546–1553)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discipline_and_opposition_(1546–1553)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Michael_Servetus_(1553)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michael_Servetus_(1553)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Michael Servetus (1553)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michael_Servetus_(1553)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Securing_the_Protestant_Reformation_(1553–1555)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Securing_the_Protestant_Reformation_(1553–1555)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Securing the Protestant Reformation (1553–1555)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Securing_the_Protestant_Reformation_(1553–1555)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years_(1555–1564)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years_(1555–1564)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Final years (1555–1564)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years_(1555–1564)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_on_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.1</span> <span>Impact on France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_illness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_illness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Last illness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_illness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Controversies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calvin_and_the_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calvin_and_the_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Calvin and the Jews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calvin_and_the_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Political thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Selected works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archive_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archive_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Archive sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archive_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">John Calvin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 109 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-109" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">109 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvyn" title="Johannes Calvyn – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Johannes Calvyn" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvin" title="Johannes Calvin – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Johannes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86" title="جان كالفن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جان كالفن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%94%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Ժան Քելվին – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ժան Քելվին" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuan_Calvino" title="Xuan Calvino – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xuan Calvino" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Kalvin" title="Jan Kalvin – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Jan Kalvin" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%81_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE" title="জঁ কালভা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জঁ কালভা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Кальвин Жан – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Кальвин Жан" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Жан Кальвін – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жан Кальвін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Жан Кальвін – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Жан Кальвін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="John Calvin" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Жан Калвин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Жан Калвин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Cauvin" title="Jean Cauvin – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jean Cauvin" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Жан Кальвин – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Жан Кальвин" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Kalv%C3%ADn" title="Jan Kalvín – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jan Kalvín" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvin" title="Johannes Calvin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Johannes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Calvin" title="Johann Calvin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Johann Calvin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%89%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B2%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ιωάννης Καλβίνος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιωάννης Καλβίνος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Calvino" title="Juan Calvino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Juan Calvino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johano_Kalvino" title="Johano Kalvino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Johano Kalvino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Kalbino" title="Joan Kalbino – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Joan Kalbino" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="ژان کالون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژان کالون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehannes_Kalvyn" title="Jehannes Kalvyn – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Jehannes Kalvyn" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%A5_%EC%B9%BC%EB%B1%85" title="장 칼뱅 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="장 칼뱅" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Ժան Կալվին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ժան Կալվին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohanes_Calvin" title="Yohanes Calvin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Yohanes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvin" title="Johannes Calvin – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Johannes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B3hann_Kalv%C3%ADn" title="Jóhann Kalvín – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jóhann Kalvín" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Calvino" title="Giovanni Calvino – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Giovanni Calvino" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%27%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9F" title="ז'אן קלווין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ז'אן קלווין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohanes_Calvin" title="Yohanes Calvin – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Yohanes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜಾನ್ ಕ್ಯಾಲ್ವಿನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾನ್ ಕ್ಯಾಲ್ವಿನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ჟან კალვინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჟან კალვინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Жан Кальвин – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жан Кальвин" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvin" title="Calvin – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Calvin" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Жан Кальвин – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жан Кальвин" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannes_Calvinus" title="Ioannes Calvinus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ioannes Calvinus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDans_Kalvins" title="Žans Kalvins – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Žans Kalvins" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDanas_Kalvinas" title="Žanas Kalvinas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žanas Kalvinas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoane_Kalvin" title="Yoane Kalvin – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Yoane Kalvin" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Calvin" title="Joan Calvin – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Joan Calvin" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuann_Calvin" title="Giuann Calvin – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Giuann Calvin" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1lvin_J%C3%A1nos" title="Kálvin János – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kálvin János" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Жан Калвин – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Жан Калвин" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB" title="ജോൺ കാൽവിൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജോൺ കാൽവിൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="जाॅन कॅल्व्हिन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जाॅन कॅल्व्हिन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86" title="جون كالفين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جون كالفين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA%E1%80%97%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ဂျွန်ကယ်လ်ဗင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျွန်ကယ်လ်ဗင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="John Calvin" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvijn" title="Johannes Calvijn – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Johannes Calvijn" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvijn" title="Johannes Calvijn – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Johannes Calvijn" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A1%E3%83%B3" title="ジャン・カルヴァン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャン・カルヴァン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Calvin" title="Joan Calvin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Joan Calvin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Kalvin" title="Jan Kalvin – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jan Kalvin" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8" title="ਜਾਨ ਕੈਲਵਿਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਾਨ ਕੈਲਵਿਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="جان کالون – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جان کالون" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86" title="جان کالوین – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جان کالوین" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvin" title="Johannes Calvin – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Johannes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Kalwin" title="Jan Kalwin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jan Kalwin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Calvino" title="João Calvino – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="João Calvino" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ty mw-list-item"><a href="https://ty.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin – Tahitian" lang="ty" hreflang="ty" data-title="John Calvin" data-language-autonym="Reo tahiti" data-language-local-name="Tahitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Reo tahiti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvin" title="Johannes Calvin – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Johannes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Кальвин, Жан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кальвин, Жан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye-han.ke-al-wen" title="Ye-han.ke-al-wen – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Ye-han.ke-al-wen" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioane_Kalavini" title="Ioane Kalavini – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Ioane Kalavini" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="John Calvin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Calvin" title="Johannes Calvin – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Johannes Calvin" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjon_Kalvini" title="Gjon Kalvini – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjon Kalvini" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuvanni_Calvinu" title="Giuvanni Calvinu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Giuvanni Calvinu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="John Calvin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1n_Kalv%C3%ADn" title="Ján Kalvín – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ján Kalvín" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A4%DB%8C%D9%86" title="ژان کالڤین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژان کالڤین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Жан Калвин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Жан Калвин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="John Calvin" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜான் கால்வின் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜான் கால்வின்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8C%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%87" title="ฌ็อง กาลแว็ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฌ็อง กาลแว็ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Жан Кальвін – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жан Кальвін" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="جان کالون – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جان کالون" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Calvin" title="Jean Calvin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Jean Calvin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Calving" title="Johan Calving – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Johan Calving" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="John Calvin" 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For Scottish newspaper, see <a href="/wiki/Rutherglen_Reformer" title="Rutherglen Reformer">Rutherglen Reformer</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the American actor, see <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin_(actor)" title="John Calvin (actor)">John Calvin (actor)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">John Calvin</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png/220px-John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png/330px-John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png/440px-John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="4457" data-file-height="6187" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1550</span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Jehan Cauvin</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1509-07-10</span>)</span>10 July 1509<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Noyon" title="Noyon">Noyon</a>, Picardy, France</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">27 May 1564<span style="display:none">(1564-05-27)</span> (aged 54)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, Republic of Geneva</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="University of Orléans">University of Orléans</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Bourges" title="University of Bourges">University of Bourges</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role"><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">Reformer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" title="Minister (Christianity)">minister</a>, author</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion" title="Institutes of the Christian Religion">Institutes of the Christian Religion</a></i> (1536)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Idelette_Calvin" title="Idelette Calvin">Idelette de Bure</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="August 1540">1540</span>; died <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="29 March 1549">1549</span>)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Jacques</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Theological work</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Tradition or movement</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Main interests</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Systematic_theology" title="Systematic theology">Systematic theology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable ideas</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Calvinism" title="Predestination in Calvinism">Predestination</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Regulative_principle_of_worship" title="Regulative principle of worship">Regulative principle of worship</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Monergism" title="Monergism">Monergism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Covenantalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Covenantalism">Covenantalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Imputed_righteousness" title="Imputed righteousness">Imputed righteousness</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Calvin_signature.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/John_Calvin_signature.png/170px-John_Calvin_signature.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/John_Calvin_signature.png/255px-John_Calvin_signature.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/John_Calvin_signature.png/340px-John_Calvin_signature.png 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="150" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile plainlist" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Calvinism" title="Category:Calvinism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%"><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed Christianity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg/225px-ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg/338px-ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg/450px-ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Reformation_Wall" title="Reformation Wall">Reformation Wall</a> in Geneva, featuring prominent Reformed theologians <a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Calvin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #ddf;padding:0.2em;color:#000000;color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em; text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color: lavender; border:2px solid lavender;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #ddf;padding:0.2em;color:#000000;color: var(--color-base)">Theology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em; text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color: lavender; border:2px solid lavender;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_John_Calvin" title="Theology of John Calvin">Theology of John Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_theology" title="Covenant theology">Covenant theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republication_of_the_Covenant_of_Works" title="Republication of the Covenant of Works">Republication of the Covenant of Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptist_Covenant_Theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist Covenant Theology">Baptist Covenant Theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_order_of_God%27s_decrees" title="Logical order of God's decrees">Logical order of God's decrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Supper_in_Reformed_theology" title="Lord's Supper in Reformed theology">Lord's Supper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulative_principle_of_worship" title="Regulative principle of worship">Regulative principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Calvinism" title="Predestination in Calvinism">Predestination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #ddf;padding:0.2em;color:#000000;color: var(--color-base)">Texts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em; text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color: lavender; border:2px solid lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Calvinist_texts" title="Category:Calvinist texts">List of texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Bible" title="Geneva Bible">Geneva Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_confessions_of_faith" title="Reformed confessions of faith">Confessions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helvetic_Confessions" title="Helvetic Confessions">Helvetic Confessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Confession_of_Faith" title="French Confession of Faith">French Confession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgic_Confession" title="Belgic Confession">Belgic Confession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Catechism" title="Heidelberg Catechism">Heidelberg Catechism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canons_of_Dort" title="Canons of Dort">Canons of Dort</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_Confession" title="Scots Confession">Scots Confession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Standards" title="Westminster Standards">Westminster Standards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession_of_Faith" title="Westminster Confession of Faith">Westminster Confession of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Shorter_Catechism" title="Westminster Shorter Catechism">Westminster Shorter Catechism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Larger_Catechism" title="Westminster Larger Catechism">Westminster Larger Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barmen_Declaration" title="Barmen Declaration">Barmen Declaration</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion" title="Institutes of the Christian Religion">Institutes of the Christian Religion</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_systematic_theology_bibliography" title="Reformed