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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85" title="بيوسنتريزم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بيوسنتريزم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrisme" title="Biocentrisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Biocentrisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrismus" title="Biocentrismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Biocentrismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biozentrismus" title="Biozentrismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Biozentrismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotsentrism" title="Biotsentrism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Biotsentrism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrismo" title="Biocentrismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Biocentrismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biozentrismo" title="Biozentrismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biozentrismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_(%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82)" title="زیست‌محوری (اخلاق) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زیست‌محوری (اخلاق)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrisme" title="Biocentrisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Biocentrisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="जैवकेन्द्रीयता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जैवकेन्द्रीयता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrismo" title="Biocentrismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Biocentrismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrizmus" title="Biocentrizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Biocentrizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotsentrizm" title="Biotsentrizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Biotsentrizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrismo" title="Biocentrismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Biocentrismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Биоцентризм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биоцентризм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrizmus" title="Biocentrizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Biocentrizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Биоцентризам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биоцентризам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosentrismi" title="Biosentrismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Biosentrismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocentrism" title="Biocentrism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Biocentrism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biyosentrizm" title="Biyosentrizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Biyosentrizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Біоцентризм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біоцентризм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethical point of view that extends inherent value to all living things</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the cosmological concept, see <a href="/wiki/Biocentric_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Biocentric universe">biocentric universe</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Biocentrism</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> βίος <i>bios</i>, "life" and κέντρον <i>kentron</i>, "center"), in a <a href="/wiki/Political" class="mw-redirect" title="Political">political</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological">ecological</a> sense, as well as literally, is an <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> point of view that extends equal <a href="/wiki/Inherent_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Inherent value">inherent value</a> to all living things.<sup id="cite_ref-case-studies-derr-21_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-case-studies-derr-21-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an understanding of how the earth works, particularly as it relates to its <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. It stands in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">anthropocentrism</a>, which centers on the value of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The related <a href="/wiki/Ecocentrism" title="Ecocentrism">ecocentrism</a> extends inherent value to the whole of nature. </p><p>Advocates of biocentrism often promote the preservation of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Env-Ethics-attfield-17_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Env-Ethics-attfield-17-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>. The term has also been employed by advocates of "<a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left</a> biocentrism", which combines <a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">deep ecology</a> with an "<a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">anti-industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-capitalist">anti-capitalist</a>" position (according to <a href="/wiki/David_Orton_(deep_ecology)" title="David Orton (deep ecology)">David Orton</a> <i>et al.</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the simplest of terms as well as form, biocentrism is the belief that all living organisms, regardless of species, complexity, or traits, individually possess equal value and the same exact right to live, requiring identical moral treatment, regard, and prioritization. </p><p>Usually, the term biocentrism encompasses all <a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental ethics</a> that "extend the status of moral object from human beings to all living things in nature".<sup id="cite_ref-Yu,_Lei_2009_422_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu,_Lei_2009_422-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biocentric ethics calls for a rethinking of the relationship between humans and nature. It states that <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> does not exist simply to be used or <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumed</a> by humans, but that humans are simply one species amongst many,<sup id="cite_ref-alarm-bari-rev-ecology_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alarm-bari-rev-ecology-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that because we are part of an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>, any actions which negatively affect the living systems of which we are a part adversely affect us as well,<sup id="cite_ref-alarm-bari-rev-ecology_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alarm-bari-rev-ecology-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-idiots-guide-ethics-201_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-idiots-guide-ethics-201-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>whether or not</i> we maintain a biocentric <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldview</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-alarm-bari-rev-ecology_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alarm-bari-rev-ecology-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biocentrists observe that all species have <a href="/wiki/Inherent_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Inherent value">inherent value</a>, and that humans are not "superior" to other species in a <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ethical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical">ethical</a> sense. </p><p>The four main pillars of a biocentric outlook are: </p> <ol><li>Humans and all other species are members of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s community.