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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Use and development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trilingualism_in_Medieval_and_modern_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trilingualism_in_Medieval_and_modern_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Trilingualism in Medieval and modern England</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trilingualism_in_Medieval_and_modern_England-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trilingualism in Medieval and modern England subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trilingualism_in_Medieval_and_modern_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language_of_the_king_and_his_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_of_the_king_and_his_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Language of the king and his court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_of_the_king_and_his_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_of_the_royal_charters_and_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_of_the_royal_charters_and_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Language of the royal charters and legislation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_of_the_royal_charters_and_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_of_administration_and_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_of_administration_and_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Language of administration and justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_of_administration_and_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_of_the_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_of_the_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Language of the people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_of_the_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Influence on English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_in_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_in_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Influence in Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_in_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Anglo-Norman language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Normandies" title="Anglo-Normandies – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Anglo-Normandies" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonormannisch" title="Anglonormannisch – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Anglonormannisch" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%BA%D9%84%D9%88-%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الأنغلو-نورمانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الأنغلو-نورمانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_anglo-normando" title="Idioma anglo-normando – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma anglo-normando" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonormand" title="Anglonormand – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Anglonormand" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonorman%C5%A1tina" title="Anglonormanština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anglonormanština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonormannische_Sprache" title="Anglonormannische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Anglonormannische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αγγλονορμανδική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αγγλονορμανδική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_anglonormando" title="Idioma anglonormando – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma anglonormando" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-normanda_lingvo" title="Anglo-normanda lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Anglo-normanda lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D9%88-%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86" title="زبان آنگلو-نورمن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان آنگلو-نورمن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-normand_(langue)" title="Anglo-normand (langue) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anglo-normand (langue)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_anglonormanda" title="Lingua anglonormanda – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua anglonormanda" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonormanski_jezik" title="Anglonormanski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Anglonormanski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Anglo-Norman" title="Bahasa Anglo-Norman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Anglo-Norman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_anglo-normanna" title="Lingua anglo-normanna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua anglo-normanna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Norma-ongdhi_Inggris" title="Basa Norma-ongdhi Inggris – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Norma-ongdhi Inggris" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Anglonormannica" title="Lingua Anglonormannica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Anglonormannica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonormann_nyelv" title="Anglonormann nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Anglonormann nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AD%EF%BC%9D%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="アングロ＝ノルマン語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アングロ＝ノルマン語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonormans_(Spriik)" title="Anglonormans (Spriik) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Anglonormans (Spriik)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-normannisk" title="Anglo-normannisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Anglo-normannisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_anglo-normandzki" title="Język anglo-normandzki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język anglo-normandzki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_anglo-normanda" title="Língua anglo-normanda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua anglo-normanda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_anglo-normand%C4%83" title="Limba anglo-normandă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba anglo-normandă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Англо-нормандский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Англо-нормандский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Norman_leid" title="Anglo-Norman leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Anglo-Norman leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Anglo-Norman language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-normandiska" title="Anglo-normandiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Anglo-normandiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglonormanca" title="Anglonormanca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Anglonormanca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%BE-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Англо-нормандська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Англо-нормандська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%8E%E6%A0%BC%E9%B2%81-%E8%AF%BA%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD" title="盎格鲁-诺曼语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="盎格鲁-诺曼语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35214#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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.navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Anglo-Norman</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Anglo-Norman-language text"><i lang="xno">Anglo-Normaund</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Roys_de_Engeltere_-_Anglo_Norman_Prose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Les_Roys_de_Engeltere_-_Anglo_Norman_Prose.jpg/200px-Les_Roys_de_Engeltere_-_Anglo_Norman_Prose.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Les_Roys_de_Engeltere_-_Anglo_Norman_Prose.jpg/300px-Les_Roys_de_Engeltere_-_Anglo_Norman_Prose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Les_Roys_de_Engeltere_-_Anglo_Norman_Prose.jpg/400px-Les_Roys_de_Engeltere_-_Anglo_Norman_Prose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="869" data-file-height="1197" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Manuscript miniature of the coronation of <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a>, accompanied by a short account of his reign in Anglo-Norman prose</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Great Britain and Ireland</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Normans</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">14th century AD<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Latino-Faliscan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latinic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Western_languages" title="Italo-Western languages">Italo-Western</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Romance_languages" title="Western Romance languages">Western</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo</a>-<a href="/wiki/Iberian_Romance_languages" title="Iberian Romance languages">Iberian</a>?<sup id="cite_ref-glottoOil_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glottoOil-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Gallo-Rhaetian?<sup id="cite_ref-glottoOil_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glottoOil-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Arpitan</a>–<a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Oïl</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Oïl</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl#Frankish_zone_(zone_francique)" title="Langues d'oïl">Frankish zone</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Northern <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Anglo-Norman</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Romance_language" title="Proto-Romance language">Proto-Romance</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gallo-Romance_language" title="Old Gallo-Romance language">Old Gallo-Romance</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/xno" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:xno">xno</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/xno">xno</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/angl1258">angl1258</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Anglo-Norman</b> (<a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a>: <i lang="nrf">Anglo-Normaund</i>; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Anglo-normand</i>), also known as <b>Anglo-Norman French</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> of <a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a> that was used in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> and, to a lesser extent, other places in Great Britain and Ireland during the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Normans" title="Anglo-Normans">Anglo-Norman</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to some linguists, the name <b>Insular French</b> might be more suitable, because "Anglo-Norman" is constantly associated with the notion of a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed language</a> based on English and Norman. According to some, such a mixed language never existed. Other sources, however, indicate that such a language did exist, and that it was the language descended from the <a href="/wiki/Norman_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman French">Norman French</a> originally established in England after the Conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> led the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a> in 1066, he, his nobles, and many of his followers from <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, but also those from northern and western France, spoke a range of <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">langues d'oïl</a> (northern varieties of <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>). This amalgam developed into the unique insular dialect now known as Anglo-Norman French, which was commonly used for literary and eventually administrative purposes from the 11th until the 14th century. </p><p>The term "Anglo-Norman" harks back to the time when the language was regarded as being primarily the regional dialect of the Norman settlers. Today the generic term "Anglo-French" is used instead to reflect not only the broader origin of the settlers who came with William the Conqueror, but also the continued influence of continental French during the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">Plantagenet period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though it is difficult to know much about what was actually spoken, as what is known about the dialect is restricted to what was written, it is clear that Anglo-Norman was, to a large extent, the spoken language of the higher social strata in medieval England. It was spoken in the law courts, schools, and universities and, in due course, in at least some sections of the gentry and the growing bourgeoisie. Private and commercial correspondence was carried out in Anglo-Norman or Anglo-French from the 13th to the 15th century though its spelling forms were often displaced by continental French spellings. Social classes other than the nobility became keen to learn French: manuscripts containing materials for instructing non-native speakers still exist, dating mostly from the late 14th century onwards. </p><p>Although Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French were eventually eclipsed by modern <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, they had been used widely enough to influence English vocabulary permanently. This means that many original <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> words, cognates of which can still be found in <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">Nordic</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, have been lost or, as is more often the case, exist alongside synonyms of Anglo-Norman French origin. <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_French_on_English" title="Influence of French on English">Anglo-Norman had little lasting influence on English</a> grammar, as opposed to vocabulary, although it is still evident in official and legal terms where the ordinary sequence of noun and adjective <a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">is reversed</a>, as seen in phrases such as <i>Blood Royal, attorney general, heir apparent, court martial, envoy extraordinary</i> and <i>body politic.</i><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom">royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom</a> still features in French the mottos of both the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">British Monarch</a>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Dieu_et_mon_droit" title="Dieu et mon droit">Dieu et mon droit</a></i></span> ("God and my right"), and the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Garter" title="Order of the Garter">Order of the Garter</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Honi_soit_qui_mal_y_pense" title="Honi soit qui mal y pense">Honi soit qui mal y pense</a></i> ("Shamed be he who thinks evil of it"). </p><p><i>Dieu et mon droit</i> was first used by <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_England" title="Richard I of England">Richard I</a> (who spoke Anglo-Norman, but cannot be proved to have been able to speak English) in 1198 and adopted as the royal motto of England in the time of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a>. The motto appears below the shield of the Royal Coat of Arms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_and_development">Use and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Use and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though in regular use at the royal court, Anglo-French was not the main administrative language of England: Latin was the major language of record in legal and other official documents for most of the medieval period. However, from the late 12th century to the early 15th century, Anglo-French was much used in law reports, charters, ordinances, official correspondence, and trade at all levels; it was the language of the King, his court and the upper class. There is evidence, too, that foreign words (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>) often entered English via Anglo-Norman. </p><p>The language of later documents adopted some of the changes ongoing in continental French and lost many of its original dialectal characteristics, so <i>Anglo-French</i> remained (in at least some respects and at least at some social levels) part of the dialect continuum of modern French, often with distinctive spellings. Over time, the use of Anglo-French expanded into the fields of law, administration, commerce, and science, in all of which a rich documentary legacy survives, indicative of the vitality and importance of the language. </p><p>By the late 15th century, however, what remained of insular French had become heavily anglicised: see <a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a>. It continued to be known as "Norman French" until the end of the 19th century even though, philologically, there was nothing Norman about it.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among important writers of the Anglo-Norman cultural commonwealth is <a href="/wiki/Marie_de_France" title="Marie de France">Marie de France</a>. </p><p>The languages and literature of the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> are sometimes referred to as Anglo-Norman, but that usage is derived from the French name for the islands: <i>les îles anglo-normandes</i>. The variety of French spoken in the islands is related to the modern <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a>, and distinct from the Anglo-Norman of medieval England. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trilingualism_in_Medieval_and_modern_England">Trilingualism in Medieval and modern England</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trilingualism in Medieval and modern England"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many of the earliest documents in <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> are found in England. In medieval <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, it was not usual to write in the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>: Because <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Latin</a> was the language of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church#Medieval_and_Renaissance_periods" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">education</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, it was also used for records. In medieval England, Latin also remained in use by the Church, the royal government, and much local administration in parallel with <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a>, as it had been before 1066. The early <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2018)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> adoption of Anglo-Norman as a written and literary language probably owes something to this history of <a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">bilingualism</a> in writing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Around the same time, as a shift took place in France towards using French as a language of record in the mid-13th century, Anglo-Norman also became a language of record in England, although Latin retained its pre-eminence for matters of permanent record (as in written <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a>). From around this point onwards, considerable variation begins to be apparent in Anglo-Norman, which ranges from the very local (and most <a href="/wiki/Anglicise" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicise">anglicised</a>) to a level of language which approximates to and is sometimes indistinguishable from varieties of continental French. Typically, therefore, local records are rather different from continental French, with diplomatic and international trade documents closest to the emerging continental norm.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English remained the vernacular of the common people throughout this period. The resulting virtual <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">trilingualism</a> in spoken and written language was one of medieval Latin, Anglo-Norman and Middle English. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_of_the_king_and_his_court">Language of the king and his court</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Language of the king and his court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the time of the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman Conquest</a> (1066) until the end of the 14th century, French was the language of the king and his court. During this period, marriages with French princesses reinforced the royal family's ties to French culture. Nevertheless, during the 13th century, intermarriages with <a href="/wiki/English_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="English nobility">English nobility</a> became more frequent. French became progressively a second language among the upper classes. Moreover, with the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> and the growing spirit of English and French nationalism, the status of French diminished. </p><p>French (specifically <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>) was the mother tongue of every <a href="/wiki/English_king" class="mw-redirect" title="English king">English king</a> from <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> (1066–1087) until <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England" title="Henry IV of England">Henry IV</a> (1399–1413). Henry IV was the first to take the oath in (<a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle</a>) English, and his son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a> (1413–1422), was the first to write in English. By the end of the 15th century, French became the second language of a cultivated elite.<sup id="cite_ref-Lusignan_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lusignan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_of_the_royal_charters_and_legislation">Language of the royal charters and legislation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Language of the royal charters and legislation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until the end of the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> was the language of all official written documents. Nevertheless, some important documents had their official Norman translation, such as <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> of 1215. The first official document written in Anglo-Norman was a statute promulgated by the king in 1275. With effect from the 13th century, Anglo-Norman therefore became used in official documents, such as those that were marked by the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Privy_Seal" title="Lord Privy Seal">private seal</a> of the king whereas the documents sealed by the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> were written in Latin until the end of the Middle Ages. English became the language of <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a> and of legislation in the 15th century, half a century after it had become the language of the king and most of the English nobility.