systematic theology bibliography">Systematic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalter</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #ddf;padding:0.2em;color:#000000;color: var(--color-base)">Theologians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em; text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color: lavender; border:2px solid lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Calvinist_and_Reformed_theologians" title="Category:Calvinist and Reformed theologians">List of theologians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Oecolampadius" title="Johannes Oecolampadius">Johannes Oecolampadius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Bucer" title="Martin Bucer">Martin Bucer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Martyr_Vermigli" title="Peter Martyr Vermigli">Peter Martyr Vermigli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zacharias_Ursinus" title="Zacharias Ursinus">Zacharias Ursinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Perkins_(theologian)" title="William Perkins (theologian)">William Perkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciscus_Gomarus" title="Franciscus Gomarus">Franciscus Gomarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Twisse" title="William Twisse">William Twisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Amyraut" title="Moses Amyraut">Moses Amyraut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Rutherford" title="Samuel Rutherford">Samuel Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Owen_(theologian)" title="John Owen (theologian)">John Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Turretin" title="Francis Turretin">Francis Turretin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baxter" title="Richard Baxter">Richard Baxter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)" title="Jonathan Edwards (theologian)">Jonathan Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Schaff" title="Philip Schaff">Philip Schaff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Williamson_Nevin" title="John Williamson Nevin">John Nevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hodge" title="Charles Hodge">Charles Hodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Kuyper" title="Abraham Kuyper">Abraham Kuyper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Bavinck" title="Herman Bavinck">Herman Bavinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._B._Warfield" title="B. B. Warfield">B. B. Warfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Gresham_Machen" title="J. Gresham Machen">John Machen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geerhardus_Vos" title="Geerhardus Vos">Geerhardus Vos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Richard_Niebuhr" title="H. Richard Niebuhr">H. Richard Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Van_Til" title="Cornelius Van Til">Cornelius Van Til</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_F._Torrance" title="Thomas F. Torrance">T. F. Torrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Moltmann" title="Jürgen Moltmann">Jürgen Moltmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._I._Packer" title="J. I. Packer">J. I. Packer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_G._Bloesch" title="Donald G. Bloesch">Donald G. Bloesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Horton_(theologian)" title="Michael Horton (theologian)">Michael Horton</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #ddf;padding:0.2em;color:#000000;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Reformed_denominations" title="List of Reformed denominations"> Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em; text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color: lavender; border:2px solid lavender;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Continental Reformed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism_in_South_Korea" title="Presbyterianism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism_in_the_United_States" title="Presbyterianism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Baptists" title="Reformed Baptists">Reformed Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #ddf;padding:0.2em;color:#000000;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em; text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color: lavender; border:2px solid lavender;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Calvinism" title="Afrikaner Calvinism">Afrikaners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyraldism" title="Amyraldism">Amyraldians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Vision" title="Federal Vision">Federal Vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrow_Brethren" title="Marrow Brethren">Marrow Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercersburg_theology" title="Mercersburg theology">Mercersburg theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonomianism" title="Neonomianism">Neonomians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Calvinism" title="Neo-Calvinism">Neo-Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England_theology" title="New England theology">New England theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Calvinism" title="New Calvinism">New Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrims_(Plymouth_Colony)" title="Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)">Pilgrims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_theology" title="Princeton theology">Princeton theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #ddf;padding:0.2em;color:#000000;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:International_bodies_of_Reformed_denominations" title="Category:International bodies of Reformed denominations">Organizations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em; text-align:center;padding-top:0; background-color: lavender; border:2px solid lavender;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Communion_of_Reformed_Churches" title="World Communion of Reformed Churches">World Communion of Reformed Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Reformed_Fellowship" title="World Reformed Fellowship">World Reformed Fellowship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Conference_of_Reformed_Churches" title="International Conference of Reformed Churches">International Conference of Reformed Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Presbyterian_and_Reformed_Council" title="North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council">North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <p><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> • <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> </p> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kreuz-hugenotten.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kreuz-hugenotten.svg/10px-Kreuz-hugenotten.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kreuz-hugenotten.svg/16px-Kreuz-hugenotten.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kreuz-hugenotten.svg/21px-Kreuz-hugenotten.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="557" data-file-height="849" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Reformed_Christianity" title="Portal:Reformed Christianity">Reformed Christianity portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformed_Christianity" title="Template:Reformed Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reformed_Christianity" title="Template talk:Reformed Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reformed_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reformed Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>John Calvin</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Middle_French_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle French language">Middle French</a>: <i lang="frm">Jehan Cauvin</i>; French: <i lang="fr">Jean Calvin</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʒɑ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>kalvɛ̃]</a></span>; 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was a French <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">theologian</a>, pastor and <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">reformer</a> in Geneva during the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a> later called <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>, including its doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">predestination</a> and of God's <a href="/wiki/Monergism" title="Monergism">absolute sovereignty</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_soteriology" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian soteriology">salvation</a> of the human soul from death and <a href="/wiki/Damnation" title="Damnation">eternal damnation</a>. Calvinist doctrines were <a href="/wiki/Augustinian_soteriology" title="Augustinian soteriology">influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian</a> and other Christian traditions. Various <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed churches">Reformed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. </p><p>Calvin was a tireless <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">apologetic</a> writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a>. In addition to his seminal <i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion" title="Institutes of the Christian Religion">Institutes of the Christian Religion</a></i>, Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, <a href="/wiki/Confession_of_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Confession of faith">confessional documents</a>, and various other theological treatises. </p><p>Calvin was originally trained as a <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">humanist</a> lawyer. He broke from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> around 1530. After religious tensions erupted in widespread deadly violence against <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Christians">Protestant Christians</a> in France, Calvin fled to <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>, Switzerland, where in 1536 he published the first edition of the <i>Institutes</i>. In that same year, Calvin was recruited by Frenchman <a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a> to join the Reformation in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, where he regularly preached sermons throughout the week. However, the governing council of the city resisted the implementation of their ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bucer" title="Martin Bucer">Martin Bucer</a>, Calvin proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and in 1541 he was invited back to lead the church of the city. </p><p>Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and <a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">liturgy</a>, despite opposition from several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a>, a Spaniard regarded by both Roman Catholics and Protestants as having a <a href="/wiki/Christian_heresy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian heresy">heretical</a> view of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>, arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and <a href="/wiki/Burned_at_the_stake" class="mw-redirect" title="Burned at the stake">burned at the stake</a> for heresy by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life_(1509–1535)"><span id="Early_life_.281509.E2.80.931535.29"></span>Early life (1509–1535)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg/220px-John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg/330px-John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg/440px-John_Calvin_-_Young.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="1174" /></a><figcaption>Calvin was originally interested in the priesthood, but he changed course to study law in <a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Orléans">Orléans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bourges" title="Bourges">Bourges</a>. Painting titled <i>Portrait of Young John Calvin</i> from the collection of the Library of Geneva.</figcaption></figure> <p>John Calvin was born as Jehan Cauvin on 10 July 1509, at <a href="/wiki/Noyon" title="Noyon">Noyon</a>, a town in <a href="/wiki/Picardy_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Picardy (region)">Picardy</a>, a province of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the second of three sons who survived infancy. His mother, Jeanne le Franc, was the daughter of an innkeeper from <a href="/wiki/Cambrai" title="Cambrai">Cambrai</a>. She died of an unknown cause in Calvin's childhood, after having borne four more children. Calvin's father, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Cauvin" title="Gérard Cauvin">Gérard Cauvin</a>, had a prosperous career as the cathedral <a href="/wiki/Notary_public" title="Notary public">notary</a> and registrar to the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">ecclesiastical court</a>. Gérard intended his three sons—Charles, Jean, and Antoine—for the priesthood. </p><p>Young Calvin was particularly precocious. By age 12, he was employed by the bishop as a clerk and received the <a href="/wiki/Tonsure" title="Tonsure">tonsure</a>, cutting his hair to symbolize his dedication to the Church. He also won the patronage of an influential family, the Montmors.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through their assistance, Calvin was able to attend the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_la_Marche" title="Collège de la Marche">Collège de la Marche</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Paris</a>, where he learned <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> from one of its greatest teachers, <a href="/wiki/Mathurin_Cordier" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathurin Cordier">Mathurin Cordier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once he completed the course, he entered the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_Montaigu" title="Collège de Montaigu">Collège de Montaigu</a> as a philosophy student.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1525 or 1526, Gérard withdrew his son from the Collège de Montaigu and enrolled him in the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="University of Orléans">University of Orléans</a> to study law. According to contemporary biographers <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Colladon" title="Nicolas Colladon">Nicolas Colladon</a>, Gérard believed that Calvin would earn more money as a lawyer than as a priest.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a few years of quiet study, Calvin entered the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bourges" title="University of Bourges">University of Bourges</a> in 1529. He was intrigued by <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Alciato" title="Andrea Alciato">Andreas Alciati</a>, a humanist lawyer. <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a> was a European intellectual movement which stressed classical studies. During his 18-month stay in <a href="/wiki/Bourges" title="Bourges">Bourges</a>, Calvin learned <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, a necessity for studying the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternative theories have been suggested regarding the date of Calvin's <a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">religious conversion</a>. Some have placed the date of his conversion around 1533, shortly before he resigned from his chaplaincy. In this view, his resignation is the direct evidence for his conversion to the evangelical faith. However, T. H. L. Parker argues that, although this date is a terminus for his conversion, the more likely date is in late 1529 or early 1530.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main evidence for his conversion is contained in two significantly different accounts of his conversion. In the first, found in his <i>Commentary on the Book of Psalms</i>, Calvin portrayed his conversion as a sudden change of mind, brought about by God: </p> <blockquote><p>God by a sudden conversion subdued and brought my mind to a teachable frame, which was more hardened in such matters than might have been expected from one at my early period of life. Having thus received some taste and knowledge of true godliness, I was immediately inflamed with so intense a desire to make progress therein, that although I did not altogether leave off other studies, yet I pursued them with less ardor.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In the second account, Calvin wrote of a long process of inner turmoil, followed by spiritual and psychological anguish: </p> <blockquote><p>Being exceedingly alarmed at the misery into which I had fallen, and much more at that which threatened me in view of eternal death, I, duty bound, made it my first business to betake myself to your way, condemning my past life, not without groans and tears. And now, O Lord, what remains to a wretch like me, but instead of defense, earnestly to supplicate you not to judge that fearful abandonment of your Word according to its deserts, from which in your wondrous goodness you have at last delivered me.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Scholars have argued about the precise interpretation of these accounts, but most agree that his conversion corresponded with his break from the Roman Catholic Church.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Calvin biographer <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Gordon_(historian)" title="Bruce Gordon (historian)">Bruce Gordon</a> has stressed that "the two accounts are not antithetical, revealing some inconsistency in Calvin's memory, but rather [are] two different ways of expressing the same reality."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1532, Calvin received his <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">licentiate</a> in law and published his first book, a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/De_Clementia" title="De Clementia">De Clementia</a></i>. After uneventful trips to Orléans and his hometown of Noyon, Calvin returned to Paris in October 1533. During this time, tensions rose at the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège Royal</a></span></span> (later to become the Collège de France) between the humanists/reformers and the conservative senior faculty members. One of the reformers, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Cop" title="Nicolas Cop">Nicolas Cop</a>, was rector of the university. On 1 November 1533 he devoted his inaugural address to the need for reform and renewal in the Roman Catholic Church. The address provoked a strong reaction from the faculty, who denounced it as heretical, forcing Cop to flee to <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>. Calvin, a close friend of Cop, was implicated in the offense, and for the next year he was forced into hiding. He remained on the move, sheltering with his friend Louis du Tillet in <a href="/wiki/Angoul%C3%AAme" title="Angoulême">Angoulême</a> and taking refuge in Noyon and Orléans. He was finally forced to flee France during the <a href="/wiki/Affair_of_the_Placards" title="Affair of the Placards">Affair of the Placards</a> in mid-October 1534. In that incident, unknown reformers had posted placards in various cities criticizing the Roman Catholic <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">mass</a>, to which adherents of the Roman Catholic church responded with violence against the would-be Reformers and their sympathizers. In January 1535, Calvin joined Cop in Basel, a city under the enduring influence of the late reformer <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Oecolampadius" title="Johannes Oecolampadius">Johannes Oecolampadius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform_work_commences_(1536–1538)"><span id="Reform_work_commences_.281536.E2.80.931538.29"></span>Reform work commences (1536–1538)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William-Farel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/William-Farel.jpg/220px-William-Farel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/William-Farel.jpg/330px-William-Farel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/William-Farel.jpg/440px-William-Farel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Farel" title="William Farel">William Farel</a> was the reformer who persuaded Calvin to stay in Geneva. 16th-century painting. In the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_Publique_et_Universitaire_(Geneva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire (Geneva)">Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire, Geneva</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In March 1536, Calvin published the first edition of his <i>Institutio Christianae Religionis</i> or <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work was an <i><a href="/wiki/Apologia" title="Apologia">apologia</a></i> or defense of his faith and a statement of the doctrinal position of the reformers. He also intended it to serve as an elementary instruction book for anyone interested in the Christian faith. The book was the first expression of his theology. Calvin updated the work and published new editions throughout his life.