</li> <li>All species are part of a system of interdependence.</li> <li>All living organisms pursue their own "good" in their own ways.</li> <li>Human beings are not inherently superior to other living things.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The most important of these four main pillars is likely the idea that human beings are not inherently superior to other living things. People have divergent views on many specific aspects of almost everything. Not all biocentrists even subscribe to the abstract concept of value, which is why heavy emphasis is placed on the fourth pillar. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_animals_and_environment">Relationship with animals and environment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Relationship with animals and environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Biocentrism_(ethics)" title="Special:EditPage/Biocentrism (ethics)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_animal_ethics_and_environmental_ethics" title="Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics">Relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics</a></div> <p>Biocentrism views individual species as parts of the living biosphere. It observes the consequences of reducing biodiversity on both small and large scales and points to the inherent value all species have to the environment. </p><p>The environment is seen for what it is; the biosphere within which we live and depend on the maintaining of its diversity for our health. From these observations the ethical points are raised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biocentric ethics differs from classical and traditional ethical thinking. Rather than focusing on strict moral rules, as in Classical ethics, it focuses on attitudes and character. In contrast with traditional ethics, it is nonhierarchical and gives priority to the natural world rather than to humankind exclusively.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biocentric ethics includes <a href="/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer" title="Albert Schweitzer">Albert Schweitzer</a>'s ethics of "<a href="/wiki/Reverence_for_Life" title="Reverence for Life">Reverence for Life</a>", <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>'s ethics of <a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(book)" title="Animal Liberation (book)">Animal Liberation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_W._Taylor" title="Paul W. Taylor">Paul W. Taylor</a>'s ethics of biocentric egalitarianism.<sup id="cite_ref-Yu,_Lei_2009_422_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu,_Lei_2009_422-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Albert Schweitzer's "reverence for life" principle was a precursor of modern biocentric ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-Yu,_Lei_2009_422_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu,_Lei_2009_422-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast with traditional ethics, the ethics of "reverence for life" denies any distinction between "high and low" or "valuable and less valuable" life forms, dismissing such categorization as arbitrary and subjective.<sup id="cite_ref-Yu,_Lei_2009_422_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu,_Lei_2009_422-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conventional ethics concerned itself exclusively with human beings—that is to say, morality applied only to interpersonal relationships—whereas Schweitzer's ethical philosophy introduced a "depth, energy, and function that differ[s] from the ethics that merely involved humans".<sup id="cite_ref-Yu,_Lei_2009_422_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu,_Lei_2009_422-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Reverence for life" was a "new ethics, because it is not only an extension of ethics, but also a transformation of the nature of ethics".<sup id="cite_ref-Yu,_Lei_2009_422_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yu,_Lei_2009_422-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, Peter Singer argues that non-human animals deserve the same equality of consideration that we extend to human beings.<sup id="cite_ref-Vuletic_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vuletic-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His argument is roughly as follows: </p> <ol><li>Membership in the species <i>Homo sapiens</i> is the only criterion of moral importance that includes all humans and excludes all non-humans.</li> <li>Using membership in the species <i>Homo sapiens</i> as a criterion of moral importance is completely arbitrary.</li> <li>Of the remaining criteria we might consider, only <a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">sentience</a> is a plausible criterion of moral importance.</li> <li>Using sentience as a criterion of moral importance entails that we extend the same basic moral consideration (i.e. "basic principle of equality") to other sentient creatures that we do to human beings.</li> <li>Therefore, we ought to extend to animals the same equality of consideration that we extend to human beings.<sup id="cite_ref-Vuletic_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vuletic-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Singer's work, while notable in the canon of environmental ethics, should not be considered as fully biocentric. Singer's ethics is extended from humans to nonhuman animals because the criterion for moral inclusion (sentience) is found in both humans and nonhuman animals, thus it would be arbitrary to deny it to nonhuman animals simply because they were not human. However, not all biological entities are sentient, consider: algae, plants and trees, fungi, lichens, mollusks, protozoa, for example. For an ethical theory to be biocentric, it must have a reason for extending ethical inclusion to the entire biosphere (as in Taylor and Schweitzer). The requirement for environmental ethics to move beyond sentience as criteria for inclusion in the moral realm is discussed in <a href="/wiki/Tom_Regan" title="Tom Regan">Tom Regan</a>'s 1981 paper "The Nature and Possibility of an Environmental Ethic".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biocentrism is most commonly associated with the work of <a href="/wiki/Paul_W._Taylor" title="Paul W. Taylor">Paul W. Taylor</a>, especially his book <i>Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics</i> (1986).