<sup id="cite_ref-Lusignan_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lusignan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_of_administration_and_justice">Language of administration and justice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Language of administration and justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 11th century, development of the administrative and judicial institutions took place. Because the king and the lawyers at the time normally used French, it also became the language of these institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Lusignan_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lusignan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 11th century until the 14th century, the courts used three languages: Latin for writing, French as the main oral language during trials, and English in less formal exchanges between the judge, the lawyer, the complainant or the witnesses. The judge gave his sentence orally in Norman, which was then written in Latin. Only in the lowest level of the manorial courts were trials entirely in English. </p><p>During the late 14th century, English became the main spoken language, but Latin and French continued to be exclusively used in official legal documents until the beginning of the 18th century. Nevertheless, the French language used in England changed from the end of the 15th century into <a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a>, that was used since the 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This variety of French was a technical language, with a specific vocabulary, where English words were used to describe everyday experience, and French grammatical rules and morphology gradually declined, with confusion of genders and the adding of <i>-s</i> to form all plurals. Law French was banished from the courts of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> in 1731, almost three centuries after the king ceased speaking primarily French. French was used on moots in the <a href="/wiki/Inner_Temple" title="Inner Temple">Inner Temple</a> until 1779.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anglo-Norman has survived in the political system in the use of certain Anglo-French set phrases in the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>, where they are written by hand on <a href="/wiki/Bill_(law)" title="Bill (law)">bills</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_Parliaments" title="Clerk of the Parliaments">Clerk of the Parliaments</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_House_of_Commons" title="Clerk of the House of Commons">Clerk of the House of Commons</a> to endorse them during their progress to becoming law, or spoken aloud by the Clerk of the Parliaments during a gathering of the <a href="/wiki/Lords_Commissioners" title="Lords Commissioners">Lords Commissioners</a>, to indicate the granting of <a href="/wiki/Royal_Assent" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Assent">Royal Assent</a> to legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <th>Event </th> <th>Anglo-Norman phrase </th> <th>English translation </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lords" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> bill sent to <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons" title="House of Commons">House of Commons</a> </td> <td><i>Soit baillé aux Communes.</i> </td> <td>Let it be sent to the Commons. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lords bill agreed to by Commons without amendment </td> <td><i>A ceste Bille les Communes sont assentus.</i> </td> <td>To this bill the Commons have assented. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lords bill agreed to by Commons with amendments </td> <td><i>A ceste Bille avecque des Amendemens</i> (or <i>avecque une Amendement</i>) <i>les Communes sont assentus.</i> </td> <td>To this bill with [an] amendment[s] the Commons have assented. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Commons amendments to Lords bill agreed to with amendments </td> <td><i>A ceste Amendement</i> (or <i>ces Amendemens</i>) <i>avecque une Amendement</i> (or <i>des Amendemens</i>) <i>les Seigneurs sont assentus.</i> </td> <td>To [this/these] amendment[s] the Lords have assented. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Disagreement with the Commons </td> <td><i>Ceste Bille est remise aux Communes avecque des Raisons</i> (or <i>une Raison</i>)<i>.</i> </td> <td>This bill is returned to the Commons with [a] reason[s]. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Commons bill sent to Lords </td> <td><i>Soit baillé aux Seigneurs.</i> </td> <td>Let it be sent to the Lords. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Commons bill returned with amendments </td> <td><i>A ceste Bille avecque des Amendemens</i> (or <i>une Amendement</i>) <i>les Seigneurs sont assentus.</i> </td> <td>To this bill with [an] amendment[s] the Lords have assented. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Supply bill returned to Commons agreed pending Royal Assent by Commission </td> <td><i>A ceste Bille les Seigneurs sont assentus.</i> </td> <td>To this bill the Lords have assented. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Royal Assent is given for a public bill </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Roy_le_veult" title="Le Roy le veult">Le Roy/La Reyne le veult</a>.</i> </td> <td>The King/Queen wills it. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Royal Assent is given for a <a href="/wiki/Supply_bill" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply bill">supply bill</a> </td> <td><i>Le Roy/La Reyne remercie ses bons sujets, accepte leur benevolence et ainsi le veult.</i> </td> <td>The King/Queen thanks his/her good subjects, accepts their bounty, and wills it so. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Royal Assent is given for a private bill </td> <td><i>Soit fait comme il est désiré.</i> </td> <td>Let it be done as it is desired. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Royal Assent is withheld </td> <td><i>Le Roy/La Reyne s'avisera.</i> </td> <td>The King/Queen will consider it. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The exact spelling of these phrases has varied over the years; for example, <i>s'avisera</i> has been spelled as <i>s'uvisera</i> and <i>s'advisera</i>, and <i>Reyne</i> as <i>Raine</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_of_the_people">Language of the people</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Language of the people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Though the great mass of ordinary people spoke forms of English, French spread as a second language due to its prestige, encouraged by its long-standing use in the school system as a medium of instruction through which Latin was taught. In the courts, the members of the <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a>, who represented the population, had to know French in order to understand the plea of the lawyer. French was used by the merchant middle class as a language of business communication, especially when it traded with the continent, and several churches used French to communicate with lay people.<sup id="cite_ref-Lusignan_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lusignan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small but important number of documents survive associated with the Jews of medieval England, some featuring Anglo-French written in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> script, typically in the form of <a href="/wiki/Gloss_(annotation)" title="Gloss (annotation)">glosses</a> to the Hebrew scriptures.<sup id="cite_ref-Fuderman_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fuderman-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Special:EditPage/Anglo-Norman language">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As a <i><a href="/wiki/Langue_d%27o%C3%AFl" class="mw-redirect" title="Langue d'oïl">langue d'oïl</a></i>, Anglo-Norman developed collaterally to the central <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> dialects which would eventually become <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Parisian</a> French in terms of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">pronunciation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a>. Before the signature of the <i><a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Villers-Cotter%C3%AAts" title="Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts">Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts</a></i> in 1539, French was not standardised as an administrative language throughout the kingdom of France. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> was heavily influenced by Anglo-Norman and, later, Anglo-French. W. Rothwell has called Anglo-French 'the <a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil#Missing_links" title="Transitional fossil">missing link</a>' because many etymological <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionaries</a> seem to ignore the contribution of that language in English and because Anglo-Norman and Anglo-French can explain the transmission of words from French into English and fill the void left by the absence of documentary records of English (in the main) between 1066 and <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1380</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anglo-Norman continued to evolve significantly during the Middle Ages by reflecting some of the changes undergone by the northern dialects of mainland French. For example, early Anglo-Norman legal documents used the phrase "del roy" (of the king), whereas by about 1330 it had become "du roi" as in modern French.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anglo-Norman <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> can be deduced from its heritage in English. Mostly, it is done in comparison with continental Central French. English has many <a href="/wiki/Doublet_(linguistics)" title="Doublet (linguistics)">doublets</a> as a result of this contrast: </p> <ul><li><i>warranty – guarantee</i></li> <li><i>warden – guardian</i></li> <li><i>catch – chase</i> (see below)</li></ul> <p>Compare also: </p> <ul><li><i>wage</i> (Anglo-Norman) – <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">gage</i></span> (French)</li> <li><i>wait</i> – <i>guetter</i> (French, Old French <i>guaitier</i>)</li> <li><i>war</i> (from Anglo-Norman <i>werre</i>) – <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">guerre</i></span> (French)</li> <li><i>wicket</i> (Anglo-Norman) – <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">guichet</i></span> (French, from Norman)</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar consonants</a> before the front vowel produced different results in Norman to the central <i>langue d'oïl</i> dialects that developed into French. English therefore, for example, has <i>fashion</i> from Norman <i>féchoun</i> as opposed to Modern French <i>façon</i> (both developing from Latin <i>factio, factiōnem</i>). In contrast, the palatalization of velar consonants before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> that affected the development of French did not occur in Norman dialects north of the <a href="/wiki/Joret_line" title="Joret line">Joret line</a>. English has therefore inherited words that retain a velar <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">plosive</a> where French has a <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a>: </p> <table border="0"> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th>< Norman</th> <th>= French </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>cabbage</i></td> <td>< <i>caboche</i></td> <td>= <i>chou, caboche</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>castle</i></td> <td>< <i>caste(-l)</i></td> <td>= <i>château</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>cauldron</i></td> <td>< <i>caudron</i></td> <td>= <i>chaudron</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>causeway</i></td> <td>< <i>cauchie</i></td> <td>= <i>chaussée</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>catch</i></td> <td>< <i>cachi</i></td> <td>= <i>chasser</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>cattle</i></td> <td>< <i>*cate(-l)</i></td> <td>= <i>cheptel</i> (Old French <i>chetel</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>fork</i></td> <td>< <i>fouorque</i></td> <td>= <i>fourche</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>garden</i></td> <td>< <i>gardin</i></td> <td>= <i>jardin</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kennel</i></td> <td>< <i>kenil</i></td> <td>= <i>chenil</i> (Vulgar Latin <i>*canile</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>wicket</i></td> <td>< <i>viquet</i></td> <td>= <i>guichet</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>plank</i></td> <td>< <i>planque</i></td> <td>= <i>planche, planque</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>pocket</i></td> <td>< <i>pouquette</i></td> <td>= <i>poche</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some loans were palatalised later in English, as in the case of <i>challenge</i> (< Old Norman <span title="Anglo-Norman-language text"><i lang="xno">calonge</i></span>, Middle English <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">kalange, kalenge</i></span>, later <span title="Middle English (1100-1500)-language text"><i lang="enm">chalange</i></span>; Old French <span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">challenge, chalonge</i></span>). </p><p>There were also vowel differences: Compare Anglo-Norman <i>profound</i> with Parisian French <i>profond</i>, <i>soun</i> sound with <i>son</i>, <i>round</i> with <i>rond</i>. The former words were originally pronounced something like 'profoond', 'soon', 'roond' respectively (compare the similarly <a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">denasalised</a> vowels of modern Norman), but later developed their modern pronunciation in English. The word <i>veil</i> retains the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ei/</span> (as does modern Norman in <i>vaile</i> and <i>laîsi</i>) that in French has been replaced by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wa/</span> <i>voile</i>, <i>loisir</i>. </p><p>Since many words established in Anglo-Norman from French via the intermediary of Norman were not subject to the processes of sound change that continued in parts of the continent, English sometimes preserves earlier pronunciations. For example, <i>ch</i> used to be <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span> in Medieval French, where Modern French has <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span>, but English has preserved the older sound (in words like <i>chamber, chain, chase</i> and <i>exchequer</i>). Similarly, <i>j</i> had an older <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʒ/</span> sound, which it still has in English and some dialects of modern Norman, but it has developed into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʒ/</span> in Modern French. </p><p>The word <i>mushroom</i> preserves a hush <a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">sibilant</a> not recorded in French <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">mousseron</i></span>, as does <i>cushion</i> for <i>coussin</i>. Conversely, the pronunciation of the word <i>sugar</i> resembles Norman <i>chucre</i> even if the spelling is closer to French <i>sucre</i>. It is possible that the original sound was an <a href="/wiki/Apical_consonant" title="Apical consonant">apical</a> sibilant, like the <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a> <i>s</i>, which is halfway between a hissing sibilant and a hushing sibilant. </p><p>The doublets <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/catch" class="extiw" title="wikt:catch">catch</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chase" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Chase">chase</a></i> are both derived from Low Latin <i>*captiare</i>. <i>Catch</i> demonstrates a Norman development while <i>chase</i> is the French equivalent imported with a different meaning. </p><p>Distinctions in meaning between Anglo-Norman and French have led to many <i><a href="/wiki/False_friends" class="mw-redirect" title="False friends">faux amis</a></i> (words having similar form but different meanings) in Modern English and Modern French. </p><p>Although it is a Romance language, Norman contains a significant amount of lexical material from <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Norse language">Old Norse</a>. Because of this, some of the words introduced to England as part of Anglo-Norman were of Germanic origin. Indeed, sometimes one can identify cognates such as <i>flock</i> (Germanic in English existing prior to the Conquest) and <i>floquet</i> (Germanic in Norman). The case of the word <i>mug</i> demonstrates that in instances, Anglo-Norman may have reinforced certain Scandinavian elements already present in English. <i>Mug</i> had been introduced into northern English dialects by <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> settlement. The same word had been established in Normandy by the Normans (Norsemen) and was then brought over after the Conquest and established firstly in southern English dialects. It is, therefore, argued that the word <i>mug</i> in English shows some of the complicated Germanic heritage of Anglo-Norman. </p><p>Many expressions used in English today have their origin in Anglo-Norman (such as the expression <i>before-hand</i>, which derives from Anglo-Norman <i>avaunt-main</i>), as do many modern words with interesting etymologies. <i><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_loan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mortgage loan">Mortgage</a></i>, for example, literally meant <i>death-wage</i> in Anglo-Norman. <i><a href="/wiki/Curfew" title="Curfew">Curfew</a></i> (fr. <i><a href="/wiki/Couvre-feu" class="mw-redirect" title="Couvre-feu">couvre-feu</a></i>) meant <i>cover-fire</i>, referring to the time in the evening when all fires had to be covered to prevent the spread of fire within communities with timber buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>glamour</i> is derived from Anglo-Norman <i>grammeire</i>, the same word which gives us modern <i>grammar</i>; <i>glamour</i> meant first "book learning" and then the most glamorous form of book learning, "magic" or "magic spell" in Medieval times. </p><p>The influence of Anglo-Norman was very asymmetrical: very little influence from English was carried over into the continental possessions of the Anglo-Norman kings. Some administrative terms survived in some parts of mainland Normandy: <span title="Anglo-Norman-language text"><i lang="xno">forlenc</i></span> (from <i>furrow</i>, compare <i><a href="/wiki/Furlong" title="Furlong">furlong</a></i>) in the <a href="/wiki/Cotentin_Peninsula" title="Cotentin Peninsula">Cotentin Peninsula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bessin" title="Bessin">Bessin</a>, and a general use of the word <i><a href="/wiki/Acre" title="Acre">acre</a></i> (instead of French <i>arpent</i>) for <a href="/wiki/Land_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Land measurement">land measurement</a> in Normandy until <a href="/wiki/Metrication" title="Metrication">metrication</a> in the 19th century, but these words are probably linguistic traces of Saxon or <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Scandinavian" title="Anglo-Scandinavian">Anglo-Scandinavian</a> settlements between the 4th and the 10th centuries in Normandy. Otherwise the direct influence of English in mainland Norman (such as <i>smogler</i> "to smuggle") is from direct contact with English in later centuries, rather than Anglo-Norman. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a></div> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> conquered England, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon literature">Anglo-Saxon literature</a> had reached a very high level of development. The important <a href="/wiki/Benedictine" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedictine">Benedictine</a> monasteries both wrote chronicles and guarded other works in <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>. However, with the arrival of the Normans, Anglo-Saxon literature came to an end and literature written in Britain was in Latin or Anglo-Norman. The <a href="/wiki/Plantagenet" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenet">Plantagenet</a> kings encouraged this <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a>. Nevertheless, from the beginning of the 14th century, some authors chose to write in English, such as <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a>. The authors of that period were influenced by the works of contemporary French writers whose language was prestigious. Chaucer - himself of Norman origin - is considered to be the father of the English language and the creator of English as a literary language.<sup id="cite_ref-Lusignan_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lusignan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_English">Influence on English</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Influence on English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_French_on_English" title="Influence of French on English">Influence of French on English</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Origins_of_English_PieChart_2D.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Origins_of_English_PieChart_2D.svg/250px-Origins_of_English_PieChart_2D.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Origins_of_English_PieChart_2D.svg/375px-Origins_of_English_PieChart_2D.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Origins_of_English_PieChart_2D.svg/500px-Origins_of_English_PieChart_2D.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>According to one study, about 28% of English <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> comes from French, including Anglo-French (green). Such percentages vary greatly depending on what amount of rare and technical words are included in the calculation.</figcaption></figure> <p>The major <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_French_on_English" title="Influence of French on English">Norman-French influence on English</a> can still be seen in today's vocabulary. An enormous number of Norman-French and other medieval French <a href="/wiki/Loanwords" class="mw-redirect" title="Loanwords">loanwords</a> came into the language, and about three-quarters of them are still used today. Very often, the Norman or French word supplanted the original English term, or both words would co-exist but with slightly different nuances. In other cases, the Norman or French word was adopted to signify a new reality, such as <i>judge</i>, <i>castle</i>, <i>warranty</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lusignan_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lusignan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, the Norman and French borrowings concerned the fields of culture, aristocratic life, politics and religion, and war whereas the English words were used to describe everyday experience. When the Normans arrived in England, their copyists wrote English as they heard it, without realising the peculiarities of the relationship between Anglo-Saxon pronunciation and spelling and so the spelling changed. There appeared different regional Modern-English written dialects, the one that the king chose in the 15th century becoming the standard variety. </p><p>In some remote areas, agricultural terms used by the rural workers may have been derived from Norman French. An example is the Cumbrian term <i>sturdy</i> for diseased sheep that walk in circles, derived from <i>étourdi</i> meaning dizzy.