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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brandeis_and_Warren_article" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brandeis_and_Warren_article"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Brandeis and Warren article</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brandeis_and_Warren_article-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_tort_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_tort_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern tort law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_tort_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern tort law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_tort_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intrusion_of_solitude_and_seclusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intrusion_of_solitude_and_seclusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Intrusion of solitude and seclusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intrusion_of_solitude_and_seclusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_disclosure_of_private_facts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_disclosure_of_private_facts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Public disclosure of private facts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_disclosure_of_private_facts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-False_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#False_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>False light</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-False_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appropriation_of_name_or_likeness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appropriation_of_name_or_likeness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Appropriation of name or likeness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appropriation_of_name_or_likeness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Privacy_law_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Privacy_law_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Privacy law legislation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Privacy_law_legislation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Privacy law legislation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Privacy_law_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Fair Credit Reporting Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Video_Privacy_Protection_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Video_Privacy_Protection_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Video Privacy Protection Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Video_Privacy_Protection_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gramm-Leach-Bliley_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gramm-Leach-Bliley_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gramm-Leach-Bliley_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children's_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children's_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Children's Online Privacy Protection Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children's_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_basis_for_right_to_privacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_basis_for_right_to_privacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Constitutional basis for right to privacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Constitutional_basis_for_right_to_privacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Constitutional basis for right to privacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_basis_for_right_to_privacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Federal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Federal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>State</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alaska" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alaska"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Alaska</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alaska-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>California</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Florida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Florida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Florida</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Florida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Montana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Montana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Montana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Montana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Washington" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Washington"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>Washington</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Washington-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_privacy_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_privacy_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>State privacy laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_privacy_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Opt-out"_requirements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Opt-out"_requirements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>"Opt-out" requirements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Opt-out"_requirements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Privacy_of_health-related_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Privacy_of_health-related_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Privacy of health-related information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Privacy_of_health-related_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is missing information</b> about the effects of <i>Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</i> on privacy law.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Talk:Privacy laws of the United States">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png/300px-Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png/450px-Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png/600px-Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Privacy_International" title="Privacy International">Privacy International</a> 2007 privacy ranking<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#55ff55; color:black;"> </span> Consistently upholds human rights standards</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#99ff99; color:black;"> </span> Significant protections and safeguards</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ccffcc; color:black;"> </span> Adequate safeguards against abuse</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffffcc; color:black;"> </span> Some safeguards but weakened protections</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffff66; color:black;"> </span> Systemic failure to uphold safeguards</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9900; color:black;"> </span> Extensive surveillance societies</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff3333; color:black;"> </span> Endemic surveillance societies</div></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Privacy laws of the United States</b> deal with several different <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">legal</a> concepts. One is the <i>invasion of privacy</i>, a <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a> based in common law allowing an aggrieved party to bring a lawsuit against an individual who unlawfully intrudes into their private affairs, discloses their private information, publicizes them in a false light, or appropriates their name for personal gain.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The essence of the law derives from a <i><a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">right to privacy</a></i>, defined broadly as "the right to be let alone". It usually excludes personal matters or activities which may reasonably be of public interest, like those of celebrities or participants in newsworthy events. Invasion of the right to privacy can be the basis for a lawsuit for damages against the person or entity violating the right. These include the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States">Fourth Amendment</a> right to be free of unwarranted search or seizure, the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> right to free assembly, and the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> due process right, recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> as protecting a general right to privacy within family, marriage, motherhood, procreation, and child rearing.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Attempts to improve consumer privacy protections in the U.S. in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/2017_Equifax_data_breach" title="2017 Equifax data breach">2017 Equifax data breach</a>, which affected 145.5 million U.S. consumers, failed to pass in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Right_to_privacy">Right to privacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Right to privacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years">Early years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early years in the development of privacy rights began with <a href="/wiki/English_common_law" class="mw-redirect" title="English common law">English common law</a>, protecting "only the physical interference of life and property".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Castle doctrine analogizes a person's home to their castle – a site that is private and should not be accessible without permission of the owner. The development of tort remedies by the common law is "one of the most significant chapters in the history of privacy law".<sup id="cite_ref-Solove_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solove-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those rights expanded to include a "recognition of man's spiritual nature, of his feelings and his intellect." Eventually, the scope of those rights broadened even further to include a basic "right to be let alone," and the former definition of "property" would then comprise "every form of possession – intangible, as well as tangible." By the late 19th century, interest in privacy grew as a result of the growth of print media, especially newspapers.