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after its publication, he left Basel for <a href="/wiki/Ferrara" title="Ferrara">Ferrara</a>, Italy, where he briefly served as secretary to <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_of_France" title="Renée of France">Princess Renée of France</a>. By June he was back in Paris with his brother Antoine, who was resolving their father's affairs. Following the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Coucy" title="Edict of Coucy">Edict of Coucy</a>, which gave a limited six-month period for heretics to reconcile with the Catholic faith, Calvin decided that there was no future for him in France. In August he set off for <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">free imperial city</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and a refuge for reformers. Due to <a href="/wiki/Italian_War_of_1536%E2%80%931538" title="Italian War of 1536–1538">military maneuvers of imperial and French forces</a>, he was forced to make a detour to the south, bringing him to Geneva. Calvin had intended to stay only a single night, but William Farel, a fellow French reformer residing in the city, implored him to stay and assist him in his work of reforming the church there. Calvin accepted his new role without any preconditions on his tasks or duties.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The office to which he was initially assigned is unknown. He was eventually given the title of "reader", which most likely meant that he could give expository lectures on the Bible. Sometime in 1537 he was selected to be a "pastor" although he never received any <a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">pastoral consecration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, the lawyer-theologian took up pastoral duties such as <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptisms</a>, weddings, and church services.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During late 1536, Farel drafted a <a href="/wiki/Confession_of_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Confession of faith">confession of faith</a>, and Calvin wrote separate articles on reorganizing the church in Geneva. On 16 January 1537, Farel and Calvin presented their <i>Articles concernant l'organisation de l'église et du culte à Genève</i> (Articles on the Organization of the Church and its Worship at Geneva) to the city council.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The document described the manner and frequency of their celebrations of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>, the reason for, and the method of, <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a>, the requirement to subscribe to the confession of faith, the use of congregational singing in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">liturgy</a>, and the revision of marriage laws. The council accepted the document on the same day.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the year progressed, Calvin and Farel's reputation with the council began to suffer. The council was reluctant to enforce the subscription requirement, as only a few citizens had subscribed to their confession of faith. On 26 November, the two ministers hotly debated the council over the issue. Furthermore, France was taking an interest in forming an alliance with Geneva and as the two ministers were Frenchmen, councilors had begun to question their loyalty. Finally, a major ecclesiastical-political quarrel developed when the city of <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a>, Geneva's ally in the reformation of the Swiss churches, proposed to introduce uniformity in the church ceremonies. One proposal required the use of <a href="/wiki/Unleavened_bread" title="Unleavened bread">unleavened bread</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>. The two ministers were unwilling to follow Bern's lead and delayed the use of such bread until a <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synod</a> in Zurich could be convened to make the final decision. The council ordered Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for the Easter Eucharist. In protest, they refused to administer communion during the Easter service. This caused a riot during the service. The next day, the council told Farel and Calvin to leave Geneva.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Farel and Calvin then went to Bern and Zurich to plead their case. The resulting synod in Zurich placed most of the blame on Calvin for not being sympathetic enough toward the people of Geneva. It asked Bern to mediate with the aim of restoring the two ministers. The Geneva council refused to readmit the two men, who then took refuge in Basel. Subsequently, Farel received an invitation to lead the church in <a href="/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a>. Calvin was invited to lead a church of French refugees in Strasbourg by that city's leading reformers, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Bucer" title="Martin Bucer">Martin Bucer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Capito" title="Wolfgang Capito">Wolfgang Capito</a>. Initially, Calvin refused because Farel was not included in the invitation, but relented when Bucer appealed to him. By September 1538 Calvin had taken up his new position in Strasbourg, fully expecting that this time it would be permanent; a few months later, he applied for and was granted citizenship of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minister_in_Strasbourg_(1538–1541)"><span id="Minister_in_Strasbourg_.281538.E2.80.931541.29"></span>Minister in Strasbourg (1538–1541)</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Strasbourg_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Nicolas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Strasbourg_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Nicolas.jpg/200px-Strasbourg_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Nicolas.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Strasbourg_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Nicolas.jpg/300px-Strasbourg_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Nicolas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Strasbourg_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Nicolas.jpg/400px-Strasbourg_-_%C3%89glise_Saint-Nicolas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="1521" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Saint-Nicolas Church, Strasbourg, where Calvin preached in 1538. The building was architecturally modified in the 19th century.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin-Bucer_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Martin-Bucer_1.jpg/200px-Martin-Bucer_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Martin-Bucer_1.jpg/300px-Martin-Bucer_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Martin-Bucer_1.jpg/400px-Martin-Bucer_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="1902" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Martin Bucer invited Calvin to Strasbourg after he was expelled from Geneva. Illustration by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Boissard" title="Jean-Jacques Boissard">Jean-Jacques Boissard</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>During his time in Strasbourg, Calvin was not attached to one particular church, but held his office successively in the Saint-Nicolas Church, the <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Madeleine_Church,_Strasbourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Sainte-Madeleine Church, Strasbourg">Sainte-Madeleine Church</a> and the former <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> Church, renamed the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Neuf,_Strasbourg" title="Temple Neuf, Strasbourg">Temple Neuf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (All of these churches still exist, but none are in the architectural state of Calvin's days.) Calvin ministered to 400–500 members in his church. He preached or lectured every day, with two sermons on Sunday. Communion was celebrated monthly and congregational singing of the psalms was encouraged.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also worked on the second edition of the <i>Institutes</i>. Calvin was dissatisfied with its original structure as a catechism, a primer for young Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_1995_4–5_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker_1995_4–5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the second edition, published in 1539, Calvin changed its format in favor of systematically presenting the main doctrines from the Bible. In the process, the book was enlarged from six chapters to seventeen.<sup id="cite_ref-Parker_1995_4–5_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parker_1995_4–5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concurrently worked on another book, the <i>Commentary on Romans</i>, which was published in March 1540. The book was a model for his later commentaries: it included his own Latin translation from the Greek rather than the Latin <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">exegesis</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Expository_preaching" title="Expository preaching">exposition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the dedicatory letter, Calvin praised the work of his predecessors <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a>, and Martin Bucer, but he also took care to distinguish his own work from theirs and to criticize some of their shortcomings.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin's friends urged him to marry. Calvin took a prosaic view, writing to one correspondent: </p> <blockquote><p>I, who have the air of being so hostile to celibacy, I am still not married and do not know whether I will ever be. If I take a wife it will be because, being better freed from numerous worries, I can devote myself to the Lord.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Several candidates were presented to him including one young woman from a noble family. Reluctantly, Calvin agreed to the marriage, on the condition that she would learn French. Although a wedding date was planned for March 1540, he remained reluctant and the wedding never took place. He later wrote that he would never think of marrying her, "unless the Lord had entirely bereft me of my wits".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, in August of that year, he married <a href="/wiki/Idelette_de_Bure" class="mw-redirect" title="Idelette de Bure">Idelette de Bure</a>, a widow who had two children from her first marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geneva reconsidered its expulsion of Calvin. Church attendance had dwindled and the political climate had changed; as Bern and Geneva quarreled over land, their alliance frayed. When Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Sadoleto" title="Jacopo Sadoleto">Jacopo Sadoleto</a> wrote a letter to the city council inviting Geneva to return to the Catholic faith, the council searched for an ecclesiastical authority to respond to him. At first <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Viret" title="Pierre Viret">Pierre Viret</a> was consulted, but when he refused, the council asked Calvin. He agreed and his <i>Responsio ad Sadoletum</i> (Letter to Sadoleto) strongly defended Geneva's position concerning reforms in the church.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 21 September 1540 the council commissioned one of its members, <a href="/wiki/Ami_Perrin" title="Ami Perrin">Ami Perrin</a>, to find a way to recall Calvin. An embassy reached Calvin while he was at a <a href="/wiki/Colloquy_(religious)" title="Colloquy (religious)">colloquy</a>, a conference to settle religious disputes, in <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a>. His reaction to the suggestion was one of horror in which he wrote, "Rather would I submit to death a hundred times than to that cross on which I had to perish daily a thousand times over."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin also wrote that he was prepared to follow the Lord's calling. A plan was drawn up in which Viret would be appointed to take temporary charge in Geneva for six months while Bucer and Calvin would visit the city to determine the next steps. The city council pressed for the immediate appointment of Calvin in Geneva. By mid-1541, Strasbourg decided to lend Calvin to Geneva for six months. Calvin returned on 13 September 1541 with an official escort and a wagon for his family.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reform_in_Geneva_(1541–1549)"><span id="Reform_in_Geneva_.281541.E2.80.931549.29"></span>Reform in Geneva (1541–1549)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe#Reformed_Church" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe § Reformed Church</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Regulative_principle_of_worship#John_Calvin's_liturgy" title="Regulative principle of worship">Regulative principle of worship § John Calvin's liturgy</a></div> <p>In supporting Calvin's proposals for reforms, the council of Geneva passed the <i>Ordonnances ecclésiastiques</i> (Ecclesiastical Ordinances) on 20 November 1541. The ordinances defined four orders of ministerial function: pastors to preach and to administer the <a href="/wiki/Sacraments" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacraments">sacraments</a>; doctors to instruct believers in the faith; <a href="/wiki/Elder_(Christianity)" title="Elder (Christianity)">elders</a> to provide discipline; and <a href="/wiki/Deacons" class="mw-redirect" title="Deacons">deacons</a> to care for the poor and needy.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also called for the creation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Consistory_(Protestantism)#Reformed_usage" title="Consistory (Protestantism)">Consistoire</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Genevan_Consistory" title="Genevan Consistory">Consistory</a>), an ecclesiastical court composed of the elders and the ministers. The city government retained the power to summon persons before the court, and the Consistory could judge only ecclesiastical matters having no civil jurisdiction. Originally, the court had the power to mete out sentences, with excommunication as its most severe penalty. The government contested this power and on 19 March 1543 the council decided that all sentencing would be carried out by the government.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg/310px-Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg/465px-Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg/620px-Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3903" data-file-height="3603" /></a><figcaption>Calvin preached at <a href="/wiki/St._Pierre_Cathedral" title="St. Pierre Cathedral">St. Pierre Cathedral</a>, the main church in Geneva.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1542, Calvin adapted a service book used in Strasbourg, publishing <i>La Forme des Prières et Chants Ecclésiastiques</i> (The Form of Prayers and Church Hymns). Calvin recognized the power of music and he intended that it be used to support scripture readings. The original Strasbourg <a href="/wiki/Psalter" title="Psalter">psalter</a> contained twelve psalms by <a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Marot" title="Clément Marot">Clément Marot</a> and Calvin added several more hymns of his own composition in the Geneva version. At the end of 1542, Marot became a refugee in Geneva and contributed nineteen more psalms. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Bourgeois_(composer)" title="Louis Bourgeois (composer)">Louis Bourgeois</a>, also a refugee, lived and taught music in Geneva for sixteen years and Calvin took the opportunity to add his hymns, the most famous being the <a href="/wiki/Old_Hundredth" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Hundredth">Old Hundredth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the same year of 1542, Calvin published <i>Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Genève</i> (Catechism of the Church of Geneva), which was inspired by Bucer's <i>Kurze Schrifftliche Erklärung</i> of 1534. Calvin had written an earlier <a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">catechism</a> during his first stay in Geneva which was largely based on <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Large_Catechism" class="mw-redirect" title="Large Catechism">Large Catechism</a>. The first version was arranged pedagogically, describing Law, Faith, and Prayer. The 1542 version was rearranged for theological reasons, covering Faith first, then Law and Prayer.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians debate the extent to which Geneva was a <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocracy</a>. On the one hand, Calvin's theology clearly called for separation between church and state. Other historians have stressed the enormous political power wielded on a daily basis by the clerics.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Idelette_Calvin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Idelette_Calvin.jpg/220px-Idelette_Calvin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Idelette_Calvin.jpg/330px-Idelette_Calvin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Idelette_Calvin.jpg/440px-Idelette_Calvin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="1139" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Idelette_Calvin" title="Idelette Calvin">Idelette</a> and Calvin had no children survive infancy.</figcaption></figure> <p>During his ministry in Geneva, Calvin preached over two thousand sermons. Initially he preached twice on Sunday and three times during the week. This proved to be too heavy a burden and late in 1542 the council allowed him to preach only once on Sunday. In October 1549, he was again required to preach twice on Sundays and, in addition, every weekday of alternate weeks. His sermons lasted more than an hour and he did not use notes. An occasional secretary tried to record his sermons, but very little of his preaching was preserved before 1549. In that year, professional scribe Denis Raguenier, who had learned or developed a system of shorthand, was assigned to record all of Calvin's sermons. An analysis of his sermons by T. H. L. Parker suggests that Calvin was a consistent preacher and his style changed very little over the years.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Calvin was also known for his thorough manner of working his way through the Bible in consecutive sermons. From March 1555 to July 1556, Calvin delivered two hundred sermons on <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> wrote about Calvin, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zwingli" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwingli">Zwingli</a>, "If they condemned celibacy in the priests, and opened the gates of the convents, it was only to turn all society into a convent. Shows and entertainments were expressly forbidden by their religion; and for more than two hundred years there was not a single musical instrument allowed in the city of Geneva. They condemned auricular confession, but they enjoined a public one; and in Switzerland, Scotland, and Geneva it was performed the same as penance."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Very little is known about Calvin's personal life in Geneva. His house and furniture were owned by the council. The house was big enough to accommodate his family as well as Antoine's family and some servants. On 28 July 1542, Idelette gave birth to a son, Jacques, but he was born prematurely and survived only briefly. Idelette fell ill in 1545 and died on 29 March 1549. Calvin never married again. He expressed his sorrow in a letter to Viret: </p> <blockquote><p>I have been bereaved of the best friend of my life, of one who, if it has been so ordained, would willingly have shared not only my poverty but also my death. During her life she was the faithful helper of my ministry. From her I never experienced the slightest hindrance.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Throughout the rest of his life in Geneva, he maintained several friendships from his early years including Montmor, Cordier, Cop, Farel, Melanchthon and Bullinger.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discipline_and_opposition_(1546–1553)"><span id="Discipline_and_opposition_.281546.E2.80.931553.29"></span>Discipline and opposition (1546–1553)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_john_calvin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Portrait_john_calvin.jpg/170px-Portrait_john_calvin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Portrait_john_calvin.jpg/255px-Portrait_john_calvin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Portrait_john_calvin.jpg/340px-Portrait_john_calvin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>Sixteenth-century portrait of John Calvin by an unknown artist. From the collection of the Bibliothèque de Genève (Library of Geneva)</figcaption></figure> <p>Calvin encountered bitter opposition to his work in Geneva. Around 1546, the uncoordinated forces coalesced into an identifiable group whom he referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">libertines</a>, but who preferred to be called either Spirituels or Patriots.<sup id="cite_ref-Libertines_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Libertines-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Calvin, these were people who felt that after being liberated through <a href="/wiki/Irresistible_grace" title="Irresistible grace">grace</a>, they were exempted from both ecclesiastical and civil law. The group consisted of wealthy, politically powerful, and interrelated families of Geneva.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of January 1546, Pierre Ameaux, a maker of playing cards who had already been in conflict with the Consistory, attacked Calvin by calling him a "Picard", an epithet denoting anti-French sentiment, and accused him of false doctrine. Ameaux was punished by the council and forced to make <a href="/wiki/Expiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expiation">expiation</a> by parading through the city and begging God for forgiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few months later Ami Perrin, the man who had brought Calvin to Geneva, moved into open opposition. Perrin had married Françoise Favre, daughter of François Favre, a well-established Genevan merchant. Both Perrin's wife and father-in-law had previous conflicts with the Consistory. The court noted that many of Geneva's notables, including Perrin, had breached a law against dancing. Initially, Perrin ignored the court when he was summoned, but after receiving a letter from Calvin, he appeared before the Consistory.