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_in_Ireland">Influence in Ireland</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Influence in Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman invasion of Ireland</a> began in 1169, on the first of May in <a href="/wiki/Bannow_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bannow Bay">Bannow Bay</a>, and led to Anglo-Norman control of much of the island. Norman-speaking administrators arrived to rule over the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>'s new territory. Several Norman words became <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Gaelic</a> words, including household terms: <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gars%C3%BAn#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:garsún">garsún</a></i> (from Norman <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gar%C3%A7un#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:garçun">garçun</a></i>, "boy"); <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/c%C3%B3ta#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:cóta">cóta</a></i> (<i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cote#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:cote">cote</a></i>, "cloak"); <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hata#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:hata">hata</a></i> (<span title="Anglo-Norman-language text"><i lang="xno">hatte</i></span>, "hat"); <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gaird%C3%ADn#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:gairdín">gairdín</a></i> (<i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gardin#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:gardin">gardin</a></i>, "garden"); and terms relating to justice (Irish <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gi%C3%BAist%C3%ADs#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:giúistís">giúistís</a></i>, <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bardas#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:bardas">bardas</a></i> (corporation), <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/c%C3%BAirt#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:cúirt">cúirt</a></i> (court)). </p><p>Place-names in Norman are few, but there is <a href="/wiki/Buttevant" title="Buttevant">Buttevant</a> (from the motto of the Barry family: <span title="Anglo-Norman-language text"><i lang="xno">Boutez en avant</i></span>, "Push to the Fore"), the village of <a href="/wiki/Brittas,_Dublin" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittas, Dublin">Brittas</a> (from the Norman <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bretesche#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:bretesche">bretesche</a></i>, "boarding, planking") and the element <i>Pallas</i> (Irish <i lang="ga"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pail%C3%ADs#Irish" class="extiw" title="wikt:pailís">pailís</a></i>, from Norman <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paleis#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:paleis">paleis</a></i>, "boundary fence": compare <a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">palisade</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Pale" title="The Pale">The Pale</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others exist with English or Irish roots, such as <a href="/wiki/Castletownroche" title="Castletownroche">Castletownroche</a>, which combines the English <i>Castletown</i> and the Norman <span title="Anglo-Norman-language text"><i lang="xno">Roche</i></span>, meaning rock. </p><p>Only a handful of Hiberno-Norman-French texts survive, most notably the <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chanson de geste</a></i></span> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Song_of_Dermot_and_the_Earl" title="The Song of Dermot and the Earl">The Song of Dermot and the Earl</a></i> (early 13th century) and the <a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Kilkenny" title="Statutes of Kilkenny">Statutes of Kilkenny</a> (1366).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_Text_Society" title="Anglo-Norman Text Society">Anglo-Norman Text Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_French_on_English" title="Influence of French on English">Influence of French on English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_creole_hypothesis" title="Middle English creole hypothesis">Middle English creole hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auregnais" title="Auregnais">Auregnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sercquiais" title="Sercquiais">Sercquiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blazon#French_vocabulary_and_grammar" title="Blazon">Blazon § French vocabulary and grammar</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511123239/http://multitree.org/codes/xno">"xno"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://multitree.org/codes/xno">the original</a> on 11 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=xno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmultitree.org%2Fcodes%2Fxno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-glottoOil-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-glottoOil_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-glottoOil_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammarströmForkelHaspelmathBank2022" class="citation web cs1">Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (2022-05-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oila1234">"Glottolog 4.8 - Oil"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology" title="Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231111104954/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oila1234">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-11-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-11-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Glottolog&rft.atitle=Glottolog+4.8+-+Oil&rft.date=2022-05-24&rft.aulast=Hammarstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft.au=Forkel%2C+Robert&rft.au=Haspelmath%2C+Martin&rft.au=Bank%2C+Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglottolog.org%2Fresource%2Flanguoid%2Fid%2Foila1234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Manuel pratique de philologie romane</i>, Pierre Bec, 1970–1971</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a wide-ranging introduction to the language and its uses, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120724052814/http://www.anglo-norman.net/sitedocs/main-intro.html">Anglo-French and the AND</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Rothwell" class="mw-redirect" title="William Rothwell">William Rothwell</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ian Short, <i>A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World</i>, "Language and Literature", Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2007. (p. 193)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt9qdjzn"><i>The Anglo-Norman Language and its Contexts</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer. 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-30-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-30-7"><bdi>978-1-903153-30-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt9qdjzn">10.7722/j.ctt9qdjzn</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Norman+Language+and+its+Contexts&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt9qdjzn%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-903153-30-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt9qdjzn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geneviève Hasenohr, Le Jeu d'Adam, édition critique et traduction, Genève, Droz, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothwell2006" class="citation web cs1">Rothwell, William (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://anglo-norman.net/anglo-french/">"Anglo-French and the Anglo-Norman Dictionary"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anglo-French+and+the+Anglo-Norman+Dictionary&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Rothwell&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanglo-norman.net%2Fanglo-french%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amended version of: Crystal, David. <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pollock and Maitland, p. 87 note 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Lusignan, 2005; Trotter, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lusignan-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lusignan_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lusignan_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lusignan_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lusignan_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lusignan_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lusignan_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lusignan, Serge. <i>La langue des rois au Moyen Âge : Le français en France et en Angleterre</i>. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaske2016" class="citation journal cs1">Laske, Caroline (2016-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijld-2016-0002/html">"Losing touch with the common tongues – the story of law French"</a>. <i>International Journal of Legal Discourse</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 169–192. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fijld-2016-0002">10.1515/ijld-2016-0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-7239351">1854/LU-7239351</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2364-883X">2364-883X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159795576">159795576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Legal+Discourse&rft.atitle=Losing+touch+with+the+common+tongues+%E2%80%93+the+story+of+law+French&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=169-192&rft.date=2016-04-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1854%2FLU-7239351&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159795576%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2364-883X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fijld-2016-0002&rft.aulast=Laske&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fijld-2016-0002%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens2009" class="citation book cs1">Stephens, Charles (2009-10-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JQIaBwAAQBAJ&dq=french+law+language+1731&pg=PA40"><i>A Study in Legal History Volume II; The Last of England: Lord Denning's Englishry and the Law</i></a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1560-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1560-4"><bdi>978-1-4438-1560-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+in+Legal+History+Volume+II%3B+The+Last+of+England%3A+Lord+Denning%27s+Englishry+and+the+Law&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2009-10-02&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-1560-4&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJQIaBwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dfrench%2Blaw%2Blanguage%2B1731%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Appendix F: Royal Assent by Commission". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/compso2017/compso20.htm"><i>Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>. 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+F%3A+Royal+Assent+by+Commission&rft.btitle=Companion+to+the+Standing+Orders+and+guide+to+the+Proceedings+of+the+House+of+Lords&rft.pub=Parliament+of+the+United+Kingdom&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublications.parliament.uk%2Fpa%2Fld%2Fldcomp%2Fcompso2017%2Fcompso20.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Appendix H: Endorsements to Bills". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/compso2017/compso22.htm"><i>Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>. 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+H%3A+Endorsements+to+Bills&rft.btitle=Companion+to+the+Standing+Orders+and+guide+to+the+Proceedings+of+the+House+of+Lords&rft.pub=Parliament+of+the+United+Kingdom&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublications.parliament.uk%2Fpa%2Fld%2Fldcomp%2Fcompso2017%2Fcompso22.