<sup id="cite_ref-Solove_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solove-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1850 and 1890, U.S. newspaper circulation grew by 1,000 percent – from 100 papers with 800,000 readers to 900 papers with more than 8 million readers.<sup id="cite_ref-Solove_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solove-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, newspaper journalism became more sensationalized, and was termed <a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">yellow journalism</a>. The growth of industrialism led to rapid advances in technology, including the handheld camera, as opposed to earlier <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_camera#Dry_plates" title="History of the camera">studio cameras</a>, which were much heavier and larger. In 1884, <a href="/wiki/Eastman_Kodak" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastman Kodak">Eastman Kodak</a> company introduced their <a href="/wiki/Kodak_Brownie" title="Kodak Brownie">Kodak Brownie</a>, and it became a <a href="/wiki/Mass_market" title="Mass market">mass market</a> camera by 1901, cheap enough for the general public. This allowed people and journalists to take candid snapshots in public places for the first time. </p><p>Privacy was dealt with at the state level. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Pavesich_v._New_England_Life_Insurance_Company" title="Pavesich v. New England Life Insurance Company">Pavesich v. New England Life Insurance Company</a></i> (in 1905) was one of the first specific endorsements of the right to privacy as derived from <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> in US law. Judith Wagner DeCew stated, "<i>Pavesich</i> was the first case to recognize privacy as a right in tort law by invoking natural law, common law, and constitutional values."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Samuel_D._Warren_(US_attorney)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel D. Warren (US attorney)">Samuel D. Warren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louis_D._Brandeis" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis D. Brandeis">Louis D. Brandeis</a>, partners in a new law firm, feared that this new small camera technology would be used by the "sensationalistic press." Seeing this becoming a likely challenge to individual privacy rights, they wrote the "pathbreaking"<sup id="cite_ref-Solove_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solove-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i> article in 1890, "The Right to Privacy".<sup id="cite_ref-Brandeis_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandeis-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Roscoe Pound</a>, the article did "nothing less than add a chapter to our law",<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1966 legal textbook author, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Kalven" title="Harry Kalven">Harry Kalven</a>, hailed it as the "most influential law review article of all".<sup id="cite_ref-Solove_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solove-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Supreme Court case of <i><a href="/wiki/Kyllo_v._United_States" title="Kyllo v. United States">Kyllo v. United States</a></i>, 533 U.S. 27 (2001), the article was cited by a majority of justices, both those concurring and those dissenting.<sup id="cite_ref-Solove_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solove-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brandeis_and_Warren_article">Brandeis and Warren article</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Brandeis and Warren article"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of the doctrine regarding the tort of "invasion of privacy" was largely spurred by the Warren and Brandeis article, "The Right to Privacy". In it, they explain why they wrote the article in its introduction: "Political, social, and economic changes entail the recognition of new rights, and the common law, in its eternal youth, grows to meet the demands of society".<sup id="cite_ref-Brandeis_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandeis-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More specifically, they also shift their focus on newspapers: </p> <blockquote><p>The press is overstepping in every direction the obvious bounds of propriety and of decency. Gossip is no longer the resource of the idle and of the vicious, but has become a trade, which is pursued with industry as well as effrontery. To satisfy a prurient taste the details of sexual relations are spread broadcast in the columns of the daily papers. ... The intensity and complexity of life, attendant upon advancing civilization, have rendered necessary some retreat from the world, and man, under the refining influence of culture, has become more sensitive to publicity, so that solitude and privacy have become more essential to the individual; but modern enterprise and invention have, through invasions upon his privacy, subjected him to mental pain and distress, far greater than could be inflicted by mere bodily injury.<sup id="cite_ref-Brandeis_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandeis-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>They then clarify their goals: "It is our purpose to consider whether the existing law affords a principle which can properly be invoked to protect the privacy of the individual; and, if it does, what the nature and extent of such protection is".<sup id="cite_ref-Brandeis_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandeis-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Warren and Brandeis write that privacy rights should protect both businesses and private individuals. They describe rights in <a href="/wiki/Trade_secrets" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade secrets">trade secrets</a> and unpublished literary materials, regardless whether those rights are invaded intentionally or unintentionally, and without regard to any value they may have. For private individuals, they try to define how to protect "thoughts, sentiments, and emotions, expressed through the medium of writing or of the arts". They describe such things as personal diaries and letters needing protection, and how that should be done: "Thus, the courts, in searching for some principle upon which the publication of private letters could be enjoined, naturally came upon the ideas of a <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_confidence" title="Breach of confidence">breach of confidence</a>, and of an <a href="/wiki/Implied_contract" class="mw-redirect" title="Implied contract">implied contract</a>". They also define this as a breach of trust, where a person has trusted that another will not publish their personal writings, photographs, or artwork, without their permission, including any "facts relating to his private life, which he has seen fit to keep private". And recognizing that technological advances will become more relevant, they write: "Now that modern devices afford abundant opportunities for the perpetration of such wrongs without any participation by the injured party, the protection granted by the law must be placed upon a broader foundation".<sup id="cite_ref-Brandeis_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandeis-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There have been many laws related to privacy and data protection in recent years that have been enforced as a result of the rapid technological advancements. However, critics and scholars have argued that these guidelines are usually focused on legal factors, rather than technical details, which make it difficult for engineers and developers to ensure that new designs meet the guidelines stated in privacy laws.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_tort_law">Modern tort law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern tort law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States,"invasion of privacy" is a commonly used <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">cause of action</a> in legal <a href="/wiki/Pleading" title="Pleading">pleadings</a>. Modern <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort law</a>, as first categorized by <a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Prosser" title="William Lloyd Prosser">William Prosser</a>, includes four categories of invasion of privacy:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Intrusion of <a href="/wiki/Solitude" title="Solitude">solitude</a>: physical or electronic intrusion into one's private quarters</li> <li>Public disclosure of private facts: the dissemination of truthful private information which a reasonable person would find objectionable</li> <li>False light: the publication of facts which place a person in a false light, even though the facts themselves may not be defamatory</li> <li>Appropriation: the unauthorized use of a person's name or likeness to obtain some benefits</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intrusion_of_solitude_and_seclusion">Intrusion of solitude and seclusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Intrusion of solitude and seclusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Expectation_of_privacy_(United_States)" title="Expectation of privacy (United States)">Expectation of privacy (United States)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intrusion_on_seclusion" title="Intrusion on seclusion">Intrusion on seclusion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Third Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._Cowles_Media_Co." title="Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.">Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.</a></div> <p>Intrusion of solitude occurs where one person intrudes upon the private affairs of another. In a famous case from 1944, author <a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Kinnan_Rawlings" title="Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings">Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings</a> was sued by Zelma Cason, who was portrayed as a character in Rawlings' acclaimed memoir, <i>Cross Creek</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Florida_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Supreme Court">Florida Supreme Court</a> held that a cause of action for invasion of privacy was supported by the facts of the case, but in a later proceeding found that there were no actual damages. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_on_Seclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusion on Seclusion">Intrusion upon seclusion</a> occurs when a perpetrator intentionally intrudes, physically, electronically, or otherwise, upon the private space, solitude, or seclusion of a person, or the private affairs or concerns of a person, by use of the perpetrator's physical senses or by electronic device or devices to oversee or overhear the person's private affairs, or by some other form of investigation, examination, or observation intrude upon a person's private matters if the intrusion would be highly offensive to a reasonable person. Hacking into someone else's computer is a type of intrusion upon privacy,<sup id="cite_ref-sunysb-CSE334_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sunysb-CSE334-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as is secretly viewing or recording private information by still or video camera.<sup id="cite_ref-USATODAY_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USATODAY-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In determining whether intrusion has occurred, one of three main considerations may be involved: <a href="/wiki/Expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation of privacy">expectation of privacy</a>; whether there was an intrusion, invitation, or exceedance of invitation; or deception, misrepresentation, or fraud to gain admission. Intrusion is "an information-gathering, not a publication, tort ... legal wrong occurs at the time of the intrusion. No publication is necessary".<sup id="cite_ref-Indeterminate_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indeterminate-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Restrictions against the invasion of privacy encompasses journalists as well: </p> <blockquote><p>The First Amendment has never been construed to accord newsmen immunity from torts or crimes committed during the course of newsgathering. The First Amendment is not a license to trespass, to steal, or to intrude by electronic means into the precincts of another's home or office.<sup id="cite_ref-Indeterminate_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indeterminate-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_disclosure_of_private_facts">Public disclosure of private facts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Public disclosure of private facts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_confidence" title="Breach of confidence">Breach of confidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(evidence)" title="Privilege (evidence)">Privilege (evidence)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Attorney%E2%80%93client_privilege" title="Attorney–client privilege">Attorney–client privilege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bank_secrecy" title="Bank secrecy">Banker–client privilege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_confidence_in_English_law" title="Breach of confidence in English law">Breach of confidence in English law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confessional_privilege_(United_States)" title="Confessional privilege (United States)">Confessional privilege (United States)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright Clause</a>, <a href="/wiki/Financial_privacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Financial privacy laws in the United States">Financial privacy laws in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Misuse_of_private_information" title="Misuse of private information">Misuse of private information</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-disclosure_agreement" title="Non-disclosure agreement">Non-disclosure agreement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physician%E2%80%93patient_privilege" title="Physician–patient privilege">Physician–patient privilege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priest%E2%80%93penitent_privilege" title="Priest–penitent privilege">Priest–penitent privilege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reporter%27s_privilege" title="Reporter's privilege">Reporter's privilege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shield_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Shield laws in the United States">Shield laws in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Source_protection" title="Source protection">Source protection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spousal_privilege" title="Spousal privilege">Spousal privilege</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_patent_law" title="United States patent law">United States patent law</a></div> <p>Public disclosure of private facts arises where one person reveals information which is not of public concern, and the release of which would offend a reasonable person.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Unlike libel or slander, truth is not a defense for invasion of privacy."<sup id="cite_ref-sunysb-CSE334_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sunysb-CSE334-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disclosure of private facts includes publishing or widespread dissemination of little-known, private facts that are non-newsworthy, not part of public records, public proceedings, not of public interest, and would be offensive to a reasonable person if made public.<sup id="cite_ref-Indeterminate_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indeterminate-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="False_light">False light</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: False light"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/False_light" title="False light">False light</a></div> <p>False light is a <a href="/wiki/Legal" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal">legal</a> term that refers to a <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a> concerning <a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a> that is similar to the tort of <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a>. For example, the privacy laws in the United States include a <a href="/wiki/Public_figure" title="Public figure">non-public person's</a> right to privacy from <a href="/wiki/Publicity" title="Publicity">publicity</a> which creates an untrue or misleading impression about them. A non-public person's right to privacy from publicity is balanced against the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> right of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a>. </p><p>False light <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">laws</a> are "intended primarily to protect the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mental</a> or <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotional</a> well-being".<sup id="cite_ref-martin_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a <a href="/wiki/Publication" title="Publication">publication</a> of <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> is <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">false</a>, then a tort of <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a> might have occurred. If that <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> is not <a href="/wiki/Technicality" class="mw-redirect" title="Technicality">technically</a> false but is still <a href="/wiki/Misleading" class="mw-redirect" title="Misleading">misleading</a>, then a tort of false light might have occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-martin_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The specific elements of the Tort of false light vary considerably even among those <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdictions</a> which do recognize this tort. Generally, these elements consist of the following: </p> <ul><li>A publication by the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a> about the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a>;</li> <li>Made with actual <a href="/wiki/Malice_(legal_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malice (legal term)">malice</a> (very similar to that type required by <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times v. Sullivan</a></i> in defamation cases);</li> <li>Places the plaintiff in a false light; and</li> <li>Highly offensive (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Embarrassment" title="Embarrassment">embarrassing</a> to <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_person" title="Reasonable person">reasonable persons</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-martin_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Thus in general, the doctrine of false light holds: </p> <blockquote><p>One who gives publicity to a matter concerning another before the public in a false light is subject to liability to the other for invasion of privacy, if (a) the false light in which the other was placed would be highly offensive to a reasonable person, and (b) the actor had knowledge of or acted in a reckless disregard as to the falsity of the publicized matter and the false light in which the other would be placed.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>For this wrong, money damages may be recovered from the first person by the other. </p><p>At first glance, this may appear to be similar to <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a> (libel and slander), but the basis for the harm is different, and the remedy is different in two respects. First, unlike libel and slander, no showing of actual harm or damage to the plaintiff is usually required in false light cases, and the court will determine the amount of damages. Second, being a violation of a Constitutional right of privacy, there may be no applicable statute of limitations in some jurisdictions specifying a time limit within which period a claim must be filed. </p><p>Consequently, although it is infrequently invoked, in some cases false light may be a more attractive cause of action for plaintiffs than libel or slander, because the burden of proof may be less onerous. </p><p>What does "publicity" mean? A newspaper of general circulation (or comparable breadth) or as few as 3–5 people who know the person harmed? Neither defamation nor false light has ever required everyone in society be informed by a harmful act, but the scope of "publicity" is variable. In some jurisdictions, publicity "means that the matter is made public, by communicating it to the public at large, or to so many persons that the matter must be regarded as substantially certain to become one of public knowledge."