<sup id="cite_ref-eco-ethics-60_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-ethics-60-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor maintains that biocentrism is an "attitude of respect for nature", whereby one attempts to make an effort to live one's life in a way that respects the welfare and inherent worth of all <a href="/wiki/Living_creature" class="mw-redirect" title="Living creature">living creatures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-case-studies-derr-21_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-case-studies-derr-21-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taylor states that:<sup id="cite_ref-eco-ethics-60_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-ethics-60-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-taylor-respect-99_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor-respect-99-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Humans are members of a community of life along with all other species, and on equal terms.</li> <li>This community consists of a system of interdependence between all members, both physically, and in terms of relationships with other species.</li> <li>Every organism is a "<a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> centre of life", that is, each organism has a purpose and a reason for being, which is inherently "good" or "valuable".</li> <li>Humans are not inherently superior to other species.</li></ol><p> Historian <a href="/wiki/Donald_Worster" title="Donald Worster">Donald Worster</a> traces today's biocentric philosophies, which he sees as part of a recovery of a sense of kinship between man and <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, to the reaction by the British <a href="/wiki/Intelligencia" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligencia">intelligencia</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Christian ethic of dominion over nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Worster_1994_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worster_1994-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has pointed to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> as an important spokesman for the biocentric view in <a href="/wiki/Ecological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological">ecological</a> thought and quotes from Darwin's <i>Notebook on Transmutation of Species</i> (1837):<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>If we choose to let conjecture run wild, then animals, our fellow brethren in pain, diseases, death, suffering and famine—our slaves in the most laborious works, our companions in our amusement—they may partake of our origin in one common ancestor—we may be all netted together.</p></blockquote> <p>In 1859, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published his book <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>. This publication sparked the beginning of biocentrist views by introducing evolution and "its removal of humans from their supernatural origins and placement into the framework of natural laws".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work of <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a> has also been associated with biocentrism.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The essay "The Land Ethic" in Leopold's book <i><a href="/wiki/Sand_County_Almanac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand County Almanac">Sand County Almanac</a></i> (1949) points out that although throughout history women and slaves have been considered property, all people have now been granted rights and freedoms.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leopold notes that today land is still considered property as people once were. He asserts that ethics should be extended to the land as "an evolutionary possibility and an ecological necessity".<sup id="cite_ref-Leopold_1949_239_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leopold_1949_239-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that while people's instincts encourage them to compete with others, their ethics encourage them to co-operate with others.<sup id="cite_ref-Leopold_1949_239_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leopold_1949_239-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggests that "the land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land".<sup id="cite_ref-Leopold_1949_239_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leopold_1949_239-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a sense this attitude would encourage humans to co-operate with the land rather than compete with it. </p><p>Outside of formal philosophical works biocentric thought is common among pre-colonial tribal peoples who knew no world other than the natural world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_law">In law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The paradigm of biocentrism and the values that it promotes are beginning to be used in law. </p><p>In recent years (as of 2011), cities in Maine, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire and Virginia have adopted <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">laws</a> that protect the <a href="/wiki/Rights_of_nature" title="Rights of nature">rights of nature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Merchant_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merchant-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purpose of these <a href="/wiki/Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws">laws</a> is to prevent the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">degradation</a> of nature, especially by <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a> who may want to exploit natural resources and land space, and to also use the environment as a dumping ground for toxic waste.<sup id="cite_ref-Merchant_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merchant-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first country to include rights of nature in its constitution is Ecuador<sup id="cite_ref-Schiffman_&_Robbins_2011_32_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schiffman_&_Robbins_2011_32-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/2008_Constitution_of_Ecuador" title="2008 Constitution of Ecuador">2008 Constitution of Ecuador</a>). Article 71 states that nature "has the right to integral respect for its existence and for the maintenance and regeneration of its life cycles, structure, functions and evolutionary processes".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_religion">In religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreliable_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-unreliable_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">Some of this section's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">listed sources</a> <b>may not be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>: In Islam, biocentric ethics stem from the belief that all of creation belongs to <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> (God), not humans, and to assume that non-human animals and plants exist merely to benefit humankind leads to environmental destruction and misuse.