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennion1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bennion" title="Francis Bennion">Bennion, Francis</a> (1 October 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070316103344/http://www.francisbennion.com/word/fb/1981/1981-011-royal-assent-procedure.doc">"Modern Royal Assent Procedure at Westminster"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(Microsoft Word 97-2003 document)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Review" title="Statute Law Review">Statute Law Review</a></i>. <b>2</b> (3): 133–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fslr%2F2.3.133">10.1093/slr/2.3.133</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.francisbennion.com/word/fb/1981/1981-011-royal-assent-procedure.doc">the original</a> on 16 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Statute+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Modern+Royal+Assent+Procedure+at+Westminster&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=133-147&rft.date=1981-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fslr%2F2.3.133&rft.aulast=Bennion&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.francisbennion.com%2Fword%2Ffb%2F1981%2F1981-011-royal-assent-procedure.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fuderman-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fuderman_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fuderman<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (August 2021)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rothwell, W. (1991), "The missing link in English etymology: Anglo-French", <i>Medium Aevum</i>, 60, 173–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=cotton_ms_vitellius_a_xiii!1_f005r">"Cotton MS Vitellius A XIII/1"</a>. <i>Les roys de Engeltere</i>. 1280–1300<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2023</span>. <q>Five rectangles of red linen, formerly used as curtains for the miniatures.ff. 3–6: Eight miniatures of the kings of England from Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–1066) to Edward I (r. 1272–1307); each one except the last is accompanied by a short account of their reign in Anglo-Norman prose. "del Roy Phylippe de Fraunce"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Les+roys+de+Engeltere&rft.atitle=Cotton+MS+Vitellius+A+XIII%2F1&rft.date=1280&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fmanuscripts%2FViewer.aspx%3Fref%3Dcotton_ms_vitellius_a_xiii%211_f005r&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhatia,_K._L.2010" class="citation book cs1">Bhatia, K. L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wg1dvc2lfcEC"><i>Textbook on Legal Language and Legal Writing</i></a>. Universal Law Publishers. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8175348943" title="Special:BookSources/978-8175348943"><bdi>978-8175348943</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+on+Legal+Language+and+Legal+Writing&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Universal+Law+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-8175348943&rft.au=Bhatia%2C+K.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwg1dvc2lfcEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bailey's Dictionary</i>, fifth edition, 1731.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rollinson, William (1987). <i>Life and Tradition in the Lake District</i>. Dalesman. p. 82. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852068859" title="Special:BookSources/0852068859">0852068859</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.logainm.ie/en/s?txt=Pallas&str=on">'Pallas' | Logainm.ie</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucc.ie/celt/frpage.html">"Medieval and early modern French Texts at CELT"</a>. <i>ucc.ie</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ucc.ie&rft.atitle=Medieval+and+early+modern+French+Texts+at+CELT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucc.ie%2Fcelt%2Ffrpage.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>British Library, Cotton MS Vitellius A XIII/1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer.aspx?ref=cotton_ms_vitellius_a_xiii!1_f005v">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> "Les roys de Engeltere" (Five rectangles of red linen, formerly used as curtains for the miniatures.ff. 3–6: Eight miniatures of the kings of England from Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–1066) to Edward I (r. 1272–1307); each one except the last is accompanied by a short account of their reign in Anglo-Norman prose." "Roy Phylippe de Fraunce" "en englerere: le Roy Jon regna."), (1272–1307).</li> <li>De Wilde, Geert et al. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anglo-norman.net/gate/">"Anglo-Norman Dictionary"</a> (= AND), on lin<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100511024514/http://www.anglo-norman.net/">[2]</a>e.</li> <li>Kelham, <i>Dictionary of the Norman or Old French Language</i> (1779) (very outdated)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._W._Maitland" class="mw-redirect" title="F. W. Maitland">Pollock and Maitland</a>, <i>History of English Law</i>, 2nd edition: Cambridge 1898, pp. 80–87.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Further_reading_cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This "<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout#Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">Further reading</a>" section <b>may need cleanup</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">editing guide</a> and help improve the section.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Anglo-Norman Dictionary, online version: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anglo-norman.net/">http://www.anglo-norman.net</a>. A–S, U, W, Y and Z second edition (2005–); T, V and X reproduce the first (printed edition). The site also provides a searchable textbase of more than 70 Anglo-Norman texts, selected publications by the editorial team, a general introduction to Anglo-Norman and a bibliography of all Anglo-Norman primary sources.</li> <li>Brand, Paul (1999), 'The languages of the law in later medieval England'. In Trotter (2000a).</li> <li>Brand, Paul. 2010. 'The Language of the English Legal Profession: The Emergence of a Distinctive Legal Lexicon in Insular French'. In Ingham (2010), 94–101.</li> <li>Brun, Laurent (2004), c.r. de Ruelle (1999), ZrP 120, 190–194.</li> <li>Burgess, Glyn S. (1995), 'Französische Skriptaformen IV. England. Les scriptae françaises IV. Angleterre'. In Holtus, Günter/Metzeltin, Michael/Schmidt, Christian (eds.), Lexikon der Romanistischen Linguistik II, 2. Tübingen, 337–346.</li> <li>Butterfield, Ardis. 2009. The Familiar Enemy. Chaucer, Language and Nation in the Hundred Years' War. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Cerquiglini, Bernard (1991), La naissance du français, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.</li> <li>Cerquiglini, Bernard (2007), Une langue orpheline, Paris: Éditions de Minuit.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Chaplais" title="Pierre Chaplais">Chaplais, Pierre</a>. 1975–1982. English Medieval Diplomatic Practice. London: H.M.S.O.</li> <li>Clanchy, M.T. (1993), From Memory to Written Record: England 1066–1307. 2nd edn. Oxford.</li> <li>Collas, J.P. (1964) (ed.), Year Books of Edward II, vol. xxv, London, 'Problems of Language and Interpretation', 14–127.</li> <li>Da Rold, Orietta. 2006. "English Manuscripts 1060 to 1220 and the Making of a Resource." In Literature Compass 3, 750–766, en ligne: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/</a>: (DOI:10.1111/j.1741-4113.2006.00344.x), consulté le 14 mai 2013.</li> <li>De Jong, Thera (1988), 'L'anglo normand du 13e siècle', in Van Reenen, P. & Van Reenen Stein, K. (eds.), Distributions spatiales et temporelles, constellations des manuscrits. Etudes de variation linguistique offertes à Anthonij Dees à l'occasion de son 60ème anniversaire, Amsterdam, 103 12.</li> <li>De Jong, Thera (1996), 'Anglo-French in the 13th and 14th Centuries: Continental or Insular Dialect', in Nielsen/Schǿsler (1996), 55–70.</li> <li>Dean, Ruth J.. 1999. Anglo-Norman literature. A guide to texts and manuscripts, with the collaboration of Maureen B.M. Boulton. London: Anglo-Norman Text Society.</li> <li>Dees, Anthonij (1980), Atlas des formes et des constructions des chartes françaises du 13e siècle (Beihefte zur ZrP, vol. 178), Tübingen, Niemeyer.</li> <li>Dees, Anthonij (1985), Dialectes et scriptae à l'époque de l'ancien français, RLiR 49, 87–117.</li> <li>Dees, Anthonij (1987), Atlas des formes linguistiques des textes littéraires de l'ancien français (Beihefte zur ZrP, vol. 212), Tübingen, Niemeyer.</li> <li>Dessì Schmid, Sarah/Hafner, Jochen/Heinemann, Sabine (2011) (edd.), Koineisierung und Standardisierung in der Romania, Heidelberg, Winter.</li> <li>DMLBS = Latham, Ronald e., David Howlettt, and Richard Ashdowne, Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources. Oxford: British Academy. (1975–).</li> <li>Dodd, Gwilym. 2007. Justice and Grace: Private Petitioning and the English Parliament in the Late Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Durkin, Philip. 2012. "Etymological research on English words as a source of information about Anglo-French." In Present and future research in Anglo-Norman: Proceedings of the Aberystwyth Colloquium, 21–22 July 2011, ed. David Trotter, 101–107. Aberystwyth: Anglo-Norman Online Hub.</li> <li>Duval, Frédéric (2009), Le français médiéval (L'Atelier du médiéviste, 11), Turnhout, Brepols.</li> <li>Georgo, David. 2008. Language Made Visible: The Invention of French in England after the Norman Conquest. PhD diss., New York State University, UMI No. 3307998.</li> <li>Gervers, Michael/ Merrilees, Brian (1979), A twelfth-century Hospitaller charter in Anglo-Norman, Journal of the Society of Archivists 6, 131–35.</li> <li>Glessgen, Martin-Dietrich (2012), Trajectoires et perspectives en scriptologie romane, Medioevo Romanzo 36, 5–23.</li> <li>Goebl, Hans (1970), Die normandische Urkundensprache. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der nordfranzösischen Urkundensprachen des Mittelalter (Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-hist.Klasse, 269), Vienne, Bohlau.</li> <li>Goebl, Hans (1998), Zu einer dialektometrischen Analyse der Daten des Dees-Atlasses von 1980, in: Werner, Edeltraudet al. (edd.), Et multum et multa. Festschrift für Peter Wunderli zum 60. Geburtstag, Tübingen, Narr, 293–309.</li> <li>Goebl, Hans (2008), Sur le changement macrolinguistique survenu entre 1300 et 1900 dans le domaine d'oïl. Une étude diachronique d'inspiration dialectométrique, Dialectologia 1, 3–43 [disponible en ligneà l'addresse suivante: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722031557/http://www.publicacions.ub.edu/revistes/dialectologia1/">[3]</a> (consulté le 02.02.14)]</li> <li>Gossen, Charles Théodore (1968a), Graphème et phonème: le problème central de l'étude des langues écrites au Moyen Age, RLiR 32, 1–16.</li> <li>Gossen, Charles Théodore (1968b), L'interprétation des graphèmes et la phonétique historique de la langue française, TraLiLi 6/i (1968), 149–168.</li> <li>Gossen, Charles Théodore (1979), Méditations scriptologiques, CCM 22, 263–283.</li> <li>Goyens, Michèle/Verbeke, Werner (2003) (edd.), The Dawn of the Written Vernacular in Western Europe, Leuven, Leuven University Press.</li> <li>Grübl, Klaus (2013), La standardisation du français au Moyen Âge: point de vue scriptologique, RLiR 77, 344–383.</li> <li>Henry, Albert (1986), Un texte œnologique de Jofroi de Waterford et Servais Copale, Romania 107, 1–37 [première publication: idem, Contribution à l'étude du language œnologique en langue d'oïl, Bruxelle, Académie Royale de Belgique, I, 45–53 et II, 37–49].</li> <li>Howlett, David (1996), The English Origins of Old French Literature, Dublin, Four Courts Press.</li> <li>Hunt, Tony. (2000), 'Code-switching in medical texts'. In Trotter (2000a).</li> <li>Hunt, Tony. 2003. "Anglo-Norman: Past and Future." In The Dawn of the Written Vernacular in Western Europe, edd. Michèle Goyens and Werner Verbele, 379–389. Leuven: Leuven University Press.</li> <li>Ingham, Richard (2012), The transmission of Anglo-Norman: Language History and Language Acquisition, Amsterdam, Benjamins.</li> <li>Ingham, Richard, 'Mixing languages on the Manor', Medium Aevum 78 (2009), 80–97 (=2009a).</li> <li>Ingham, Richard, 'Syntactic change in Anglo-Norman and Continental French Chronicles: was there a 'Middle' Anglo-Norman?', Journal of French Language Studies 16 (2006), 26–49.