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, the standards of behavior governing employees of government institutions subject to a state or national Administrative Procedure Act (as in the United States) are often more demanding than those governing employees of private or business institutions like newspapers. A person acting in an official capacity for a government agency may find that their statements are not indemnified by the principle of agency, leaving them personally liable for any damages. </p><p>Example: If someone's reputation was portrayed in a false light during a personnel performance evaluation in a government agency or public university, one might be wronged if only a small number initially learned of it, or if adverse recommendations were made to only a few superiors (by a peer committee to department chair, dean, dean's advisory committee, provost, president, etc.). Settled cases suggest false light may not be effective in private school personnel cases,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they may be distinguishable from cases arising in public institutions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appropriation_of_name_or_likeness">Appropriation of name or likeness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Appropriation of name or likeness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Personality_rights#United_States" title="Personality rights">Personality rights § United States</a></div> <p>Although privacy is often a common-law tort, most states have enacted statutes that prohibit the use of a person's name or image if used without consent for the commercial benefit of another person.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Appropriation of name or likeness occurs when a person uses the name or likeness of another person for personal gain or commercial advantage. Action for misappropriation of right of publicity protects a person against loss caused by appropriation of personal likeness for commercial exploitation. A person's exclusive rights to control their name and likeness to prevent others from exploiting without permission is protected in similar manner to a trademark action with the person's likeness, rather than the trademark, being the subject of the protection.<sup id="cite_ref-sunysb-CSE334_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sunysb-CSE334-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Appropriation is the oldest recognized form of invasion of privacy involving the use of an individual's name, likeness, or identity without consent for purposes such as ads, fictional works, or products.<sup id="cite_ref-Indeterminate_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indeterminate-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The same action – appropriation – can violate either an individual's right of privacy or right of publicity. Conceptually, however, the two rights differ."<sup id="cite_ref-Indeterminate_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Indeterminate-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Privacy_law_legislation">Privacy law legislation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Privacy law legislation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act">Fair Credit Reporting Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fair Credit Reporting Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act" title="Fair Credit Reporting Act">Fair Credit Reporting Act</a> became effective on April 25, 1971 and implemented limitations on the information that could be collected, stored, and utilized by agencies such as credit bureaus, tenant screenings, and health agencies. The law also defined the rights granted to individuals in regards to their financial information including the right to obtain a credit score; the right to know what information is in your financial file; the right to know when your information is being accessed and used; and the right to dispute any inaccurate or incorrect information.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Video_Privacy_Protection_Act">Video Privacy Protection Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Video Privacy Protection Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Video_Privacy_Protection_Act" title="Video Privacy Protection Act">Video Privacy Protection Act</a> of 1988 (VPPA) was signed into law by President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> to preserve the privacy of people's information collected when they rented, purchased, or delivered audio visual materials, and specifically videotapes.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law arose out of the <a href="/wiki/Bork_tapes" title="Bork tapes">Bork tapes</a> controversy surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Washington_City_Paper" title="Washington City Paper">Washington City Paper</a>'s publication of a list of films rented by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a>, a politician who was running for a spot on the United States Supreme Court at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law prohibits the disclosure of personal information collected by video tape service providers unless it falls under certain exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The VPPA became a focus of attention in the legal industry once again around 2022. Its revival came as part of a larger trend in consumer <a href="/wiki/Class_actions" class="mw-redirect" title="Class actions">class actions</a> filed based on privacy law violations, both through new laws like the <a href="/wiki/California_Consumer_Privacy_Act" title="California Consumer Privacy Act">California Consumer Privacy Act</a> and older laws like the VPPA and wiretapping statutes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Signed in law on August 21, 1996, <a href="/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" title="Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act</a> (HIPAA) is a piece of legislation passed in the United States that limits the amount and types of information that can be collected and stored by healthcare providers. This includes limits on how that information can be obtained, stored, and released.<sup id="cite_ref-comparitech.com_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-comparitech.com-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HIPAA also developed data confidentiality requirements that are a part of "The Privacy Rule."<sup id="cite_ref-Andy_Green_Updated_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andy_Green_Updated-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gramm-Leach-Bliley_Act">Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gramm%E2%80%93Leach%E2%80%93Bliley_Act" title="Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act">Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act</a> (GLA) is a federal law that was signed into effect on November 12, 1999. This act placed increased limits and requirements for data collection by financial institutions, as well as limited how that information could be collected and stored. It focused on requiring financial institutions to take specific measure to increase the safety and confidentiality of the information being collected. In addition to this, the law also put limitations on what type of data could be collected by financial institutions and how they could use that information.<sup id="cite_ref-comparitech.com_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-comparitech.com-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The act strives to protect NPI, or nonpublic personal information, which is any information that is collected regarding an individual's finances that is not otherwise publicly available.<sup id="cite_ref-Andy_Green_Updated_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andy_Green_Updated-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children's_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act"><span id="Children.27s_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act"></span>Children's Online Privacy Protection Act</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Children's Online Privacy Protection Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act" title="Children's Online Privacy Protection Act">Children's Online Privacy Protection Act</a> (COPPA), passed on April 21, 2000, is a federal law in the United States that puts severe restrictions on what data companies can collect, share, or sell about children who are under the age of 13.<sup id="cite_ref-ftc_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ftc-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A core provision under COPPA is that a website operator must "obtain verifiable parental consent before any collection, use, or disclosure of personal information from children."<sup id="cite_ref-gpo_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gpo-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitutional_basis_for_right_to_privacy">Constitutional basis for right to privacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Constitutional basis for right to privacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal">Federal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Federal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Penumbra_(law)" title="Penumbra (law)">Penumbra (law)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Privacy_and_the_US_government" title="Privacy and the US government">Privacy and the US government</a></div> <p>Although the word "privacy" is actually never used in the text of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are Constitutional limits to the government's intrusion into individuals' right to privacy. This is true even when pursuing a public purpose such as exercising police powers or passing legislation. The Constitution, however, only protects against <a href="/wiki/State_actor" class="mw-redirect" title="State actor">state actors</a>. Invasions of privacy by individuals can only be remedied under previous court decisions. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> protects the right to free assembly, broadening privacy rights. The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States">Fourth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States</a> ensures that "the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." The Fourth Amendment was the <a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Framers</a>' attempt to protect each citizen's spiritual and intellectual integrity.