<sup id="cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Religion_and_Ecology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As all living organisms exist to praise God, human destruction of other living things prevents the earth's natural and subtle means of praising God. The <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> acknowledges that humans are not the only all-important creatures and emphasizes a respect for nature. <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> was once asked whether there would be a reward for those who show charity to nature and animals, to which he replied, "for charity shown to each creature with a wet heart [i.e. that is alive], there is a reward."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hinduism">Hinduism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>: Hinduism contains many elements of biocentrism. In Hinduism, humans have no special authority over other creatures, and all living things have souls ('<a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">atman</a>'). <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> (God) is the "efficient cause" and <a href="/wiki/Prakrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakrti">Prakrti</a> (nature), is the "material cause" of the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Religion_and_Ecology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Brahman and Prakrti are not considered truly divided: "They are one in [sic] the same, or perhaps better stated, they are the one in the many and the many in the one."<sup id="cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Religion_and_Ecology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, while Hinduism does not give the same direct authority over nature that the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian-Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Christian-Islamic">Judeo-Christian-Islamic</a> god grants, they are subject to a "higher and more authoritative responsibility for creation".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Religion_and_Ecology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important aspect of this is the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a> (non-violence). The <a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a> warns, "the wicked person who kills animals which are protected has to live in hell fire for the days equal to the number of hairs on the body of that animal".<sup id="cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Religion_and_Ecology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The essential aspect of this doctrine is the belief that the <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_gods" title="King of the gods">Supreme Being</a> incarnates into the forms of various species. The Hindu belief in <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a> (the cycle of life, death and rebirth) encompasses reincarnation into non-human forms. It is believed that one lives 8,400,000 lifetimes before one becomes a human. Each species is in this process of samsara until one attains <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a> (liberation). </p><p>Another doctrinal source for the equal treatment of all life is found in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>. The Rigveda states that trees and plants possess divine healing properties. It is still popularly believed that every tree has a Vriksa-devata (a tree deity). Trees are ritually worshiped through prayer, offerings, and the sacred thread ceremony. The Vriksa-devata worshiped as manifestations of the Divine. Tree planting is considered a religious duty.<sup id="cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Religion_and_Ecology-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jainism">Jainism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jainism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>: The Jaina tradition exists in tandem with Hinduism and shares many of its biocentric elements.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a> (non-violence), the central teaching of Jainism, means more than not hurting other humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer,_Finlay-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It means intending not to cause physical, mental or spiritual harm to any part of nature. In the words of <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a>: 'You are that which you wish to harm.'<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer,_Finlay-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compassion is a pillar of non-violence. Jainism encourages people to practice an attitude of compassion towards all life. </p><p>The principle of <a href="/wiki/Interdependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdependence">interdependence</a> is also very important in Jainism. This states that all of nature is bound together, and that "if one does not care for nature one does not care for oneself.".<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer,_Finlay-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another essential Jain teaching is <a href="/wiki/Self-restraint" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-restraint">self-restraint</a>. Jainism discourages wasting the gifts of nature, and encourages its practitioners to reduce their needs as far as possible. <a href="/wiki/Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhi">Gandhi</a>, a great proponent of Jainism, once stated "There is enough in this world for human needs, but not for human wants."<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer,_Finlay-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>: The <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>'s teachings encourage people "to live simply, to cherish tranquility, to appreciate the natural cycle of life".<sup id="cite_ref-arcworld.org_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arcworld.org-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buddhism emphasizes that everything in the universe affects everything else. "Nature is an ecosystem in which trees affect climate, the soil, and the animals, just as the climate affects the trees, the soil, the animals and so on. The ocean, the sky, the air are all interrelated, and interdependent—water is life and air is life."<sup id="cite_ref-arcworld.org_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arcworld.org-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although this holistic approach is more ecocentric than biocentric, it is also biocentric, as it maintains that all living things are important and that humans are not above other creatures or nature. Buddhism teaches that "once we treat nature as our friend, to cherish it, then we can see the need to change from the attitude of dominating nature to an attitude of working with nature—we are an intrinsic part of all existence rather than seeing ourselves as in control of it."