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1547, opposition to Calvin and other French refugee ministers had grown to constitute the majority of the <a href="/wiki/Syndics" class="mw-redirect" title="Syndics">syndics</a>, the civil magistrates of Geneva. On 27 June an unsigned threatening letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit of <a href="/wiki/St._Pierre_Cathedral" title="St. Pierre Cathedral">St. Pierre Cathedral</a> where Calvin preached. Suspecting a plot against both the church and the state, the council appointed a commission to investigate. <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Gruet" title="Jacques Gruet">Jacques Gruet</a>, a Genevan member of Favre's group, was arrested and incriminating evidence was found when his house was searched. Under torture, he confessed to several crimes including writing the letter left in the pulpit which threatened the church leaders. A civil court condemned Gruet to death and he was beheaded on 26 July. Calvin was not opposed to the civil court's decision.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The libertines continued organizing opposition, insulting the appointed ministers, and challenging the authority of the Consistory. The council straddled both sides of the conflict, alternately admonishing and upholding Calvin. When Perrin was elected first syndic in February 1552, Calvin's authority appeared to be at its lowest point. After some losses before the council, Calvin believed he was defeated; on 24 July 1553 he asked the council to allow him to resign. Although the libertines controlled the council, his request was refused. The opposition realized that they could curb Calvin's authority, but they did not have enough power to banish him.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Michael_Servetus_(1553)"><span id="Michael_Servetus_.281553.29"></span>Michael Servetus (1553)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michael_Servetus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Michael_Servetus.jpg/260px-Michael_Servetus.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Michael_Servetus.jpg/390px-Michael_Servetus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Michael_Servetus.jpg/520px-Michael_Servetus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="6828" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Michael_Servetus" title="Michael Servetus">Michael Servetus</a> exchanged many letters with Calvin until he was denounced by Calvin and executed.</figcaption></figure> <p>The turning point in Calvin's fortunes occurred when Michael Servetus, a brilliant Spanish polymath who introduced <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis#Commentary_on_Anatomy_in_Avicenna's_Canon" title="Ibn al-Nafis">the Islamic idea</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation" title="Pulmonary circulation">pulmonary circulation</a> to Europe, and a fugitive from ecclesiastical authorities, appeared in Geneva on 13 August 1553. Servetus was a fugitive on the run after he published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Restoration_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="The Restoration of Christianity">The Restoration of Christianity</a></i> (1553), Calvin scholar Bruce Gordon commented "Among its offenses were a denial of original sin and a bizarre and hardly comprehensible view of the Trinity."<sup id="cite_ref-postbarthian.com_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-postbarthian.com-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bainton141_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bainton141-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Decades earlier, in July 1530 he disputed with <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Oecolampadius" title="Johannes Oecolampadius">Johannes Oecolampadius</a> in Basel and was eventually expelled. He went to Strasbourg, where he published a pamphlet against the Trinity. Bucer publicly refuted it and asked Servetus to leave. After returning to Basel, Servetus published <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogorum_de_Trinitate_libri_duo" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo">Two Books of Dialogues on the Trinity</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo</i>) which caused a sensation among Reformers and Catholics alike. When John Calvin alerted the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition in Spain</a> about this publication, an order was issued for Servetus's arrest.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin and Servetus were first brought into contact in 1546 through a common acquaintance, Jean Frellon of Lyon; they exchanged letters debating doctrine; Calvin used a pseudonym as <i>Charles d' Espeville</i> and Servetus used the moniker <i>Michel de Villeneuve.</i><sup id="cite_ref-postbarthian.com_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-postbarthian.com-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, Calvin lost patience and refused to respond; by this time Servetus had written around thirty letters to Calvin. Calvin was particularly outraged when Servetus sent him a copy of the <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i> heavily annotated with arguments pointing to errors in the book. When Servetus mentioned that he would come to Geneva, "Espeville" (Calvin) wrote a letter to Farel on 13 February 1546 noting that if Servetus were to come, he would not assure him safe conduct: "for if he came, as far as my authority goes, I would not let him leave alive."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1553 Servetus published <i><a href="/wiki/Christianismi_Restitutio" title="Christianismi Restitutio">Christianismi Restitutio</a></i> (English: The Restoration of Christianity), in which he rejected the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the concept of predestination. In the same year, Calvin's representative, Guillaume de Trie, sent letters alerting the French Inquisition to Servetus.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calling him a "Spanish-Portuguese", suspecting and accusing him<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of his recently proved Jewish <a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">converso</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De Trie wrote down that "his proper name is Michael Servetus, but he currently calls himself Villeneuve, practicing medicine. He stayed for some time in Lyon, and now he is living in Vienne."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the inquisitor-general of France learned that Servetus was hiding in <a href="/wiki/Vienne,_Is%C3%A8re" title="Vienne, Isère">Vienne</a>, according to Calvin under an assumed name, he contacted Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Tournon" title="François de Tournon">François de Tournon</a>, the secretary of the archbishop of Lyon, to take up the matter. Servetus was arrested and taken in for questioning. His letters to Calvin were presented as evidence of heresy, but he denied having written them, and later said he was not sure it was his handwriting. He said, after swearing before the holy gospel, that "he was Michel De Villeneuve Doctor in Medicine about 42 years old, native of <a href="/wiki/Tudela,_Navarre" title="Tudela, Navarre">Tudela</a> of the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre#Spanish_conquest" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Navarre</a>, a city under the obedience to the Emperor".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following day he said: "..although he was not Servetus he assumed the person of Servet for debating with Calvin".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He managed to escape from prison, and the Catholic authorities sentenced him <i>in absentia</i> to death by slow burning.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On his way to Italy, Servetus stopped in Geneva to visit "<i>d'Espeville</i>", where he was recognized and arrested. Calvin's secretary, Nicholas de la Fontaine, composed a list of accusations that was submitted before the court. The prosecutor was <a href="/wiki/Philibert_Berthelier_(Son_of_Geneva_patriot)" title="Philibert Berthelier (Son of Geneva patriot)">Philibert Berthelier</a>, a member of a libertine family and son of a famous <a href="/wiki/Philibert_Berthelier_(Geneva_patriot)" title="Philibert Berthelier (Geneva patriot)">Geneva patriot</a>, and the sessions were led by Pierre Tissot, Perrin's brother-in-law. The libertines allowed the trial to drag on in an attempt to harass Calvin. The difficulty in using Servetus as a weapon against Calvin was that the heretical reputation of Servetus was widespread and most of the cities in Europe were observing and awaiting the outcome of the trial. This posed a dilemma for the libertines, so on 21 August the council decided to write to other Swiss cities for their opinions, thus mitigating their own responsibility for the final decision.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While waiting for the responses, the council also asked Servetus if he preferred to be judged in Vienne or in Geneva. He begged to stay in Geneva. On 20 October the replies from Zurich, Basel, Bern, and <a href="/wiki/Schaffhausen" title="Schaffhausen">Schaffhausen</a> were read and the council condemned Servetus as a heretic. The following day he was sentenced to burning at the stake, the same sentence as in Vienne. Some scholars claim that Calvin and other ministers asked that he be beheaded instead of burnt, knowing that burning at the stake was the only legal recourse.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This plea was refused and on 27 October, Servetus was burnt alive at the Plateau of <a href="/wiki/Champel" title="Champel">Champel</a> at the edge of Geneva.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Securing_the_Protestant_Reformation_(1553–1555)"><span id="Securing_the_Protestant_Reformation_.281553.E2.80.931555.29"></span>Securing the Protestant Reformation (1553–1555)</h3></div> <p>After the death of Servetus, Calvin was acclaimed a defender of Christianity, but his ultimate triumph over the libertines was still two years away. He had always insisted that the Consistory retain the power of excommunication, despite the council's past decision to take it away. During Servetus's trial, Philibert Berthelier asked the council for permission to take communion, as he had been excommunicated the previous year for insulting a minister. Calvin protested that the council did not have the legal authority to overturn Berthelier's excommunication. Unsure of how the council would rule, he hinted in a sermon on 3 September 1553 that he might be dismissed by the authorities. The council decided to re-examine the <i>Ordonnances</i> and on 18 September it voted in support of Calvin—excommunication was within the jurisdiction of the Consistory. Berthelier applied for reinstatement to another Genevan administrative assembly, the <i>Deux Cents</i> (Two Hundred), in November. This body reversed the council's decision and stated that the final arbiter concerning excommunication should be the council. The ministers continued to protest, and as in the case of Servetus, the opinions of the Swiss churches were sought. The affair dragged on through 1554. Finally, on 22 January 1555, the council announced the decision of the Swiss churches: the original <i>Ordonnances</i> were to be kept and the Consistory was to regain its official powers.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The libertines' downfall began with the February 1555 elections. By then, many of the French refugees had been granted citizenship and with their support, Calvin's partisans elected the majority of the syndics and the councilors. On 16 May the libertines took to the streets in a drunken protest and attempted to burn down a house that was supposedly full of Frenchmen. The syndic Henri Aulbert tried to intervene, carrying with him the <a href="/wiki/Sceptre" title="Sceptre">baton of office</a> that symbolized his power. Perrin seized the baton and waved it over the crowd, which gave the appearance that he was taking power and initiating a <i>coup d'état</i>. The insurrection was soon over when another syndic appeared and ordered Perrin to go with him to the town hall. Perrin and other leaders were forced to flee the city. With the approval of Calvin, the other plotters who remained in the city were found and executed. The opposition to Calvin's <a href="/wiki/Church_polity" class="mw-redirect" title="Church polity">church polity</a> came to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_years_(1555–1564)"><span id="Final_years_.281555.E2.80.931564.29"></span>Final years (1555–1564)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calvin_1562.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Calvin_1562.jpg/220px-Calvin_1562.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Calvin_1562.jpg/330px-Calvin_1562.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Calvin_1562.jpg/440px-Calvin_1562.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3262" data-file-height="4382" /></a><figcaption>John Calvin at 53 years old in an engraving by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Boyvin" title="René Boyvin">René Boyvin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Calvin's authority was practically uncontested during his final years, and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other. A doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zurich reformer <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> on the interpretation of the eucharist. Calvin's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli's camp. Calvin actively participated in the polemics that were exchanged between the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reformed_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed churches">Reformed</a> branches of the Reformation movement.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, Calvin was dismayed by the lack of unity among the reformers. He took steps toward rapprochement with Bullinger by signing the <i><a href="/wiki/Consensus_Tigurinus" title="Consensus Tigurinus">Consensus Tigurinus</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">concordat</a> between the Zurich and Geneva churches. He reached out to England when <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Thomas Cranmer</a> called for an <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical">ecumenical</a> synod of all the evangelical churches. Calvin praised the idea, but ultimately Cranmer was unable to bring it to fruition.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin sheltered <a href="/wiki/Marian_exiles" title="Marian exiles">Marian exiles</a> (those who fled the reign of Catholic <a href="/wiki/Mary_I_of_England" title="Mary I of England">Mary Tudor</a> in England) in Geneva starting in 1555. Under the city's protection, they were able to form their own reformed church under <a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Whittingham" title="William Whittingham">William Whittingham</a> and eventually carried Calvin's ideas on doctrine and polity back to England and Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B%C3%A2timent_sud_du_Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin_2006-08-16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/B%C3%A2timent_sud_du_Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin_2006-08-16.jpg/310px-B%C3%A2timent_sud_du_Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin_2006-08-16.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/B%C3%A2timent_sud_du_Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin_2006-08-16.jpg/465px-B%C3%A2timent_sud_du_Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin_2006-08-16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/B%C3%A2timent_sud_du_Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin_2006-08-16.jpg/620px-B%C3%A2timent_sud_du_Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin_2006-08-16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin" title="Collège Calvin">Collège Calvin</a> is now a college preparatory school for the Swiss <i><a href="/wiki/Matura" title="Matura">Maturité</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Within Geneva, Calvin's main concern was the creation of a <i>collège</i>, an institute for the education of children. A site for the school was selected on 25 March 1558 and it opened the following year on 5 June 1559. Although the school was a single institution, it was divided into two parts: a grammar school called the <i>collège</i> or <i>schola privata</i> and an advanced school called the <i>académie</i> or <i>schola publica</i>. Calvin tried to recruit two professors for the institute, Mathurin Cordier, his old friend and Latin scholar who was now based in <a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Tremellius" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmanuel Tremellius">Emmanuel Tremellius</a>, the former <a href="/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Hebrew_(Cambridge)" title="Regius Professor of Hebrew (Cambridge)">Regius professor of Hebrew</a> in Cambridge. Neither was available, but he succeeded in obtaining Theodore Beza as rector. Within five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school. The <i>collège</i> eventually became the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_Calvin" title="Collège Calvin">Collège Calvin</a>, one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva; the <i>académie</i> became the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Geneva" title="University of Geneva">University of Geneva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact_on_France">Impact on France</h4></div> <p>Calvin was deeply committed to reforming his homeland, France. The Protestant movement had been energetic, but lacked central organizational direction. With financial support from the church in Geneva, Calvin turned his enormous energies toward uplifting the French Protestant cause. As one historian explains: </p> <blockquote><p>He supplied the dogma, the liturgy, and the moral ideas of the new religion, and he also created ecclesiastical, political, and social institutions in harmony with it. A born leader, he followed up his work with personal appeals. His vast correspondence with French Protestants shows not only much zeal but infinite pains and considerable tact and driving home the lessons of his printed treatises.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1555 and 1562, more than 100 ministers were sent to France. Nevertheless French King <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_France" title="Henry II of France">Henry II</a> severely persecuted Protestants under the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Chateaubriand" class="mw-redirect" title="Edict of Chateaubriand">Edict of Chateaubriand</a> and when the French authorities complained about the missionary activities, the city fathers of Geneva disclaimed official responsibility.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Last_illness">Last illness</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_revoluci%C3%B3n_religiosa,_1880_%22%C3%9Altimos_momentos_de_Calvino%22._(4133283856).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_religiosa%2C_1880_%22%C3%9Altimos_momentos_de_Calvino%22._%284133283856%29.jpg/220px-La_revoluci%C3%B3n_religiosa%2C_1880_%22%C3%9Altimos_momentos_de_Calvino%22._%284133283856%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_religiosa%2C_1880_%22%C3%9Altimos_momentos_de_Calvino%22._%284133283856%29.jpg/330px-La_revoluci%C3%B3n_religiosa%2C_1880_%22%C3%9Altimos_momentos_de_Calvino%22._%284133283856%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_religiosa%2C_1880_%22%C3%9Altimos_momentos_de_Calvino%22._%284133283856%29.jpg/440px-La_revoluci%C3%B3n_religiosa%2C_1880_%22%C3%9Altimos_momentos_de_Calvino%22._%284133283856%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3940" data-file-height="3266" /></a><figcaption>The last moments of Calvin (Barcelona: Montaner y Simón, 1880–1883)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tombe_Calvin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tombe_Calvin.jpg/220px-Tombe_Calvin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tombe_Calvin.jpg/330px-Tombe_Calvin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tombe_Calvin.jpg/440px-Tombe_Calvin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2802" data-file-height="1868" /></a><figcaption>Traditional grave of Calvin in the <a href="/wiki/Cimeti%C3%A8re_des_Rois" title="Cimetière des Rois">Cimetière de Plainpalais</a> in Geneva; the exact location of his grave is unknown.</figcaption></figure> <p>In late 1558, Calvin became ill with a fever. Since he was afraid that he might die before completing the final revision of the <i>Institutes</i>, he forced himself to work. The final edition was greatly expanded to the extent that Calvin referred to it as a new work. The expansion from the 21 chapters of the previous edition to 80 was due to the extended treatment of existing material rather than the addition of new topics.