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="claim is not self-evident (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A government that violates the Fourth Amendment in order to use evidence against a citizen is also violating the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth Amendment</a> declares that "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." </p><p><span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> has interpreted the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> as providing a substantive due process right to privacy. This was first affirmed by several Supreme Court Justices in <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i>, a 1965 decision protecting a married couple's rights to contraception. In <i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> (1973), the Supreme Court invoked a "right to privacy" as creating a right to an abortion, sparking a lasting nationwide debate on the meaning of the term "right to privacy". In <i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i> (2003), the Supreme Court invoked the right to privacy regarding the sexual practices of same-sex couples. However, due to <i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i> (2022) breaking many precedents set by <i>Griswold</i> and <i>Roe</i>, the privacy interpretations brought about specifically by these cases are currently of ambiguous legal force.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State">State</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: State"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alaska">Alaska</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Alaska"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On August 22, 1972 the Alaska Right of Privacy Amendment, Amendment 3, was approved with 86% of the vote in support of the legislatively referred constitutional amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Article I, Section 22 of Alaska's constitution states, "The right of the people to privacy is recognized and shall not be infringed. The legislature shall implement this section."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="California">California</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: California"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/California_Consumer_Privacy_Act" title="California Consumer Privacy Act">California Consumer Privacy Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/California_Privacy_Rights_Act" title="California Privacy Rights Act">California Privacy Rights Act</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/California_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="California Constitution">California Constitution</a> articulates privacy as an <a href="/wiki/Inalienable_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Inalienable right">inalienable right</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CA SB 1386 expands on privacy law and guarantees that if a company exposes a Californian's sensitive information this exposure must be reported to the citizen. This law has inspired many states to come up with similar measures.<sup id="cite_ref-sb1386_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sb1386-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>California's <a href="/wiki/California_Shine_the_Light_Law_(S.B._27)" class="mw-redirect" title="California Shine the Light Law (S.B. 27)">"Shine the Light" law</a> (SB 27, CA Civil Code § 1798.83), operative on January 1, 2005, outlines specific rules regarding how and when a business must disclose use of a customer's <a href="/wiki/Personal_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal information">personal information</a> and imposes civil damages for violation of the law. </p><p>California's Reader Privacy Act was passed into law in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law prohibits a commercial provider of a book service, as defined, from disclosing, or being compelled to disclose, any personal information relating to a user of the book service, subject to certain exceptions. The bill would require a provider to disclose personal information of a user only if a court order has been issued, as specified, and certain other conditions have been satisfied. The bill would impose civil penalties on a provider of a book service for knowingly disclosing a user's personal information to a government entity in violation of these provisions. This law is applicable to electronic books in addition to print books.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The California Privacy Rights Act created the <a href="/wiki/California_Privacy_Protection_Agency" title="California Privacy Protection Agency">California Privacy Protection Agency</a>, the first data protection agency in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Florida">Florida</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Florida"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Florida#Right_to_privacy" title="Constitution of Florida">Constitution of Florida § Right to privacy</a></div> <p>Article I, §23 of the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Constitution">Florida Constitution</a> states that "Every natural person has the right to be let alone and free from governmental intrusion into the person's private life except as otherwise provided herein. This section shall not be construed to limit the public's right of access to public records and meetings as provided by law."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Montana">Montana</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Montana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Article 2, §10 of the <a href="/wiki/Montana_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Montana Constitution">Montana Constitution</a> states that "The right of individual privacy is essential to the well-being of a free society and shall not be infringed without the showing of a compelling state interest".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Washington">Washington</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Washington"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Article 1, §7 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Washington" title="Constitution of Washington">Washington Constitution</a> states that "No person shall be disturbed in his private affairs, or his home invaded, without authority of law".<sup id="cite_ref-NCSL_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCSL-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Law enforcement are required to obtain a warrant before using <a href="/wiki/IMSI-catcher" title="IMSI-catcher">IMSI-catcher</a> technology.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Private individual's <a href="/wiki/Text_messaging" title="Text messaging">text messages</a> are protected from <a href="/wiki/Warrantless_searches_in_the_United_States" title="Warrantless searches in the United States">warrantless searches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="State_privacy_laws">State privacy laws</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: State privacy laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="State privacy laws of the United States">State privacy laws of the United States</a></div> <p>The right to privacy is protected also by more than 600 laws in the states and by a dozen federal laws, like those protecting health and student information, also limiting electronic surveillance.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2022 however, only five states had data privacy laws.<sup id="cite_ref-:Zhang_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Zhang-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=""Opt-out"_requirements"><span id=".22Opt-out.22_requirements"></span>"Opt-out" requirements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: "Opt-out" requirements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several of the US federal privacy laws have substantial "<a href="/wiki/Opt-out" title="Opt-out">opt-out</a>" requirements, requiring that the individual specifically opt-out of commercial dissemination of <a href="/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Personally identifiable information">personally identifiable information (PII)</a>. In some cases, an entity wishing to "share" (disseminate) information is required to provide a notice, such as a <a href="/wiki/Gramm%E2%80%93Leach%E2%80%93Bliley_Act" title="Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act">GLBA</a> notice or a <a href="/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" title="Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act">HIPAA</a> notice, requiring individuals to specifically opt-out.<sup id="cite_ref-ftc_comply_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ftc_comply-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These "opt-out" requests may be executed either by use of forms provided by the entity collecting the data, with or without separate written requests. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Privacy_of_health-related_information">Privacy of health-related information</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Privacy of health-related information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Health_Information_Technology_for_Economic_and_Clinical_Health_Act" title="Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act">Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act</a></div> <p>The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH Act) is an important piece of legislation in the United States that relates to the privacy of health-related information. Enacted as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, the HITECH Act addresses the privacy and security concerns associated with the electronic transmission of health information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_privacy_law" title="Canadian privacy law">Canadian privacy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_Assistance_for_Law_Enforcement_Act" title="Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act">Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act</a> (CALEA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation of privacy">Expectation of privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_privacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Financial privacy laws in the United States">Financial privacy laws in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTLINGUAL" title="HTLINGUAL">HTLINGUAL</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a> project to intercept mail destined for the Soviet Union and China.