</li> <li>Ingham, Richard, 'The status of French in medieval England: evidence from the use of object pronoun syntax', Vox Romanica 65 (2006), 1–22.</li> <li>Jefferson, Lisa (2000), 'The Language and vocabulary of the fourteenth-and early fifteenth-century records of the Goldsmiths' Company, in Trotter (2000a), 175–211.</li> <li>Jefferson, Lisa and Rothwell, William (1997), 'Society and lexis: a study of the Anglo-French vocabulary in the fifteenth-century accounts of the Merchants Taylors Company'. Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, 107, 273–301.</li> <li>Kabatek, Johannes (2013), Koinés and scriptae, in: MAIDEN, Martin/ SMITH, John Charles/ Ledgeway, Adam (edd.), Cambridge History of the Romance Languages, 2: Contexts, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 143–186.</li> <li>Koch, Peter (2010), Sprachgeschichte zwischen Nähe und Distanz: Latein – Französisch– Deutsch, in: Ágel, Vilmos/Hennig, Mathilde (edd.), Nähe und Distanz im Kontenxt variationslinguistischer Forschung, Berlin/ New York, De Gruyter, 155–205.</li> <li>Kowaleski, Maryanne. 2007. "Alien" encounters in the maritime world of medieval England. Medieval Encounters 13:96–121.</li> <li>Kristol, Andres (1989), Le début du rayonnement parisien et l'unité du français au Moyen Âge: le témoignage des manuels d'enseignement du français publiés en Angleterre entre le XIIIe et le début du XVe siècle, RLiR 53, 335–367.</li> <li>Kristol, Andres (1990), 'L'enseignement du français en Angleterre (XIIIe-XVe siècles): les sources manuscrites', Romania, 111, 298–330.</li> <li>Kristol, Andres (2000), 'L'intellectuel 'anglo-normand' face à la pluralité des langues: le témoignage implicite du Ms Oxford, Magdalen Lat. 188', in Trotter (2000a), 37- 52.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominica_Legge" title="Dominica Legge">Legge, Dominica</a> (1965), La précocité de la littérature Anglo-normande, CCM 8, 327–349.</li> <li>Lodge, Anthony R. (2004), A Sociolinguistic History of Parisian French, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Lodge, Anthony R. (2010a), The Sources of Standardisation in French – Written or Spoken?, in: INGHAM (2010), 26–43.</li> <li>Lodge, Anthony R. (2010b), Standardisation, koinéisation et l'historiographie du français, RLiR 74, 5–26.</li> <li>Lodge, Anthony R. (2011), Standardisation et Koinéisation: Deux approaches contraires à l'historiographie d'une langue, in: Dessì Schmid/Hafner/Heinemann (2011), 65–79.</li> <li>Lusignan, Serge (1986), Parler vulgairement. Les intellectuels et la langue française aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles. Paris/Montréal.</li> <li>Lusignan, Serge (2004), La langue des rois au Moyen Âge: le français en France et en Angleterre, Paris, Presses universitaires de France.</li> <li>Lusignan, Serge (2005) La Langue des rois au Moyen Âge. Paris: PUF.</li> <li>Lusignan, Serge (2011), Le français médiéval: perspectives historiques sur une langue plurielle, in: Lusignan, Serge/ Martineau, France/Morin, Yves Charles/Cohen, Paul, L'introuvable unité du français. Contacts et variations linguistiques en Europe et en Amérique (XIIe-XVIIIe siècle), Laval, Presses de l'Université Laval, 5–107.</li> <li>Maitland F.W. (1903), Year Books of Edward II, Vol. I: 1 & 2 Edward II, London, Selden Society XVII, Introduction, III, 'Of The Anglo-French Language in the Early Year Books', xxxiii–lxxxi.</li> <li>Matsumura, Takeshi (2004), c.r. de Ruelle (1999), RLiR 68, 284–285.</li> <li>McClure, Peter. 2010. "Middle English occupational bynames as lexical evidence: a study of names in the Nottingham borough court rolls 1303–1455." Transactions of the Philological Society 108:164–177 et 213–231.</li> <li>Menger, L.E. (1904), The Anglo Norman Dialect, New York.</li> <li>Möhren, Frankwalt (1974), 'Apport des textes techniques à la lexicologie: terminologie anglo-normande de l'agriculture', XIV Congresso Internazionale Di Linguistica e Filologia Romanza, Atti, t. 4, Napoli (Gaetano Macchiaroli, ed), Amsterdam, 143–157.</li> <li>Möhren, Frankwalt (1981), 'Agn. AFRE / AVER. Eine wortgeschichtliche und wissenschaftsgeschichtliche Untersuchung', Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen 218,129–136.</li> <li>Möhren, Frankwalt (1986), Wort- und sachgeschichtliche Untersuchungen an französischen landwirtschaftlichen Texten, 13., 14. und 18. Jahrhundert (Seneschaucie, Menagier, Encyclopédie), Tübingen (Niemeyer).</li> <li>Möhren, Frankwalt (1997), 'Unité et diversité du champ sémasiologique – l'exemple de l'Anglo-Norman Dictionary', in Gregory, Stewart and Trotter, David (eds), De mot en mot: Essays in honour of William Rothwell, Cardiff, 127–146.</li> <li>Möhren, Frankwalt (2000), 'One-fold lexicography for a manifold problem?', In Trotter (2000a), 157–168.</li> <li>Möhren, Frankwalt (2007), Dictionnaire Étymologique de l'Ancien Français: Complément bibliographique 2007, Tübingen, Niemeyer.</li> <li>Molinelli, Piera/ Guerini, Federica (2013) (edd.), Plurilinguismo e diglossia nella Tarda Antichità et nel Medio Evo (Traditio et Renovatio, 7), Firenze, Sismel: Edizioni del Galluzzo</li> <li>Monfrin, Jacques (1968), La mode de tradition des actes écrits et les études de dialectologie, RLiR 32, 17–47.</li> <li>NCA = Stein, Achim / Kunstmann, Pierre / Gleßgen, Martin-D. (ed.) (2010): Nouveau Corpus d'Amsterdam. Corpus informatique de textes littéraires d'ancien français (ca 1150–1350), établi par Anthonij Dees (Amsterdam 1987), Institut für Linguistik/Romanistik, version 2-2, disponible en ligne à l'addresse suivante: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/lingrom/stein/corpus/#nc">http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/lingrom/stein/corpus/#nc</a></li> <li>Nielsen, Hans-Frede and Schǿsler, Lene (eds) (1996), The Origins and Development of Emigrant Languages. Proceedings from the Second Rasmus Rask Colloquium, Odense University, November 1994, Odense.</li> <li>O'Donnell, Thomas (2017). "The Gloss to Philippe de Thaon's Comput and the French of England's Beginnings." In The French of Medieval England. Essays in Honour of Jocelyn Wogan-Browne, edd. Thelma Fenster and Carolyn P. Collette, 13–37. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer.</li> <li>Pépin, Guilhem. 2009. "Petitions from Gascony. Testimonies of a Special Relationship." In Medieval Petitions. Grace and Grievance, edd. W. Mark Ormrod, Gwilym Dodd, et Anthony Musson, 120–134. York: York Medieval Press/Boydell Press.</li> <li>Pfister, Max (1973), Die sprachliche Bedeutung von Paris und der île-de-France vor dem 13. Jahrhundert, Vox Romanica 32, 217–253.</li> <li>Pfister, Max (1993), 'Scripta' et 'koinè' en ancien français aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles?, in: Knecht, Pierre/Marzys, Zygmunt (edd.), Écriture, langues communes et normes. Formation spontanée de koinès et standardisation dans la Galloromania et son voisinage, Genève/Neuchâtel, Droz/Faculté des lettres, 17–41.</li> <li>Pfister, Max (1999), L'area galloromanza, in: Boitani, Piero/Mancini, Mario/Varvaro, Alberto (edd.), Lo Spazio letterario del Medioevo: 2. 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(ed.), The Beginnings of Standardization: Language and Culture in Fourteenth-Century England (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2006), 73–90.</li> <li>Trotter, David (2006b) 'Si le français n'y peut aller: Villers Cotterêts and mixed language documents from the Pyrenees', in: COWLING, D.J. (ed.), Conceptions of Europe in Renaissance France: a Festschrift for Keith Cameron (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2006), 77–97.</li> <li>Trotter, David (2008), L'Anglo-normand en France: les traces documentaires, Académie des Inscriptions & Belles-Lettres: Comptes rendus des séances de l'année 2008, avril-juin, II, 893–904.</li> <li>Trotter, David (2009), 'English in Contact: Middle English creolization', in A. Bergs/L. Brinton (eds.), Historical Linguistics of English (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012), 2, 1781–1793.</li> <li>Trotter, David (2010): Bridging the Gap: The (Socio-)linguistic Evidence of Some Medieval English Bridge Accounts. In: Ingham (2010), 52–62.</li> <li>Trotter, David (2011a), 'Il sount aliens: marchands étrangers et contact linguistique en Angleterre au Moyen Âge', in W. Schweickard/A. Overbeck/H. Völker (eds.), Lexikon, Varietät, Philologie: Romanistische Studien Günter Holtus zum 65. Geburtstag (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), 307–315.</li> <li>Trotter, David (2011b), 'L'anglo-normand et le français, et les emprunts en anglais', Actes du colloque international 'Les emprunts lexicaux au français dans les langues européennes', Craiova, 10–12 novembre 2011 (Craiova: Editura Universitaria, 2011), 299–309.</li> <li>Trotter, David (2011c), 'Death, taxes and property: some code-switching evidence from Dover, Southampton, and York', in H. Schendl/L. 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Études phonologiques, Berne, Francke.</li> <li>Wüest, Jakob (2001), Sind Schreibdialekte phonologisch interpretierbar? in: Holtus/Rapp/Völker (2001), 37–51.</li> <li>Wüest, Jakob (2003), Le rapport entre la langue parlée et la langue écrite: les scriptae dans le domaine d'oïl et le domaine d'oc, in: Goyens/Verbeke (2003), 51–70.**</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Norman_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anglo-norman.net">The Revised Anglo-Norman Dictionary (A-S), with the entries from the first edition, for T-Z</a> is freely available online. The site, formerly known as <i>The Anglo-Norman hub</i>, also provides a searchable textbase of more than 70 Anglo-Norman texts, selected publications by the editorial team, a general introduction to Anglo-Norman and a bibliography off all Anglo-Norman primary sources.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anglo-norman-texts.net/">The Anglo-Norman Text Society publishes a wide range of works written in Anglo-Norman</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121222212412/http://www.bcu.ac.uk/pme/school-of-english/research/collections/anglo-norman-corpus">"The Anglo-Norman Correspondence Corpus at Birmingham City University"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bcu.ac.uk/pme/school-of-english/research/collections/anglo-norman-corpus">the original</a> on 2012-12-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Norman+Correspondence+Corpus+at+Birmingham+City+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcu.ac.uk%2Fpme%2Fschool-of-english%2Fresearch%2Fcollections%2Fanglo-norman-corpus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8957">"Psalterium (Psalter of Queen Isabella of England)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a></i>. 1300.