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after he recovered, he strained his voice while preaching, which brought on a violent fit of coughing. He burst a blood-vessel in his lungs, and his health steadily declined. He preached his final sermon in St. Pierre on 6 February 1564. On 25 April, he made his will, in which he left small sums to his family and to the <i>collège</i>. A few days later, the ministers of the church came to visit him, and he bade his final farewell, which was recorded in <i>Discours d'adieu aux ministres</i>. He recounted his life in Geneva, sometimes recalling bitterly some of the hardships he had suffered. Calvin died on 27 May 1564 aged 54. At first his body lay in state, but since so many people came to see it, the reformers were afraid that they would be accused of fostering a new saint's cult. On the following day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the <a href="/wiki/Cimeti%C3%A8re_des_Rois" title="Cimetière des Rois">Cimetière des Rois</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact location of the grave is unknown; a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave traditionally thought to be Calvin's.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theology">Theology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theology_of_John_Calvin" title="Theology of John Calvin">Theology of John Calvin</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Calvin%27s_view_of_Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin's view of Scripture">Calvin's view of Scripture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustinian_soteriology" title="Augustinian soteriology">Augustinian soteriology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Covenant_theology" title="Covenant theology">Covenant theology</a></div> <p>Calvin developed his theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treatises, but the most comprehensive expression of his views is found in his magnum opus, the <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>. He intended that the book be used as a summary of his views on Christian theology and that it be read in conjunction with his commentaries.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The various editions of that work spanned nearly his entire career as a reformer, and the successive revisions of the book show that his theology changed very little from his youth to his death.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first edition from 1536 consisted of only six chapters. The second edition, published in 1539, was three times as long because he added chapters on subjects that appear in Melanchthon's <i><a href="/wiki/Loci_Communes" class="mw-redirect" title="Loci Communes">Loci Communes</a></i>. In 1543, he again added new material and expanded a chapter on the <a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles' Creed</a>. The final edition of the <i>Institutes</i> appeared in 1559. By then, the work consisted of four books of eighty chapters, and each book was named after statements from the creed: Book 1 on God the Creator, Book 2 on the Redeemer in Christ, Book 3 on receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit, and Book 4 on the Society of Christ or the Church.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CalvinInstitutio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CalvinInstitutio.jpg/220px-CalvinInstitutio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CalvinInstitutio.jpg/330px-CalvinInstitutio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/CalvinInstitutio.jpg/440px-CalvinInstitutio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2307" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Title page from the final edition of Calvin's <i>magnum opus</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Christiane_Religionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutio Christiane Religionis">Institutio Christiane Religionis</a></i>, which summarises his theology.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first statement in the <i>Institutes</i> acknowledges its central theme. It states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts: the knowledge of God and of ourselves.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world. The only way to obtain it is to study scripture. Calvin writes, "For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it as <i>autopiston</i> or self-authenticating. He defends the <a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarianism">trinitarian</a> view of God and, in a strong polemical stand against the Catholic Church, argues that <a href="/wiki/Religious_image" title="Religious image">images</a> of God lead to idolatry.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Calvin famously said "the human heart is a perpetual idol factory".<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of the first book, he offers his views on <a href="/wiki/Divine_Providence" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine Providence">providence</a>, writing, "By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his Providence rules its individual Parts."<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans are unable to fully comprehend why God performs any particular action, but whatever good or evil people may practice, their efforts always result in the execution of God's will and judgments.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second book includes several essays on <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_man" title="Fall of man">fall of man</a>, which directly refer to <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>, who developed these doctrines. He often cited the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> to defend the reformed cause against the charge that the reformers were creating new theology.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Calvin's view, sin began with the fall of <a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a> and propagated to all of humanity. The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are driven to evil.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can be found in Christ. But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine, he described the special situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>. God made a covenant with <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, promising the coming of Christ. Hence, the <a href="/wiki/Old_Covenant" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Covenant">Old Covenant</a> was not in opposition to Christ, but was rather a continuation of God's promise. Calvin then describes the <a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a> using the passage from the <a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles' Creed</a> that describes Christ's suffering under <a href="/wiki/Pontius_Pilate" title="Pontius Pilate">Pontius Pilate</a> and his return to judge the living and the dead. For Calvin, the whole course of Christ's obedience to the Father removed the discord between humanity and God.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the third book, Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and humanity is achieved. He first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ. The immediate effects of faith are <a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">repentance</a> and the remission of sin. This is followed by spiritual <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(theology)" title="Regeneration (theology)">regeneration</a>, which returns the believer to the state of holiness before Adam's transgression. Complete perfection is unattainable in this life, and the believer should expect a continual struggle against sin.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of <a href="/wiki/Sola_fide" title="Sola fide">justification by faith alone</a>. He defined justification as "the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this definition, it is clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that people play no role; God is completely sovereign in salvation.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Near the end of the book, Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">predestination</a>, a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Pelagius_(British_monk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagius (British monk)">Pelagius</a>. Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and Martin Luther,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though Calvin's formulation of the doctrine went further than the tradition that went before him.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The principle, in Calvin's words, is that "All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calvin believed that God's absolute decree was double predestination, but he also confessed that this was a <i>horrible decree</i>: "The decree is dreadful indeed, I confess. (latin. <i>"Decretum quidem horribile, fateor.</i>"; French. "<i>Je confesse que ce decret nous doit epouvanter.</i>")<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its ministry, authority, and <a href="/wiki/Sacraments" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacraments">sacraments</a>. He denied the <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_the_Roman_Pontiff" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of the Roman Pontiff">papal claim to primacy</a> and the accusation that the reformers were <a href="/wiki/Schism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schism (religion)">schismatic</a>. For Calvin, the Church was defined as the body of believers who placed Christ at its head. By definition, there was only one "catholic" or "universal" Church. Hence, he argued that the reformers "had to leave them in order that we might come to Christ."<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from <a href="/wiki/Ephesians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephesians">Ephesians</a>, and they consisted of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and doctors. Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary, limited in their existence to the time of the New Testament. The latter two offices were established in the church in Geneva. Although Calvin respected the work of the <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">ecumenical councils</a>, he considered them to be subject to God's Word found in scripture. He also believed that the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God. He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant: <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a> and the Lord's Supper (in opposition to the Catholic acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church">seven sacraments</a>). He completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a> and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice. He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">sacramental union</a> in which Christ was "in, with and under" the elements. His own view was close to <a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Huldrych_Zwingli#Eucharist" title="Theology of Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli's symbolic view</a>, but it was not identical. Rather than holding a purely symbolic view, Calvin noted that with the participation of the Holy Spirit, faith was nourished and strengthened by the sacrament. In his words, the eucharistic rite was "a secret too sublime for my mind to understand or words to express. I experience it rather than understand it."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversies">Controversies</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joachim-Westphal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Joachim-Westphal.jpg/220px-Joachim-Westphal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Joachim-Westphal.jpg/330px-Joachim-Westphal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Joachim-Westphal.jpg/440px-Joachim-Westphal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2030" data-file-height="2629" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Westphal_(of_Hamburg)" title="Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)">Joachim Westphal</a> disagreed with Calvin's theology on the eucharist.</figcaption></figure> <p>Calvin's theology caused controversy. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Caroli" title="Pierre Caroli">Pierre Caroli</a>, a Protestant minister in <a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a>, accused Calvin, as well as Viret and Farel, of <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> in 1536. Calvin defended his beliefs on the Trinity in <i>Confessio de Trinitate propter calumnias P. Caroli</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1551 <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me-Herm%C3%A8s_Bolsec" title="Jérôme-Hermès Bolsec">Jérôme-Hermès Bolsec</a>, a physician in Geneva, attacked Calvin's doctrine of predestination and accused him of making God the author of sin. Bolsec was banished from the city, and after Calvin's death, wrote a biography which severely maligned Calvin's character.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the following year, <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Westphal_(of_Hamburg)" title="Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)">Joachim Westphal</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Gnesio-Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnesio-Lutheran">Gnesio-Lutheran</a> pastor in Hamburg, condemned Calvin and Zwingli as heretics in denying the eucharistic doctrine of the union of Christ's body with the elements. Calvin's <i>Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis</i> (A Defense of the Sober and Orthodox Doctrine of the Sacrament) was his response in 1555.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1556 <a href="/wiki/Justus_Velsius#Frankfurt:_Disputation_with_Calvin" title="Justus Velsius">Justus Velsius</a>, a Dutch dissident, held a public <a href="/wiki/Disputation" title="Disputation">disputation</a> with Calvin during his visit to <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, in which Velsius defended <a href="/wiki/Free_will_in_theology" title="Free will in theology">free will</a> against Calvin's doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Predestination_(Calvinism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Predestination (Calvinism)">predestination</a>. Following the execution of Servetus, a close associate of Calvin, <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Castellio" title="Sebastian Castellio">Sebastian Castellio</a>, broke with him on the issue of the treatment of heretics. In Castellio's <i>Treatise on Heretics</i> (1554), he argued for a focus on Christ's moral teachings in place of the vanity of theology,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he afterward developed a theory of tolerance based on biblical principles.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calvin_and_the_Jews">Calvin and the Jews</h3></div> <p>Scholars have debated Calvin's view of the Jews and Judaism. Some have argued that Calvin was the least antisemitic among all the major reformers of his time, especially in comparison to Martin Luther.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have argued that Calvin was firmly within the antisemitic camp.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars agree that it is important to distinguish between Calvin's views toward the biblical Jews and his attitude toward contemporary Jews. In his theology, Calvin does not differentiate between God's covenant with Israel and the New Covenant. He stated, "all the children of the promise, reborn of God, who have obeyed the commands by faith working through love, have belonged to the New Covenant since the world began."<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, he was a covenant theologian and argued that the Jews are a rejected people who must embrace Jesus to re-enter the covenant.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of Calvin's statements on the Jewry of his era were polemical. For example, Calvin once wrote, "I have had much conversation with many Jews: I have never seen either a drop of piety or a grain of truth or ingenuousness—nay, I have never found common sense in any Jew."<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this respect, he differed little from other Protestant and Catholic theologians of his day.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among his extant writings, Calvin dealt explicitly with issues of contemporary Jews and Judaism in only one treatise,<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Response to Questions and Objections of a Certain Jew</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, he argued that Jews misread their own scriptures because they miss the unity of the Old and New Testaments.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_thought">Political thought</h2></div> <p>The aim of Calvin's political theory was to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary people. Although he was convinced that the Bible contained no blueprint for a certain form of government, Calvin favored a combination of democracy and <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">mixed government</a>). He appreciated the advantages of democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To further minimize the misuse of political power, Calvin proposed to divide it among several political institutions like the aristocracy, lower estates, or magistrates in a system of checks and balances (<a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>). Finally, Calvin taught that if rulers rise up against God they lose their divine right and must be deposed.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State and church are separate, though they have to cooperate to the benefit of the people. Christian magistrates have to make sure that the church can fulfill its duties in freedom. In extreme cases, the magistrates have to expel or execute dangerous heretics, but nobody can be forced to become a Protestant.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin thought that agriculture and the traditional crafts were normal human activities. With regard to trade and the financial world, he was more liberal than Luther, but both were strictly opposed to usury. Calvin allowed the charging of modest interest rates on loans. Like the other Reformers, Calvin understood work as a means through which the believers expressed their gratitude to God for their redemption in Christ and as a service to their neighbors. Everybody was obliged to work; loafing and begging were rejected. The idea that economic success was a visible sign of God's grace played only a minor role in Calvin's thinking. It became more important in later, partly secularized forms of Calvinism and became the starting-point of <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>'s theory about the rise of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin_bibliography" title="John Calvin bibliography">John Calvin bibliography</a></div> <p>Calvin's first published work was a commentary of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a>'s <i>De Clementia</i>. Published at his own expense in 1532, it showed that he was a humanist in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> with a thorough understanding of classical scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His first theological work, the <i><a href="/wiki/Psychopannychia" title="Psychopannychia">Psychopannychia</a></i>, attempted to refute the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Soul_sleep" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul sleep">soul sleep</a> as promulgated by the <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a>. Calvin probably wrote it during the period following Cop's speech, but it was not published until 1542 in Strasbourg.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Calvin%27s_handwriting_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/John_Calvin%27s_handwriting_01.jpg/350px-John_Calvin%27s_handwriting_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/John_Calvin%27s_handwriting_01.jpg/525px-John_Calvin%27s_handwriting_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/John_Calvin%27s_handwriting_01.jpg/700px-John_Calvin%27s_handwriting_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2517" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption>Calvin wrote many letters to religious and political leaders throughout Europe, including this one sent to <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI of England</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Calvin produced commentaries on most of the books of the Bible. His first commentary on <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a> was published in 1540, and he planned to write commentaries on the entire New Testament. Six years passed before he wrote his second, a commentary on <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="First Epistle to the Corinthians">First Epistle to the Corinthians</a>, but after that he devoted more attention to reaching his goal. Within four years he had published commentaries on all the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a>, and he also revised the commentary on Romans. He then turned his attention to the <a href="/wiki/General_epistles" class="mw-redirect" title="General epistles">general epistles</a>, dedicating them to <a href="/wiki/Edward_VI_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward VI of England">Edward VI of England</a>. By 1555 he had completed his work on the New Testament, finishing with the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gospels" class="mw-redirect" title="Gospels">Gospels</a> (he omitted only the brief second and third <a href="/wiki/Epistles_of_John" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistles of John">Epistles of John</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>). For the Old Testament, he wrote commentaries on <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a>, the books of the <a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Joshua</a>. The material for the commentaries often originated from lectures to students and ministers that he reworked for publication. From 1557 onwards, he could not find the time to continue this method, and he gave permission for his lectures to be published from stenographers' notes. These <i>Praelectiones</i> covered the <a href="/wiki/Minor_prophets" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor prophets">minor prophets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jeremiah" title="Book of Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Lamentations" title="Book of Lamentations">Lamentations</a>, and part of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel" title="Book of Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Calvin_Titian_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/John_Calvin_Titian_B.jpg/220px-John_Calvin_Titian_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/John_Calvin_Titian_B.jpg/330px-John_Calvin_Titian_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/John_Calvin_Titian_B.jpg/440px-John_Calvin_Titian_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1362" data-file-height="1868" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Calvin by <a href="/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swiss-Commemorative-Coin-2017a-CHF-20-obverse.