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance_in_the_United_States" title="Mass surveillance in the United States">Mass surveillance in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_databases#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Government databases">U.S. government databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAINWAY" title="MAINWAY">MAINWAY</a>, an <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">NSA</a> database containing <a href="/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">metadata</a> for billions of calls made over the <a href="/wiki/Verizon" title="Verizon">Verizon</a> and <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a> networks.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(surveillance_program)" class="mw-redirect" title="PRISM (surveillance program)">PRISM</a>, an <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">NSA</a> program meant to collect online communication information.</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Olmstead_v._United_States" title="Olmstead v. United States">Olmstead v. United States</a></i></li> <li>United States Constitution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_free_speech_exceptions" title="United States free speech exceptions">United States free speech exceptions</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://definitions.uslegal.com/i/invasion-of-privacy/">"Invasion of Privacy Law & Legal Definition"</a>, US Legal. Retrieved October 17, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://definitions.uslegal.com/r/right-to-privacy/">"Right to Privacy Law & Legal Definition"</a>, US Legal. Retrieved 17 October 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=%22the+law+of+privacy+explained%22&qt=owc_search">"Results for '"the law of privacy explained"' [WorldCat.org]"</a>. <i>www.worldcat.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.worldcat.org&rft.atitle=Results+for+%27%22the+law+of+privacy+explained%22%27+%5BWorldCat.org%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%2522the%2Blaw%2Bof%2Bprivacy%2Bexplained%2522%26qt%3Dowc_search&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazarus2018" class="citation web cs1">Lazarus, David (5 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latimes.com/business/lazarus/la-fi-lazarus-cybersecurity-data-breaches-20180102-story.html">"Months after Equifax data breach, we're still no closer to privacy protections"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved 17 October 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cason v. Baskin</i>, 20 So. 2d 243 (Fla. 1944) (note: Baskin was Rawlings' married name).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sunysb-CSE334-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sunysb-CSE334_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sunysb-CSE334_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sunysb-CSE334_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120514050702/http://www.cvc.sunysb.edu/334/ethics/Privacy.html">"The Right to Privacy"</a>. <i>CSE334: Introduction to Multimedia Systems</i>. SUNY Stony Brook. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arstechnica.com&rft.atitle=Cops+must+now+get+a+warrant+to+use+stingrays+in+Washington+state&rft.date=2015-05-12&rft.aulast=Farivar&rft.aufirst=Cyrus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Ftech-policy%2F2015%2F05%2Fcops-must-now-get-a-warrant-to-use-stingrays-in-washington-state%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSara_Jean2014" class="citation web cs1">Sara Jean, Green (27 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/state-high-court-upholds-privacy-rights-on-text-messages-tosses-out-2-drug-convictions/">"State high court upholds privacy rights on text messages, tosses out 2 drug convictions"</a>. <i>Seattletimes.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Seattletimes.com&rft.atitle=State+high+court+upholds+privacy+rights+on+text+messages%2C+tosses+out+2+drug+convictions&rft.date=2014-02-27&rft.aulast=Sara+Jean&rft.aufirst=Green&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattletimes.com%2Fseattle-news%2Fstate-high-court-upholds-privacy-rights-on-text-messages-tosses-out-2-drug-convictions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithSulanowski2002" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Robert Ellis; Sulanowski, James (2002). <i>Compilation of state and federal privacy laws</i>. Providence, RI: Privacy Journal. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780930072179" title="Special:BookSources/9780930072179"><bdi>9780930072179</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50087291">50087291</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compilation+of+state+and+federal+privacy+laws&rft.place=Providence%2C+RI&rft.pub=Privacy+Journal&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50087291&rft.isbn=9780930072179&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Robert+Ellis&rft.au=Sulanowski%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Zhang-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:Zhang_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2024" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Angela Huyue (2024). <i>High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197682258.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780197682258.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197682258" title="Special:BookSources/9780197682258"><bdi>9780197682258</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=High+Wire%3A+How+China+Regulates+Big+Tech+and+Governs+Its+Economy&rft.pages=249&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780197682258.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780197682258&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Angela+Huyue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ftc_comply-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ftc_comply_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ftc.gov/business-guidance/resources/how-comply-privacy-consumer-financial-information-rule-gramm-leach-bliley-act">"How To Comply with the Privacy of Consumer Financial Information Rule of the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act"</a>. <i>Federal Trade Commission</i>. July 2, 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Trade+Commission&rft.atitle=How+To+Comply+with+the+Privacy+of+Consumer+Financial+Information+Rule+of+the+Gramm-Leach-Bliley+Act&rft.date=2002-07-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftc.gov%2Fbusiness-guidance%2Fresources%2Fhow-comply-privacy-consumer-financial-information-rule-gramm-leach-bliley-act&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Samantha Barbas, <i>Laws of Image: Privacy and Publicity in America.</i> Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingleton2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Singleton, Solveig (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n242.xml">"Privacy"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"><i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 390–392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n242">10.4135/9781412965811.n242</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Privacy&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=390-392&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n242&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Singleton&rft.aufirst=Solveig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Flibertarianism%2Fn242.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Amy Gajda, <i><a href="/wiki/Seek_and_Hide:_The_Tangled_History_of_the_Right_to_Privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Seek and Hide: The Tangled History of the Right to Privacy">Seek and Hide: The Tangled History of the Right to Privacy</a></i>. Viking, 2022. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781984880741" title="Special:BookSources/9781984880741">9781984880741</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIgo2018" class="citation book cs1">Igo, Sarah E. (2018). <i>The Known Citizen: A History of Privacy in Modern America</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674737501" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674737501"><bdi>978-0674737501</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Known+Citizen%3A+A+History+of+Privacy+in+Modern+America&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0674737501&rft.aulast=Igo&rft.aufirst=Sarah+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivacy+laws+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.lp.findlaw.com/constitution/amendment01/19.html">Invasion of Privacy</a>, Annotation 19 – First Amendment, U.S. Constitution, from <a href="/wiki/FindLaw" title="FindLaw">FindLaw</a> online legal information.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060331090346/http://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/PI/RHandbook01.nsf/1119bd38ae090a748525676f0053b606/dfc00ac22467b7f5852569cb004cbc2a">"Invasion of Privacy and the Media: The Right 'To Be Let Alone' "</a>, by John A. Bussian and Paul J. Levine, in the Reporters Handbook from The Florida Bar, updated August 2004.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/classes/6.805/articles/privacy/Privacy_brand_warr2.html">"The Right to Privacy"</a>, by Warren and Brandeis, in the <i>Harvard Law Review</i> (Vol. IV, No. 5), December 15, 1890.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.privacyrights.org">Privacy Rights Clearinghouse</a>, a consumer education and privacy rights advocacy organization.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/privacy/">"Privacy"</a>, in the <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, revised August 9, 2013.