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Psalterium+%28Psalter+of+Queen+Isabella+of+England%29&rft.date=1300&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F8957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnglo-Norman+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_English" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_English" title="Template:History of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_English" title="Template talk:History of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_English" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">History of English</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">Proto-West-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_Old_English" title="Kentish Old English">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anglo-Norman language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Phonological_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_vowels" title="Phonological history of English vowels">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8a%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨a⟩"><i>A</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/l/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /l/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/" title="English-language vowel changes before historic /r/">Changes before historic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close back vowels">Close back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_close_front_vowels" title="Phonological history of English close front vowels">Close front vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs" title="Phonological history of English diphthongs">Diphthongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_open_back_vowels" title="Phonological history of English open back vowels">Open back vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trisyllabic_laxing" title="Trisyllabic laxing">Trisyllabic laxing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants" title="Phonological history of English consonants">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonant_clusters" title="Phonological history of English consonant clusters">Clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">Flapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-dropping" title="H-dropping"><i>H</i>-dropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization"><i>L</i>-vocalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8ng%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨ng⟩"><i>Ng</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">Rhoticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-glottalization" title="T-glottalization"><i>T</i>-glottalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8th%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩"><i>Th</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Th-fronting" title="Th-fronting">fronting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th-stopping" title="Th-stopping">stopping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_of_English_%E2%9F%A8wh%E2%9F%A9" title="Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩"><i>Wh</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Norman_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Norman_language" title="Template:Norman language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Norman_language" title="Template talk:Norman language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Norman_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Norman language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Norman_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Channel Islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auregnais" title="Auregnais">Auregnais</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alderney" title="Alderney">Alderney</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais/Dgèrnésiais</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guernsey" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jersey" title="Jersey">Jersey</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sercquiais" title="Sercquiais">Sercquiais/Sèrtchais</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sark" title="Sark">Sark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Continental Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augeron" title="Augeron">Augeron</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pays_d%27Auge" title="Pays d'Auge">Pays d'Auge</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchois_dialect" title="Cauchois dialect">Cauchois</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pays_de_Caux" title="Pays de Caux">Pays de Caux</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotentinais" title="Cotentinais">Cotentinais</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cotentin_Peninsula" title="Cotentin Peninsula">Cotentin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic and legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anglo-Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Legal_French" title="Jersey Legal French">Jersey Legal French</a> (highly influenced by Jèrriais)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norman_language_writers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Norman language writers">List of Norman language writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais_literature" title="Jèrriais literature">Jèrriais literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" title="Template:Gallo-Romance languages and dialects"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" title="Template talk:Gallo-Romance languages and dialects"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gallo-Romance languages and dialects"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance languages</a> and dialects</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areal groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">Canadian French</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Langues d'oïl</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antillean_Creole" title="Antillean Creole">Antillean Creole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Creole_French" title="Dominican Creole French">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadian_Creole_French" title="Grenadian Creole French">Grenadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucian_Creole" title="Saint Lucian Creole">Saint Lucian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_Creole" title="Bourbonnais Creole">Bourbonnais Creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agalega_creole" title="Agalega creole">Agalega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagossian_creole" title="Chagossian creole">Chagossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritian_Creole" title="Mauritian Creole">Mauritian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union_Creole" title="Réunion Creole">Réunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodriguan_creole" title="Rodriguan creole">Rodriguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychellois_Creole" title="Seychellois Creole">Seychellois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadian_French" title="Acadian French">Acadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiac" title="Chiac">Chiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Marys_Bay_French" title="St. Marys Bay French">St. Marys Bay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_French" title="African French">African</a>* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_French#Abidjan_French_vocabulary" title="African French">Abidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_French#Kinshasa_French_vocabulary" title="African French">Kinshasa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aostan_French" title="Aostan French">Aostan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_French" title="Belgian French">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_French" title="Métis French">Métis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England_French" title="New England French">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French" title="Quebec French">Québécois</a>* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joual" title="Joual">Joual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magoua" title="Magoua">Magoua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Cambodia" title="French language in Cambodia">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francien_language" title="Francien language">Francien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenchville_French" title="Frenchville French">Frenchville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_French" title="Haitian French">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houma_people#Modern_era" title="Houma people">Houma French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_India#Indian_French" title="French people in India">Indian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Legal_French" title="Jersey Legal French">Jersey Legal</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Laos" title="French language in Laos">Laotian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridional_French" title="Meridional French">Meridional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_of_France" title="French of France">Metropolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_French" title="Missouri French">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskrat_French" title="Muskrat French">Muskrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_French" title="Newfoundland French">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontarian_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontarian French">Ontarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Barth%C3%A9lemy_French" title="Saint-Barthélemy French">Saint-Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_French" title="Standard French">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_French" title="Swiss French">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anglo-Norman</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augeron" title="Augeron">Augeron</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auregnais" title="Auregnais">Auregnais</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchois_dialect" title="Cauchois dialect">Cauchois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotentinais" title="Cotentinais">Cotentinais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sercquiais" title="Sercquiais">Sercquiais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_dialect" title="Angevin dialect">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berrichon_dialect" title="Berrichon dialect">Berrichon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolze" title="Bolze">Bolze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_dialects" title="Bourbonnais dialects">Bourbonnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(O%C3%AFl)" title="Burgundian language (Oïl)">Burgundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundi_Pidgin_French" title="Burundi Pidgin French">Burundi Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camfranglais" title="Camfranglais">Camfranglais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champenois_language" title="Champenois language">Champenois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frainc-Comtou" title="Frainc-Comtou">Frainc-Comtou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guianese_Creole" title="French Guianese Creole">Guianese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole" title="Karipúna French Creole">Karipúna Creole</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Inuit_Pidgin_French" title="Labrador Inuit Pidgin French">Labrador Inuit Pidgin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorrain_language" title="Lorrain language">Lorrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welche" title="Welche">Welche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Romance" title="Moselle Romance">Moselle Romance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouchi">Nouchi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anais_dialect" title="Orléanais dialect">Orléanais</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ais_Tirailleur" title="Français Tirailleur">Petit nègre</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin-Saintongeais" class="mw-redirect" title="Poitevin-Saintongeais">Poitevin-Saintongeais</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin_dialect" title="Poitevin dialect">Poitevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saintongeais_dialect" title="Saintongeais dialect">Saintongeais</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayo_Creole" title="Tayo Creole">Tayo</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_B%E1%BB%93i_Pidgin_French" title="Tây Bồi Pidgin French">Tây Bồi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Walloon" title="Wisconsin Walloon">Wisconsin Walloon</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Francoprovencalic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faetar_language" title="Faetar language">Faetar</a>/Faetar-Cigliàje</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Franco-Provençal</a>/Arpitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_dialect" title="Savoyard dialect">Savoyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vald%C3%B4tain_dialect" title="Valdôtain 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