<sup id="cite_ref-arcworld.org_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arcworld.org-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> tradition of Christian thought, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> noted that "the Church’s <a href="/wiki/Magisterium" title="Magisterium">magisterium</a> expresses grave misgivings about notions of the environment inspired by ecocentrism and biocentrism". This, he stated, was because "such notions eliminate the difference of identity and worth between the human person and other living things. In the name of a supposedly egalitarian vision of the "dignity" of all living creatures, such notions end up abolishing the distinctiveness and superior role of human beings."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Biocentrism has faced criticism for a number of reasons. Some of this criticism grows out of the concern that biocentrism is an anti-human paradigm and that it will not hesitate to sacrifice human well-being for the greater good.<sup id="cite_ref-Schiffman_&_Robbins_2011_32_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schiffman_&_Robbins_2011_32-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biocentrism has also been criticized for its <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>; emphasizing too much on the importance of individual life and neglecting the importance of collective groups, such as an ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more complex form of criticism focuses on the contradictions of biocentrism. Opposed to <a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">anthropocentrism</a>, which sees humans as having a higher status than other species,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> biocentrism puts humans on a par with the rest of nature, and not above it.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his essay <i>A Critique of Anti-Anthropocentric Biocentrism</i> Richard Watson suggests that if this is the case, then "Human ways—human culture—and human actions are as natural as the ways in which any other species of animals behaves".<sup id="cite_ref-Watson_1983_252_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson_1983_252-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He goes on to suggest that if humans must change their behavior to refrain from disturbing and damaging the natural environment, then that results in setting humans apart from other species and assigning more power to them.<sup id="cite_ref-Watson_1983_252_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watson_1983_252-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This then takes us back to the basic beliefs of anthropocentrism. Watson also claims that the extinction of species is "Nature's way"<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that if humans were to instigate their own self-destruction by exploiting the rest of nature, then so be it. Therefore, he suggests that the real reason humans should reduce their destructive behavior in relation to other species is not because we are equals but because the destruction of other species will also result in our own destruction.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view also brings us back to an anthropocentric perspective. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px 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id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-case-studies-derr-21-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-case-studies-derr-21_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-case-studies-derr-21_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDerrEdward_M._McNamara2003" class="citation book cs1">Derr, Patrick George; Edward M. McNamara (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oLu5C4sYa_kC&q=biocentrism+ethics&pg=PP21"><i>Case studies in environmental ethics</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3137-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3137-6"><bdi>978-0-7425-3137-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Case+studies+in+environmental+ethics&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-3137-6&rft.aulast=Derr&rft.aufirst=Patrick+George&rft.au=Edward+M.+McNamara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoLu5C4sYa_kC%26q%3Dbiocentrism%2Bethics%26pg%3DPP21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/765710/biocentrism">"biocentrism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Online">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a></i>. 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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China. p. 422. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-721-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84826-721-3"><bdi>978-1-84826-721-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Biocentric+Ethical+Theories&rft.btitle=Environment+and+Development+-+Vol.+II&rft.place=China&rft.pages=422&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84826-721-3&rft.aulast=Yu%2C+Lei&rft.aufirst=Mouchang%2C+Yi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eolss.net%2FSample-Chapters%2FC13%2FE4-25-07-03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alarm-bari-rev-ecology-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alarm-bari-rev-ecology_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alarm-bari-rev-ecology_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alarm-bari-rev-ecology_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJudi_Bari1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judi_Bari" title="Judi Bari">Judi Bari</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.judibari.org/revolutionary-ecology.html">"Revolutionary Ecology: Biocentrism & Deep Ecology"</a>. <i>Alarm: A Journal of Revolutionary Ecology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alarm%3A+A+Journal+of+Revolutionary+Ecology&rft.atitle=Revolutionary+Ecology%3A+Biocentrism+%26+Deep+Ecology&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Judi+Bari&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.judibari.org%2Frevolutionary-ecology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-idiots-guide-ethics-201-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-idiots-guide-ethics-201_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngramJennifer_Parks2002" class="citation book cs1">Ingram, David; Jennifer Parks (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0B4WNVdK_Q4C&q=biocentrism+ethics&pg=PA201"><i>The complete idiot's guide to understanding ethics</i></a>. 