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Scales of justice"><img alt="Scales of justice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/40px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/60px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/80px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="206" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_courts_of_the_United_States" title="List of courts of the United States">Courts of the<br />United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_bankruptcy_court" title="United States bankruptcy court">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Federal_Claims" title="United States Court of Federal Claims">Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_International_Trade" title="United States Court of International Trade">International Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Tax_Court" title="United States Tax Court">Tax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">State courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">State supreme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legal_education_in_the_United_States" title="Legal education in the United States">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States" title="Law school in the United States">Law school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_School_Admission_Test" title="Law School Admission Test">Law School Admission Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_examination_in_the_United_States" title="Bar examination in the United States">US bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_States" title="Admission to the bar in the United States">Admission to the bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_law" title="Reading law">Reading law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_administrative_law" title="United States administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child custody laws in the United States">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child sexual abuse laws in the United States">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure_in_the_United_States" title="Civil procedure in the United States">Civil procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Conflict of laws in the United States">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_contract_law" title="United States contract law">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law_in_the_United_States" title="Property law in the United States">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_corporate_law" title="United States corporate law">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law_of_the_United_States" title="Criminal law of the United States">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_criminal_procedure" title="United States criminal procedure">Procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_energy_law" title="United States energy law">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_law_in_the_United_States" title="Gun law in the United States">Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_juvenile_justice_system" title="American juvenile justice system">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_the_United_States" title="Martial law in the United States">Martial</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Privacy</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="State privacy laws of the United States">State</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_aspects_of_race_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial aspects of race in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_tort_law" title="United States tort law">Tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_trust_law" title="United States trust law">Trust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="U.S._Supreme_Court_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_case_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US1stAmendment_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Template:US1stAmendment Freedom of the Press Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US1stAmendment_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Template talk:US1stAmendment Freedom of the Press Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_Supreme_Court_case_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment Freedom of the Press Clause Supreme Court case law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="U.S._Supreme_Court_Freedom_of_the_Press_Clause_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press Clause</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prior_restraint" title="Prior restraint">Prior restraints</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_United_States" title="Censorship in the United States">censorship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Patterson_v._Colorado" title="Patterson v. Colorado">Patterson v. Colorado</a></i> (1907)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Near_v._Minnesota" title="Near v. Minnesota">Near v. Minnesota</a></i> (1931)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lovell_v._City_of_Griffin" title="Lovell v. City of Griffin">Lovell v. City of Griffin</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tucker_v._Texas" title="Tucker v. Texas">Tucker v. Texas</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hannegan_v._Esquire,_Inc." title="Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc.">Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc.</a></i> (1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lamont_v._Postmaster_General" title="Lamont v. Postmaster General">Lamont v. Postmaster General</a></i> (1965)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sheppard_v._Maxwell" title="Sheppard v. Maxwell">Sheppard v. Maxwell</a></i> (1966)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States" title="New York Times Co. v. United States">New York Times Co. v. United States</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Press_Ass%27n_v._Stuart" title="Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart">Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Landmark_Communications,_Inc._v._Virginia" title="Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia">Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lowe_v._SEC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lowe v. SEC (page does not exist)">Lowe v. SEC</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tory_v._Cochran" title="Tory v. Cochran">Tory v. Cochran</a></i> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Privacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Time,_Inc._v._Hill" title="Time, Inc. v. Hill">Time, Inc. v. Hill</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cox_Broadcasting_Corp._v._Cohn" title="Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn">Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Florida_Star_v._B._J._F." title="Florida Star v. B. J. F.">Florida Star v. B. J. F.</a></i> (1989)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Taxation and<br /><a href="/wiki/Reporter%27s_privilege" title="Reporter's privilege">privileges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Grosjean_v._American_Press_Co." title="Grosjean v. American Press Co.">Grosjean v. American Press Co.</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Branzburg_v._Hayes" title="Branzburg v. Hayes">Branzburg v. Hayes</a></i> (1972)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Houchins_v._KQED,_Inc." title="Houchins v. KQED, Inc.">Houchins v. KQED, Inc.</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Star_Tribune_Co._v._Commissioner" title="Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner">Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arkansas_Writers%27_Project_v._Ragland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arkansas Writers' Project v. Ragland (page does not exist)">Arkansas Writers' Project v. Ragland</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._Cowles_Media_Co." title="Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.">Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.</a></i> (1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_defamation_law" title="United States defamation law">Defamation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Beauharnais_v._Illinois" title="Beauharnais v. Illinois">Beauharnais v. Illinois</a></i> (1952)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Publishing_Co._v._Butts" title="Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts">Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts</a></i> (1967)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenbelt_Cooperative_Publishing_Ass%27n,_Inc._v._Bresler" title="Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler">Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler</a></i> (1970)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gertz_v._Robert_Welch,_Inc." title="Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.">Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Time,_Inc._v._Firestone" title="Time, Inc. v. Firestone">Time, Inc. v. Firestone</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bose_Corp._v._Consumers_Union_of_United_States,_Inc." title="Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.">Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dun_%26_Bradstreet,_Inc._v._Greenmoss_Builders,_Inc." title="Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.">Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Smith" title="McDonald v. Smith">McDonald v. Smith</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hustler_Magazine_v._Falwell" title="Hustler Magazine v. Falwell">Hustler Magazine v. Falwell</a></i> (1988)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harte-Hanks_Communications,_Inc._v._Connaughton" title="Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton">Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milkovich_v._Lorain_Journal_Co." title="Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co.">Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co.