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Swiss-Commemorative-Coin-2017a-CHF-20-obverse.png/220px-Swiss-Commemorative-Coin-2017a-CHF-20-obverse.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Swiss-Commemorative-Coin-2017a-CHF-20-obverse.png 1.5x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="259" /></a><figcaption>Calvin (left) and <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> on a Swiss <a href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_Swiss_franc" title="Coins of the Swiss franc">20 franc</a> coin commemorating the 500th anniversary of the Reformation.</figcaption></figure> <p>Calvin also wrote many letters and treatises. Following the <i>Responsio ad Sadoletum</i>, Calvin wrote an open letter at the request of Bucer to <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> in 1543, <i>Supplex exhortatio ad Caesarem</i>, defending the reformed faith. This was followed by an open letter to the pope (<i>Admonitio paterna Pauli III</i>) in 1544, in which Calvin admonished <a href="/wiki/Paul_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul III">Paul III</a> for depriving the reformers of any prospect of rapprochement. The pope proceeded to open the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a>, which resulted in decrees against the reformers. Calvin refuted the decrees by producing the <i>Acta synodi Tridentinae cum Antidoto (The synod of Trent with Antidote)</i> in 1547. When Charles tried to find a compromise solution with the <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Interim" title="Augsburg Interim">Augsburg Interim</a>, Bucer and Bullinger urged Calvin to respond. He wrote the treatise, <i>Vera Christianae pacificationis et Ecclesiae reformandae ratio (The true system of Christian pacification and the reformation of the Church)</i> in 1549, in which he described the doctrines that should be upheld, including justification by faith.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin provided many of the foundational documents for reformed churches, including documents on the catechism, the liturgy, and church governance. He also produced several confessions of faith to unite the churches. In 1559, he drafted the French confession of faith, the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Confession" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic Confession">Gallic Confession</a>, and the synod in Paris accepted it with few changes. The <a href="/wiki/Belgic_Confession" title="Belgic Confession">Belgic Confession</a> of 1561, a Dutch confession of faith, was partly based on the Gallic Confession.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <p>After the deaths of Calvin and his successor, Beza, the Geneva city council gradually gained control over areas of life that were previously in the ecclesiastical domain. Increasing secularization was accompanied by the decline of the church. Even the Geneva <i>académie</i> was eclipsed by universities in <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>, which became the new strongholds of Calvin's ideas, first identified as "Calvinism" by Joachim Westphal in 1552. By 1585, Geneva, once the wellspring of the reform movement, had become merely its symbol.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calvin had always warned against describing him as an "idol" and Geneva as a new "Jerusalem". He encouraged people to adapt to the environments in which they found themselves. Even during his polemical exchange with Westphal, he advised a group of French-speaking refugees, who had settled in <a href="/wiki/Wesel" title="Wesel">Wesel</a>, Germany, to integrate with the local Lutheran churches. Despite his differences with the Lutherans, he did not deny that they were members of the true Church. Calvin's recognition of the need to adapt to local conditions became an important characteristic of the reformation movement as it spread across Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his program of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_the_Palatinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Electorate of the Palatinate">Electorate of the Palatinate</a> under <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_Palatine" title="Frederick III, Elector Palatine">Frederick III</a>, which led to the formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Catechism" title="Heidelberg Catechism">Heidelberg Catechism</a> in 1563. This and the <a href="/wiki/Belgic_Confession" title="Belgic Confession">Belgic Confession</a> were adopted as confessional standards in the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Emden" title="Synod of Emden">first synod</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a> in 1571. Several leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Martire_Vermigli" class="mw-redirect" title="Pietro Martire Vermigli">Peter Martyr</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Laski" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Laski">Jan Laski</a>) and Scotland (<a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">John Knox</a>). During the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, the Calvinistic <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritans</a> produced the <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster Confession">Westminster Confession</a>, which became the confessional standard for <a href="/wiki/Presbyterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterians">Presbyterians</a> in the English-speaking world. </p><p>As the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> did not force Muslim conversion on its conquered western territories, reformed ideas were quickly adopted in the two-thirds of Hungary they occupied (the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburg</a>-ruled third part of Hungary remained Catholic). A Reformed Constitutional Synod was held in 1567 in <a href="/wiki/Debrecen" title="Debrecen">Debrecen</a>, the main hub of Hungarian Calvinism, where the <a href="/wiki/Second_Helvetic_Confession" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Helvetic Confession">Second Helvetic Confession</a> was adopted as the official confession of <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Church_in_Hungary" title="Reformed Church in Hungary">Hungarian Calvinists</a>. </p><p>Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Calvin is recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Renewers_of_the_Church" title="Renewers of the Church">Renewer of the Church</a> in Lutheran churches commemorated on 26 May.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calvin is also <a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints_(Church_of_England)" title="Calendar of saints (Church of England)">remembered</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Commemoration_(observance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commemoration (observance)">commemoration</a> on 26 May.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/31px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/47px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/62px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brevitas_et_facilitas" title="Brevitas et facilitas">Brevitas et facilitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Reformatorum" title="Corpus Reformatorum">Corpus Reformatorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciscus_Junius_(the_elder)" title="Franciscus Junius (the elder)">Franciscus Junius (the elder)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genevan_psalter" class="mw-redirect" title="Genevan psalter">Genevan psalter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">History of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Tremellius" title="Immanuel Tremellius">Immanuel Tremellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin%27s_views_on_Mary" title="John Calvin's views on Mary">John Calvin's views on Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Zeinenger" title="Otto Zeinenger">Otto Zeinenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Reformation">Swiss Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Neuser" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Neuser">Wilhelm Heinrich Neuser</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/calvin">"Definition of Calvin | Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>www.dictionary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+Calvin+%7C+Dictionary.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fcalvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Dean Linder, <i>The Reformation Era</i>, (Greenwood Press, 2008), p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 8–12; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 17–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2004">Ganoczy 2004</a>, pp. 3–4; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 12–16; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 21. <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 22–27 states that Nicolas Colladon was the source that he attended Collège de la Marche which McGrath disputes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 17–18; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 22–23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1975">Parker 1975</a>, p. 15. According to <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, p. 20, there may have been a family conflict with the clergy in Noyon.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 20–24; <a href="#CITEREFParker1975">Parker 1975</a>, pp. 22–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parker, T. H. L, <i>John Calvin: a Biography</i>, Louisville, Kentucky (Westminster John Knox: 2006), pp. 199–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Calvin, preface to <i>Commentary on the Book of Psalms</i>, trans. James Anderson, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1948), pp. xl–xli as quoted in <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, p. 67. The translation by Anderson is available at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom08.vi.html">"The Author's Preface"</a>, <i>Commentary on Psalms</i>, vol. 1</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Author%27s+Preface&rft.btitle=Commentary+on+Psalms&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fcalvin%2Fcalcom08.vi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span> See also <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">from: <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Gordon_(historian)" title="Bruce Gordon (historian)">Bruce Gordon</a>, <i>Calvin</i>, New Haven; London 2009, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2004">Ganoczy 2004</a>, pp. 9–10; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 65–70; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 199–203; <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 69–72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 68–70, Ganoczy in his book <i>Le Jeune Calvin. Genèse et evolution de sa vocation réformatrice</i>, Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, 1966, p. 302, argues that Calvin conversion took place over several years and that it was not a biographical or chronological event. Cottret quotes Olivier Millet, <i>Calvin et la dynamique de la Parole. Essai de rhétorique réformée</i>, Paris: H. Champion 1992, p. 522, noting a typological rather than a biographical perspective of the account of his conversion. The biographical argument is promoted by D. Fischer, "Conversion de Calvin", <i>Etudes Theéologiques et Religieuses</i> 58 (1983), pp. 203–220. According to <a href="#CITEREFParker1975">Parker 1975</a>, pp. 192–196 Parker is in sympathy with Ganoczy's view, but in his investigations, he concluded that a certain period for his conversion could be determined.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce Gordon, <i>Calvin</i>, New Haven; London 2009, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2004">Ganoczy 2004</a>, pp. 7–8; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 63–65, 73–74, 82–88, 101; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 47–51; <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 62–67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2005">Ganoczy 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2004">Ganoczy 2004</a>, p. 9; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 110–114; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 52, 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 76–78; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 110, 118–120; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 73–75</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, p. 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 128–129; <a href="#CITEREFParker1975">Parker 1975</a>, pp. 74–76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 98–100; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 129–131; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 85–90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 101–102; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 90–92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.strasbourg.fr/calvin.htm">Calvin et Strasbourg</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130908170246/http://archives.strasbourg.fr/calvin.htm">Archived</a> 8 September 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 92–93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parker_1995_4–5-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parker_1995_4–5_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parker_1995_4–5_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, pp. 4–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 97–101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 143–146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, p. 140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1975">Parker 1975</a>, p. 87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 139–142; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 96–97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2004">Ganoczy 2004</a>, pp. 12–14; <a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, p. 46; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 152–156</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 103–107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2004">Ganoczy 2004</a>, pp. 15–17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 165–166; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 108–111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 172–174; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 112–115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 170–171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_J._Larson2009" class="citation book cs1">Mark J. Larson (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ItFLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Calvin's Doctrine of the State: A Reformed Doctrine and Its American Trajectory, The Revolutionary War, and the Founding of the Republic</i></a>. Wipf and Stock. pp. 1–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-073-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-073-3"><bdi>978-1-60608-073-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150915225800/https://books.google.com/books?id=ItFLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin%27s+Doctrine+of+the+State%3A+A+Reformed+Doctrine+and+Its+American+Trajectory%2C+The+Revolutionary+War%2C+and+the+Founding+of+the+Republic&rft.pages=1-20&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60608-073-3&rft.au=Mark+J.+Larson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DItFLAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harro Höpfl, <i>The Christian Polity of John Calvin</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1985)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeVries2004">DeVries 2004</a>, pp. 106–124; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 116–123</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2002" class="citation cs2">Parker, T. H. L. (2002), <i>The Oracles of God: An Introduction to the Preaching of John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: James Clarke Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-227-17091-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-227-17091-5"><bdi>978-0-227-17091-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oracles+of+God%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Preaching+of+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=James+Clarke+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-227-17091-5&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=T.+H.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurrid2006" class="citation cs2">Currid, John D. (2006), <i>Calvin and the Biblical Languages</i>, UK: Christian Focus Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84550-212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84550-212-6"><bdi>978-1-84550-212-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+and+the+Biblical+Languages&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=Christian+Focus+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-84550-212-6&rft.aulast=Currid&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoltaire,_1694–1778" class="citation web cs1">Voltaire, 1694–1778. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923211302/http://www.cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/Universal-Literature/Voltaire-Works/Works-of-Voltaire-Volume-27.html">"The works of Voltaire: Volume XXVII. Ancient and Modern History. 4. Charles V., 1512 – Philip II., 1584"</a>. <i>cristoraul.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cristoraul.com/ENGLISH/Universal-Literature/Voltaire-Works/Works-of-Voltaire-Volume-27.html">the original</a> on 23 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cristoraul.com&rft.atitle=The+works+of+Voltaire%3A+Volume+XXVII.+Ancient+and+Modern+History.+4.+Charles+V.%2C+1512+%E2%80%93+Philip+II.%2C+1584&rft.au=Voltaire%2C+1694%E2%80%931778&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cristoraul.com%2FENGLISH%2FUniversal-Literature%2FVoltaire-Works%2FWorks-of-Voltaire-Volume-27.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 129–130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 183–184; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Libertines-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Libertines_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaff" class="citation cs2">Schaff, Philip, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.iv.xiii.xi.html">"§ 108. Calvin's Struggle with the Patriots and Libertines"</a>, <i>History of the Christian Church</i>, vol. VIII, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120509182955/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.iv.xiii.xi.html">archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A7+108.+Calvin%27s+Struggle+with+the+Patriots+and+Libertines&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.aulast=Schaff&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fhcc8.iv.xiii.xi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fisher-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fisher_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1912" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, George Park (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/reformation12fishgoog/reformation12fishgoog_djvu.txt"><i>The Reformation</i></a>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 192. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160403190246/https://archive.org/stream/reformation12fishgoog/reformation12fishgoog_djvu.txt">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=George+Park&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Freformation12fishgoog%2Freformation12fishgoog_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 185–186; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 124–126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, p. 187; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2008">De Greef 2008</a>, pp. 30–31; <a href="#CITEREFMcNeill1954">McNeill 1954</a>, pp. 170–171; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 190–191; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 136–138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 139–145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajeed2005" class="citation journal cs1">Majeed, Azeem (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322233">"How Islam changed medicine"</a>. <i>BMJ</i>. <b>331</b> (7531): 1486–1487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7531.1486">10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1486</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322233">1322233</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16373721">16373721</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=How+Islam+changed+medicine&rft.volume=331&rft.issue=7531&rft.pages=1486-1487&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1322233%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16373721&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7531.1486&rft.aulast=Majeed&rft.aufirst=Azeem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1322233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-postbarthian.com-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-postbarthian.com_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-postbarthian.com_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://postbarthian.com/2018/10/05/michael-servetus-saint-heretic-and-martyr-part-3-a-radical-theology/">"Michael Servetus: Saint, Heretic and Martyr (Part 3: A Radical Theology)"</a>. <i>The Postbarthian | Ecumenical Reformed Musing of Wyatt Houtz</i>. 5 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Postbarthian+%26%23124%3B+Ecumenical+Reformed+Musing+of+Wyatt+Houtz&rft.atitle=Michael+Servetus%3A+Saint%2C+Heretic+and+Martyr+%28Part+3%3A+A+Radical+Theology%29&rft.date=2018-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpostbarthian.com%2F2018%2F10%2F05%2Fmichael-servetus-saint-heretic-and-martyr-part-3-a-radical-theology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bainton141-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bainton141_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Hunted Heretic</i>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 213–216; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, p. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 216–217; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 147–148; Levy, Leonard W. (1995), <i>Blasphemy: Verbal offense Against the Sacred from Moses to Salman Rushdie</i>, p. 65, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4515-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-4515-8">978-0-8078-4515-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the letters in John Calvin, <i>Opera Quae Supersunt Omnia</i>, Book VIII, First Appendix, IV & VII.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Calvin and the Judaism: Influence and Actions and Obsessions</i>. Revoeder Hebrew Press. Levi Lancaster 200, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gonzalez Echeverría, "Andrés Laguna and Michael Servetus: two converted humanist doctors of the XVI century" in: Andrés Laguna International Congress. Humanism, Science and Politics in the Renaissance Europe, García Hourcade y Moreno Yuste, coord., Junta de Castilla y León, Valladolid, 1999, pp. 377–389</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">González Echeverría "Michael Servetus belonged to the famous converted Jewish family The Zaporta", Pliegos de Bibliofilia, no. 7, Madrid pp. 33–42. 1999</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">González Echeverría" On the Jewish origin of Michael Servetus" Raíces. Jewish Magazine of Culture, Madrid, nº 40, pp. 67–69. 1999</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Inconsistencies of John Calvin, A.C. Williams, Artiviche Ed, Pressore, 2012, pp. 34–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1749 First questioning. Judgement of Vienne in Dauphiné against Servet. D'artigny Nouveaux mémoires d'histoire Tome Seconde. pp. 55–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1749 Second questioning. Judgement of Vienne in Dauphiné against Servet.D'artigny Nouveaux mémoires d'histoire Tome Seconde pp. 55–154)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 149–150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1975">Parker 1975</a>, p. 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Verdict and Sentence for Michael Servetus (1533) in A Reformation Reader eds. Denis R. 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Holt. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226293/page/n207">201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Reformation&rft.pages=201&rft.pub=H.+Holt&rft.date=1920&rft.au=Preserved+Smith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.226293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 182–184; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 178–180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 161–164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 195–196; 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<a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, pp. 4–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBouwsma1988">Bouwsma 1988</a>, p. 9; <a href="#CITEREFHelm2004">Helm 2004</a>, p. 6; <a href="#CITEREFHesselink2004">Hesselink 2004</a>, pp. 75–77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, pp. 4–10; <a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, pp. 42–44; <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 136–144, 151–174; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 110–114, 309–325; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 53–62, 97–99, 132–134, 161–164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiesel1980">Niesel 1980</a>, pp. 23–24; <a href="#CITEREFHesselink2004">Hesselink 2004</a>, pp. 77–78; <a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, pp. 13–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinmetz1995">Steinmetz 1995</a>, pp. 59–62; <a href="#CITEREFHesselink2004">Hesselink 2004</a>, p. 85; <a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, pp. 29–34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://postbarthian.com/2019/08/06/the-human-heart-is-an-idol-factory-a-modern-critique-of-john-calvin/">"The human heart is an idol factory: a modern critique of John Calvin"</a>. <i>The PostBarthian</i>. 6 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+PostBarthian&rft.atitle=The+human+heart+is+an+idol+factory%3A+a+modern+critique+of+John+Calvin&rft.date=2019-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpostbarthian.com%2F2019%2F08%2F06%2Fthe-human-heart-is-an-idol-factory-a-modern-critique-of-john-calvin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHesselink2004">Hesselink 2004</a>, p. 85; <a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, p. 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiesel1980">Niesel 1980</a>, pp. 70–79; <a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerrish2004">Gerrish 2004</a>, pp. 290–291, 302. According to Gerrish, Calvin put his defence against the charge of novelty in the preface of every edition of the <i>Institutes</i>. The original preface of the first edition was addressed to the King of France, Francis I. The defence expressed his opinion that patristic authority favoured the reformers and that allegation of the reformers deviating from the patristic consensus was a fiction. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+PostBarthian&rft.atitle=John+Calvin+confessed+Double+Predestination+is+a+Horrible+and+Dreadful+Decree&rft.date=2014-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpostbarthian.com%2F2014%2F05%2F31%2Fjohn-calvin-confessed-double-predestination-horrible-dreadful-decree%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, p. 134; <a href="#CITEREFNiesel1980">Niesel 1980</a>, pp. 187–195</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, pp. 135–144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPotterGreengrass1983">Potter & Greengrass 1983</a>, pp. 34–42; <a href="#CITEREFMcDonnell1967">McDonnell 1967</a>, p. 206; <a href="#CITEREFParker1995">Parker 1995</a>, pp. 147–157; <a href="#CITEREFNiesel1980">Niesel 1980</a>, pp. 211–228; <a href="#CITEREFSteinmetz1995">Steinmetz 1995</a>, pp. 172–173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGamble2004">Gamble 2004</a>, p. 199; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 125–126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGamble2004">Gamble 2004</a>, pp. 198–199; <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 16–17; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 208–211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGamble2004">Gamble 2004</a>, pp. 193–196; <a href="#CITEREFParker1975">Parker 1975</a>, p. 163</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 227–233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGanoczy2004">Ganoczy 2004</a>, pp. 17–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elazar, Daniel J. (1995). <i>Covenant and Commonwealth: Europe from Christian Separation through the Protestant Reformation, Volume II of the Covenant Tradition in Politics</i>. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPater1987">Pater 1987</a>, pp. 256–296; <a href="#CITEREFBaron1972">Baron 1972</a>, pp. 343–344</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLange_van_Ravenswaay2009">Lange van Ravenswaay 2009</a>, p. 144 quoting from Calvin, Institutes II.11.10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pak, G. Sojin.<i> John Calvin and the Jews: His Exegetical Legacy</i>. Reformed Institute of Metropolitan Washington, 2009, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Calvin's commentary of Daniel 2:44–45 translated by Myers, Thomas.<i>Calvin's Commentaries</i>. 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Sweetland Laver, <i>Calvin, Jews, and Intra-Christian Polemics</i> (PhD diss, Temple University, Philadelphia, 1987), pp. 220–261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPak2010">Pak 2010</a>, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Weerda, <i>Calvin</i>, in <i>Evangelisches Soziallexikon</i>, Stuttgart (Germany) (1954), col. 210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), <i>History of Religion in the United States</i>, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Weerda, <i>Calvin</i>, in <i>Evangelisches Soziallexikon</i>, col. 211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jan Weerda, <i>Calvin</i>, in <i>Evangelisches Soziallexikon</i>, col. 212</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Otto Weber, <i>Calvin, Johannes</i>, in <i>Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart</i>, 3. Auflage, Band I (1957), col. 1598</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, p. 41; <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 60–62; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 63–65; <a href="#CITEREFSteinmetz2009">Steinmetz 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, p. 53; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, pp. 77–82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, pp. 44–45; <a href="#CITEREFParker2006">Parker 2006</a>, pp. 134–136, 160–162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, pp. 46–48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Greef2004">De Greef 2004</a>, pp. 50–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 200–201; <a href="#CITEREFCottret2000">Cottret 2000</a>, p. 239</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPettegree2004">Pettegree 2004</a>, pp. 207–208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolder2004">Holder 2004</a>, pp. 246–256; <a href="#CITEREFMcGrath1990">McGrath 1990</a>, pp. 198–199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPettegree2004">Pettegree 2004</a>, p. 222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060908112753/http://www.renewingworship.org/ELW/content/PDF/ChurchYear_asm_20060119.pdf">"The Church Year"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 8 September 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.renewingworship.org/ELW/content/PDF/ChurchYear_asm_20060119.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Church+Year&rft.date=2006-09-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.renewingworship.org%2FELW%2Fcontent%2FPDF%2FChurchYear_asm_20060119.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar">"The Calendar"</a>. <i>The Church of England</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Church+of+England&rft.atitle=The+Calendar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.churchofengland.org%2Fprayer-and-worship%2Fworship-texts-and-resources%2Fcommon-worship%2Fchurchs-year%2Fcalendar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaron1972" class="citation cs2">Baron, Salo (1972), "John Calvin and the Jews", in Feldman, Leon A. (ed.), <i>Ancient and Medieval Jewish History</i>, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/463285878">463285878</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Calvin+and+the+Jews&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+Medieval+Jewish+History&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F463285878&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=Salo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span> (originally published 1965).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerg2009" class="citation cs2">Berg, Machiel A. van den (2009), <i>Friends of Calvin</i>, Grand Rapids, Mi.: <a href="/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.">William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6227-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6227-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-6227-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Friends+of+Calvin&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Mi.&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-6227-3&rft.aulast=Berg&rft.aufirst=Machiel+A.+van+den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouwsma1988" class="citation cs2">Bouwsma, William James (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johncalvin00will"><i>John Calvin: A Sixteenth-Century Portrait</i></a>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504394-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504394-5"><bdi>978-0-19-504394-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin%3A+A+Sixteenth-Century+Portrait&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504394-5&rft.aulast=Bouwsma&rft.aufirst=William+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohncalvin00will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvin1989" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Calvin, John (1989) [1564], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes"><i>Institutio Christianae religionis</i></a> [<i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>] (in Latin), Translated by Henry Beveridge, Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutio+Christianae+religionis&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Calvin&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fcalvin%2Finstitutes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChung2002" class="citation cs2">Chung, Sung Wook (2002), <i>Admiration and Challenge: Karl Barth's Theological Relationship with John Calvin</i>, New York: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-82-045680-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-82-045680-5"><bdi>978-0-82-045680-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Admiration+and+Challenge%3A+Karl+Barth%27s+Theological+Relationship+with+John+Calvin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-82-045680-5&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Sung+Wook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChung2009" class="citation cs2">Chung, Sung Wook (2009), <i>John Calvin and Evangelical Theology: Legacy and Prospect</i>, Louisville, KY: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Westminster_John_Knox_(publisher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Westminster John Knox (publisher) (page does not exist)">Westminster John Knox</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-82-045680-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-82-045680-5"><bdi>978-0-82-045680-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin+and+Evangelical+Theology%3A+Legacy+and+Prospect&rft.place=Louisville%2C+KY&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-82-045680-5&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Sung+Wook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCottret2000" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cottret, Bernard (2000) [1995], <i>Calvin: Biographie</i> [<i>Calvin: A Biography</i>] (in French), Translated by M. Wallace McDonald, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3159-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3159-0"><bdi>978-0-8028-3159-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin%3A+Biographie&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-3159-0&rft.aulast=Cottret&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Greef2004" class="citation cs2">De Greef, Wulfert (2004), "Calvin's writings", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%27s+writings&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=De+Greef&rft.aufirst=Wulfert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Greef2008" class="citation cs2">———————— (2008), <i>The Writings of John Calvin: An Introductory Guide</i>, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-23230-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-23230-6"><bdi>978-0-664-23230-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Writings+of+John+Calvin%3A+An+Introductory+Guide&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-664-23230-6&rft.aulast=De+Greef&rft.aufirst=Wulfert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDetmers2006" class="citation cs2">Detmers, Achim (2006), "Calvin, the Jews, and Judaism", in Bell, Dean Phillip; Burnett, Stephen G. (eds.), <i>Jews, Judaism, and the Reformation in Sixteenth-Century Germany</i>, Leiden: Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14947-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14947-2"><bdi>978-90-04-14947-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%2C+the+Jews%2C+and+Judaism&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Judaism%2C+and+the+Reformation+in+Sixteenth-Century+Germany&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-04-14947-2&rft.aulast=Detmers&rft.aufirst=Achim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeVries2004" class="citation cs2">DeVries, Dawn (2004), "Calvin's preaching", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%27s+preaching&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=DeVries&rft.aufirst=Dawn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer,_Thomas_Henry1850" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Dyer" title="Thomas Henry Dyer">Dyer, Thomas Henry</a> (1850), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Po8uAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Life of John Calvin</i></a>, London: John Murray</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+John+Calvin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1850&rft.au=Dyer%2C+Thomas+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPo8uAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamble2004" class="citation cs2">Gamble, Richard C. (2004), "Calvin's controversies", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%27s+controversies&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=Gamble&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanoczy2004" class="citation cs2">Ganoczy, Alexandre (2004), "Calvin's life", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%27s+life&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=Ganoczy&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGanoczy2005" class="citation cs2">Ganoczy, Alexandre (2005), "Calvin, John", in Hillebrand, Hans J. (ed.), <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-06493-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-06493-3"><bdi>978-0-195-06493-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%2C+John&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+the+Reformation&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-195-06493-3&rft.aulast=Ganoczy&rft.aufirst=Alexandre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerrish2004" class="citation cs2">Gerrish, R. A. (2004), "The place of Calvin in Christian theology", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+place+of+Calvin+in+Christian+theology&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=Gerrish&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham1971" class="citation cs2">Graham, W. Fred (1971), <i>The Constructive Revolutionary: John Calvin and His Socio-Economic Impact</i>, Richmond, Virginia: John Knox Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8042-0880-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8042-0880-2"><bdi>978-0-8042-0880-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constructive+Revolutionary%3A+John+Calvin+and+His+Socio-Economic+Impact&rft.place=Richmond%2C+Virginia&rft.pub=John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-8042-0880-2&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=W.+Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelm2004" class="citation cs2">Helm, Paul (2004), <i>John Calvin's Ideas</i>, Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925569-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925569-6"><bdi>978-0-19-925569-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin%27s+Ideas&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925569-6&rft.aulast=Helm&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeron2005" class="citation cs2">Heron, Alasdair (2005), "John Calvin", in Lacoste, Jean-Yves (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Christian Theology</i>, New York: CRC Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Calvin&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Christian+Theology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Heron&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHesselink2004" class="citation cs2">Hesselink, I. John (2004), "Calvin's theology", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%27s+theology&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=Hesselink&rft.aufirst=I.