</a></i> (1990)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_in_the_United_States" title="Broadcasting in the United States">Broadcast media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Red_Lion_Broadcasting_Co._v._FCC" title="Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC">Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC</a></i> (1969)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FCC_v._Pacifica_Foundation" title="FCC v. Pacifica Foundation">FCC v. Pacifica Foundation</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=FCC_v._WNCN_Listeners_Guild&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FCC v. WNCN Listeners Guild (page does not exist)">FCC v. WNCN Listeners Guild</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC">Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC I</a></i> (1994)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC">Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC II</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bartnicki_v._Vopper" title="Bartnicki v. Vopper">Bartnicki v. Vopper</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">Copyrighted materials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Zacchini_v._Scripps-Howard_Broadcasting_Co." title="Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.">Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row_v._Nation_Enterprises" title="Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises">Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a></i> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Privacy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Privacy" title="Template:Privacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Privacy" title="Template talk:Privacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Privacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Privacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Privacy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_access_to_personal_data" title="Right of access to personal data">Right of access to personal data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation of privacy">Expectation of privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_be_forgotten" title="Right to be forgotten">Right to be forgotten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_privacy" title="Post-mortem privacy">Post-mortem privacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Privacy_law" title="Privacy law">Privacy laws</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_in_Australian_law" title="Privacy in Australian law">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Personal_Data_Protection_Law" title="General Personal Data Protection Law">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_privacy_law" title="Canadian privacy law">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_Information_Protection_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Personal Information Protection Law of the People's Republic of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_law_in_Denmark" title="Privacy law in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_in_English_law" title="Privacy in English law">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation" title="General Data Protection Regulation">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundesdatenschutzgesetz" title="Bundesdatenschutzgesetz">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Protection_Act,_2012" title="Data Protection Act, 2012">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy_in_New_Zealand" title="Right to privacy in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_protection_(privacy)_laws_in_Russia" title="Data protection (privacy) laws in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_Data_Protection_Act_2012_(Singapore)" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal Data Protection Act 2012 (Singapore)">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_Data_Protection_Act_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Personal Data Protection Act (Sri Lanka)">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner" title="Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy laws of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Consumer_Privacy_Act" title="California Consumer Privacy Act">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/California_Privacy_Rights_Act" title="California Privacy Rights Act">amended in 2020</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/National_data_protection_authority" title="National data protection authority">Data protection authorities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Australian_Information_Commissioner" title="Office of the Australian Information Commissioner">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Data_Protection_Agency" title="Danish Data Protection Agency">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Data_Protection_Supervisor" title="European Data Protection Supervisor">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_nationale_de_l%27informatique_et_des_libert%C3%A9s" title="Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Commissioner_for_Data_Protection_and_Freedom_of_Information" title="Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Protection_Board_of_India" title="Data Protection Board of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_Data_Protection_Authority_Institute" title="Personal Data Protection Authority Institute">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Protection_Commissioner" title="Data Protection Commissioner">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Data_Protection_Supervisor" title="Office of the Data Protection Supervisor">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Data_Protection_Authority" title="Dutch Data Protection Authority">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Data_Protection_Authority" title="Norwegian Data Protection Authority">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Privacy_Commission" title="National Privacy Commission">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Data_Protection_Commissioner" title="Polish Data Protection Commissioner">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_Information_Protection_Commission_(South_Korea)" title="Personal Information Protection Commission (South Korea)">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Data_Protection_Agency" title="Spanish Data Protection Agency">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Data_Protection_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish Data Protection Authority">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner" title="Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Personal_Data_Protection_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of the Personal Data Protection Committee">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Data_Protection_Authority" title="Turkish Data Protection Authority">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Commissioner%27s_Office" title="Information Commissioner's Office">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_privacy" title="Consumer privacy">Consumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_privacy" title="Digital privacy">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_in_education" title="Privacy in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_privacy" title="Medical privacy">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_privacy" title="Workplace privacy">Workplace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">Information privacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_privacy_law" title="Information privacy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_secrecy" title="Bank secrecy">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Internet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_concerns_with_Facebook" title="Privacy concerns with Facebook">Facebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_concerns_regarding_Google" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy concerns regarding Google">Google</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_concerns_with_Twitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy concerns with Twitter">Twitter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Email_privacy" title="Email privacy">Email</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_data" title="Personal data">Personal data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_identifier" title="Personal identifier">Personal identifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_concerns_with_social_networking_services" title="Privacy concerns with social networking services">Social networking services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy-enhancing_technologies" title="Privacy-enhancing technologies">Privacy-enhancing technologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy-invasive_software" title="Privacy-invasive software">Privacy-invasive software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_policy" title="Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_software" title="Privacy software">Privacy software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_ballot" title="Secret ballot">Secret ballot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_assistant_privacy" title="Virtual assistant privacy">Virtual assistant privacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advocacy organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Democracy_and_Technology" title="Center for Democracy and Technology">Center for Democracy and Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_Professionals_for_Social_Responsibility" title="Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility">Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Privacy_Lab" title="Data Privacy Lab">Data Privacy Lab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Privacy_Information_Center" title="Electronic Privacy Information Center">Electronic Privacy Information Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Digital_Rights" title="European Digital Rights">European Digital Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Privacy_Forum" title="Future of Privacy Forum">Future of Privacy Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Network_Initiative" title="Global Network Initiative">Global Network Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Privacy_Professionals" title="International Association of Privacy Professionals">International Association of Privacy Professionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOYB" title="NOYB">NOYB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_International" title="Privacy International">Privacy International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellphone_surveillance" title="Cellphone surveillance">Cellphone surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_security" title="Data security">Data security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eavesdropping" title="Eavesdropping">Eavesdropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_surveillance" title="Global surveillance">Global surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_theft" title="Identity theft">Identity theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance" title="Mass surveillance">Mass surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panopticon" title="Panopticon">Panopticon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM" title="PRISM">PRISM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">Search warrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiretapping" title="Wiretapping">Wiretapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human 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