+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolder2004" class="citation cs2">Holder, R. Ward (2004), "Calvin's heritage", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%27s+heritage&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=Holder&rft.aufirst=R.+Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2009" class="citation cs2">Lane, Anthony N.S. (2009), "Calvin's Institutes", <i>A Reader's Guide</i>, Grand Rapids: <a href="/wiki/Baker_Publishing_Group" title="Baker Publishing Group">Baker Publishing Group</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-3731-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-3731-3"><bdi>978-0-8010-3731-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%27s+Institutes&rft.btitle=A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.place=Grand+Rapids&rft.pub=Baker+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-3731-3&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Anthony+N.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLange_van_Ravenswaay2009" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lange van Ravenswaay, J. Marius J. (2009) [2008], "Calvin and the Jews", in Selderhuis, Herman J. (ed.), <i>Calvijn Handboek</i> [<i>The Calvin Handbook</i>] (in Dutch), Translated by Kampen Kok, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6230-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6230-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-6230-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin+and+the+Jews&rft.btitle=Calvijn+Handboek&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-6230-3&rft.aulast=Lange+van+Ravenswaay&rft.aufirst=J.+Marius+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManetsch2013" class="citation cs2">Manetsch, Scott M. (2013), <i>Calvin's Company of Pastors: Pastoral Care and the Emerging Reformed Church, 1536–1609</i>, Oxford Studies in Historical Theology, New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin%27s+Company+of+Pastors%3A+Pastoral+Care+and+the+Emerging+Reformed+Church%2C+1536%E2%80%931609&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Oxford+Studies+in+Historical+Theology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Manetsch&rft.aufirst=Scott+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonnell1967" class="citation cs2">McDonnell, Kilian (1967), <i>John Calvin, the Church, and the Eucharist</i>, Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/318418">318418</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin%2C+the+Church%2C+and+the+Eucharist&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F318418&rft.aulast=McDonnell&rft.aufirst=Kilian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath1990" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">McGrath, Alister E.</a> (1990), <i>A Life of John Calvin</i>, Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Basil_Blackwell" title="Basil Blackwell">Basil Blackwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16398-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16398-5"><bdi>978-0-631-16398-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Life+of+John+Calvin&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Basil+Blackwell&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-631-16398-5&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill1954" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_T._McNeill" title="John T. McNeill">McNeill, John Thomas</a> (1954), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historycharacter0000mcne"><i>The History and Character of Calvinism</i></a></span>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-500743-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-500743-5"><bdi>978-0-19-500743-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Character+of+Calvinism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.isbn=978-0-19-500743-5&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=John+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistorycharacter0000mcne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiesel1980" class="citation cs2">Niesel, Wilhelm (1980), <i>The Theology of Calvin</i>, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-6694-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-6694-8"><bdi>978-0-8010-6694-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theology+of+Calvin&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=Baker+Book+House&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-6694-8&rft.aulast=Niesel&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlsen2004" class="citation cs2">Olsen, Jeannine E. (2004), "Calvin and social-ethical issues", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin+and+social-ethical+issues&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=Jeannine+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPak2010" class="citation cs2">Pak, G. Sujin (2010), <i>The Judaizing Calvin</i>, Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537192-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537192-5"><bdi>978-0-19-537192-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Judaizing+Calvin&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-537192-5&rft.aulast=Pak&rft.aufirst=G.+Sujin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1995" class="citation cs2">Parker, T. H. L. (1995), <i>Calvin: An Introduction to His Thought</i>, London: Geoffrey Chapman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-225-66575-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-225-66575-8"><bdi>978-0-225-66575-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin%3A+An+Introduction+to+His+Thought&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Geoffrey+Chapman&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-225-66575-8&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=T.+H.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1975" class="citation cs2">——————— (1975), <i>John Calvin</i>, Tring, Hertfordshire, England: Lion Publishing plc, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7459-1219-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7459-1219-6"><bdi>978-0-7459-1219-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin&rft.place=Tring%2C+Hertfordshire%2C+England&rft.pub=Lion+Publishing+plc&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-7459-1219-6&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=T.+H.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2006" class="citation cs2">——————— (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/johncalvinbiogra00park"><i>John Calvin: A Biography</i></a>, Oxford: Lion Hudson plc, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7459-5228-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7459-5228-4"><bdi>978-0-7459-5228-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin%3A+A+Biography&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Lion+Hudson+plc&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7459-5228-4&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=T.+H.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjohncalvinbiogra00park&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPater1987" class="citation cs2">Pater, Calvin Augustus (1987), "Calvin, the Jews, and the Judaic Legacy", in Furcha, E. J. (ed.), <i>In Honor of John Calvin: Papers from the 1986 International Calvin Symposium</i>, Montreal: McGill University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7717-0171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7717-0171-9"><bdi>978-0-7717-0171-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Calvin%2C+the+Jews%2C+and+the+Judaic+Legacy&rft.btitle=In+Honor+of+John+Calvin%3A+Papers+from+the+1986+International+Calvin+Symposium&rft.place=Montreal&rft.pub=McGill+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-7717-0171-9&rft.aulast=Pater&rft.aufirst=Calvin+Augustus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettegree2004" class="citation cs2">Pettegree, Andrew (2004), "The spread of Calvin's thought", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin</i>, Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01672-8"><bdi>978-0-521-01672-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+spread+of+Calvin%27s+thought&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+John+Calvin&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01672-8&rft.aulast=Pettegree&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotterGreengrass1983" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/George_Richard_Potter" title="George Richard Potter">Potter, G. R.</a>; Greengrass, M. (1983), <i>John Calvin</i>, London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6381-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7131-6381-0"><bdi>978-0-7131-6381-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold+%28Publishers%29+Ltd.&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-7131-6381-0&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=G.+R.&rft.au=Greengrass%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinmetz1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Steinmetz_(historian)" title="David Steinmetz (historian)">Steinmetz, David C.</a> (1995), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/calvinincontext0000stei"><i>Calvin in Context</i></a></span>, Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509164-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509164-9"><bdi>978-0-19-509164-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+in+Context&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509164-9&rft.aulast=Steinmetz&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcalvinincontext0000stei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinmetz2009" class="citation cs2">————————— (2009), "Calvin as Biblical Interpreter Among the Ancient Philosophers", <i>Interpretation</i>, <b>63</b> (2): 142–153, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002096430906300204">10.1177/002096430906300204</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170454772">170454772</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Interpretation&rft.atitle=Calvin+as+Biblical+Interpreter+Among+the+Ancient+Philosophers&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=142-153&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002096430906300204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170454772%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Steinmetz&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackusBenedict2011" class="citation book cs1">Backus, Irena; <a href="/wiki/Philip_Benedict" title="Philip Benedict">Benedict, Philip</a>, eds. (2011). <i>Calvin and His Influence, 1509–2009</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin+and+His+Influence%2C+1509%E2%80%932009&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalserak2014" class="citation cs2">Balserak, Jon (2014), <i>John Calvin as Sixteenth-Century Prophet</i>, Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-70325-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-198-70325-9"><bdi>978-0-198-70325-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin+as+Sixteenth-Century+Prophet&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-198-70325-9&rft.aulast=Balserak&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvin1945" class="citation cs2">Calvin, Claude Wesley (1945), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUc5AAAAMAAJ"><i>The Calvin Families: Origin and History of the American Calvins, with a Partial Genealogy</i></a>, Ann Arbor: Edwards Brothers, Inc., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-598-99702-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-598-99702-9"><bdi>978-0-598-99702-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Calvin+Families%3A+Origin+and+History+of+the+American+Calvins%2C+with+a+Partial+Genealogy&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=Edwards+Brothers%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1945&rft.isbn=978-0-598-99702-9&rft.aulast=Calvin&rft.aufirst=Claude+Wesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRUc5AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Gordon_(historian)" title="Bruce Gordon (historian)">Gordon, Bruce</a> (2009), <i>Calvin</i>, London/New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17084-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17084-9"><bdi>978-0-300-17084-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin&rft.place=London%2FNew+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-17084-9&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuller2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Muller_(theologian)" title="Richard Muller (theologian)">Muller, Richard A.</a> (2001). <i>The Unaccommodated Calvin: Studies in the Foundation of a Theological Tradition</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515168-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515168-8"><bdi>978-0-19-515168-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unaccommodated+Calvin%3A+Studies+in+the+Foundation+of+a+Theological+Tradition&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515168-8&rft.aulast=Muller&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullett2011" class="citation book cs1">Mullett, Michael (2011). <i>John Calvin</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-41547-699-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-41547-699-7"><bdi>978-0-41547-699-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Calvin&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-41547-699-7&rft.aulast=Mullett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSewell2011" class="citation book cs1">Sewell, Alida Leni (2011). <i>Calvin, the Body and Sexuality: An Inquiry into His Anthropology</i>. Amsterdam: VU University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8659-587-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8659-587-7"><bdi>978-90-8659-587-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin%2C+the+Body+and+Sexuality%3A+An+Inquiry+into+His+Anthropology&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=VU+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-8659-587-7&rft.aulast=Sewell&rft.aufirst=Alida+Leni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelderhuis2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Herman_Selderhuis" title="Herman Selderhuis">Selderhuis, Herman</a> (2009). <i>The Calvin Handbook</i>. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6230-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6230-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-6230-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Calvin+Handbook&rft.place=Grand+Rapids&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-6230-3&rft.aulast=Selderhuis&rft.aufirst=Herman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Calvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tamburello, Dennis E. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6s869kELMZwC&pg=PA176"><i>Union with Christ: John Calvin and the Mysticism of St. Bernard</i></a>, Louisville, Kentucky: <a href="/wiki/Westminster_John_Knox" class="mw-redirect" title="Westminster John Knox">Westminster John Knox Press</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22054-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22054-9">978-0-664-22054-9</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archive_sources">Archive sources</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archives_de_l%27%C3%89tat_de_Neuch%C3%A2tel" class="extiw" title="fr:Archives de l'État de Neuchâtel">The State Archives of Neuchâtel</a> preserve the autograph correspondence sent by John Calvin to other reformers</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation archive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://floraweb.ne.ch/flora/ark:/37964/001110680">1PAST</a>, Fonds: Archives de la société des pasteurs et ministres neuchâtelois, Series: Lettres des Réformateurs. <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archives_de_l%27%C3%89tat_de_Neuch%C3%A2tel" class="extiw" title="fr:Archives de l'État de Neuchâtel">Archives de l'État de Neuchâtel</a>.</cite></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>John Calvin</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin" class="extiw" title="c:John Calvin">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" 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class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Calvin" class="extiw" title="s:Author:John Calvin">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37577" class="extiw" title="d:Q37577">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/6425">Works by John Calvin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Calvin%2C%20John%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22John%20Calvin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Calvin%2C%20John%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22John%20Calvin%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Calvin%2C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22John%20Calvin%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Calvin%2C%20John%22%20OR%20description%3A%22John%20Calvin%22%29%20OR%20%28%221509-1564%22%20AND%20Calvin%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about John Calvin</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/571">Works by John Calvin</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prdl.org/author_view.php?a_id=1">Works by John Calvin</a> at <a href="/wiki/Post-Reformation_Digital_Library" title="Post-Reformation Digital Library">Post-Reformation Digital Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.calvin.edu/meeter/publications/calvin-bibliography.htm">The John Calvin Bibliography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160831063115/https://www.calvin.edu/meeter/publications/calvin-bibliography.htm">Archived</a> 31 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> of the H. Henry Meeter Center for Calvin Studies</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.calvin.edu/library/database/card/">Calvinism Resources Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03195b.htm">"John Calvin"</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>—Roman Catholic criticism of Calvin</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FABE60;">Religious titles </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b>New institution</b> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Moderator of the <a href="/wiki/Company_of_Pastors" title="Company of Pastors">Genevan Company of Pastors</a> </b><br />1541–1564 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #DAA520;">Academic offices </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b>New institution</b> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> Chair of theology at the <a href="/wiki/Genevan_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Genevan Academy">Genevan Academy</a> </b><br />1559–1564 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beza" title="Theodore Beza">Theodore Beza</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link 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href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37577#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121030063">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/90631825">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/294737166">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/44761/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJpDVBYtFYpRXHr9TgqYT3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118518534">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79123944">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11894896k">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11894896k">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Calvin, Jean, 1509-1564"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00435135">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Calvin, Jean"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV057914">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000065383&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Calvin, Jean"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000078035&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000102925">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=62694">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199604261">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/pm133x874qrg96q">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810601120105606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/14626">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007259206205171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058520245906706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14823095">Belgium</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14689212">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Calvin, Jean"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00106409?l=en">CiNii</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=132044">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500245126">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biografischportaal.nl/en/persoon/04759203">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/798770">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118518534.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118518534">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/026763362">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/011069">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6nk3c25">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Calvin&oldid=1258518073">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Calvin&oldid=1258518073</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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