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class="citation book cs1">Curry, Patrick (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ecologicalethics0000curr"><i>Ecological ethics: an introduction</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Polity_(publisher)" title="Polity (publisher)">Polity</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ecologicalethics0000curr/page/60">60</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-2908-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-2908-7"><bdi>978-0-7456-2908-7</bdi></a>. <q>biocentrism ethics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecological+ethics%3A+an+introduction&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-2908-7&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fecologicalethics0000curr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor-respect-99-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylor-respect-99_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1986" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Paul (1986). <i>Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN 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Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenethicsphilo0000unse/page/56">56</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412996877" title="Special:BookSources/9781412996877"><bdi>9781412996877</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Biocentrism%22+in+%22Green+Ethics+and+Philosophy%3A+An+A-to-Z+Guide%22&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Inc&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781412996877&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreenethicsphilo0000unse%2Fpage%2F56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeopold1949" class="citation book cs1">Leopold, Aldo (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gxq72yz1z6EC"><i>Sand County Almanac</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CONSTITUTION+OF+THE+REPUBLIC+OF+ECUADOR&rft.au=NATIONAL+ASSEMBLY+LEGISLATIVE+AND+OVERSIGHT+COMMITTEE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdba.georgetown.edu%2FConstitutions%2FEcuador%2Fenglish08.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Religion_and_Ecology-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Religion_and_Ecology_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hollys7.tripod.com/religionandecology/index.html">"Religion and Ecology"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hinduism%2C+Jainism%2C+and+Ecology&rft.pub=Patheos.com&rft.aulast=Chapple&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.patheos.com%2FResources%2FAdditional-Resources%2FHinduism-Jainism-and-Ecology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palmer,_Finlay-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer,_Finlay_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer,_Finlay" class="citation web cs1">Palmer, Finlay, Martin, Victoria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcworld.org/faiths.asp?pageID=7">"Faiths and Ecology: What Does Jainism teach us about ecology?"</a>. Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Faiths+and+Ecology%3A+What+Does+Jainism+teach+us+about+ecology%3F&rft.pub=Alliance+of+Religions+and+Conservation+%28ARC%29&rft.aulast=Palmer%2C+Finlay&rft.aufirst=Martin%2C+Victoria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arcworld.org%2Ffaiths.asp%3FpageID%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-arcworld.org-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-arcworld.org_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-arcworld.org_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-arcworld.org_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer,_Finlay" class="citation web cs1">Palmer, Finlay, Martin, Victoria. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arcworld.org/faiths.asp?pageID=66">"Faiths and Conservation: Buddhist Statement"</a>. Alliance of Religions and Conservation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Faiths+and+Conservation%3A+Buddhist+Statement&rft.pub=Alliance+of+Religions+and+Conservation&rft.aulast=Palmer%2C+Finlay&rft.aufirst=Martin%2C+Victoria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arcworld.org%2Ffaiths.asp%3FpageID%3D66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benedict XVI, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/messages/peace/documents/hf_ben-xvi_mes_20091208_xliii-world-day-peace.html">Message for the Celebration of World Peace</a>, 1 January 2010, accessed 13 January 2024</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilva2011" class="citation book cs1">Silva, Carlos (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenethicsphilo0000unse/page/57"><i>"Biocentrism" in "Green Ethics and Philosophy: An A-to-Z Guide"</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenethicsphilo0000unse/page/57">57</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412996877" title="Special:BookSources/9781412996877"><bdi>9781412996877</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Biocentrism%22+in+%22Green+Ethics+and+Philosophy%3A+An+A-to-Z+Guide%22&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781412996877&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreenethicsphilo0000unse%2Fpage%2F57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiffman_&_Robbins2011" class="citation book cs1">Schiffman & Robbins (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenissuesdebat0000unse/page/30"><i>Green Issues and Debates: An A-to-Z Guide</i></a>. SAGE Publications Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenissuesdebat0000unse/page/30">30</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412996945" title="Special:BookSources/9781412996945"><bdi>9781412996945</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Green+Issues+and+Debates%3A+An+A-to-Z+Guide&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781412996945&rft.au=Schiffman+%26+Robbins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreenissuesdebat0000unse%2Fpage%2F30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilva2011" class="citation book cs1">Silva, Carlos (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenethicsphilo0000unse/page/55"><i>"Biocentrism" in "Green Ethics and Philosophy: An A-to-Z Guide"</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greenethicsphilo0000unse/page/55">55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412996877" title="Special:BookSources/9781412996877"><bdi>9781412996877</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Biocentrism%22+in+%22Green+Ethics+and+Philosophy%3A+An+A-to-Z+Guide%22&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781412996877&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=Carlos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreenethicsphilo0000unse%2Fpage%2F55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson_1983_252-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Watson_1983_252_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watson_1983_252_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1983" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Richard (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/rec/WATACO">"A Critique of Anti-Anthropocentric Biocentrism"</a>. <i>Environmental Ethics</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fenviroethics19835325">10.5840/enviroethics19835325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+Critique+of+Anti-Anthropocentric+Biocentrism&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=252&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fenviroethics19835325&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FWATACO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1983" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Richard (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/rec/WATACO">"A Critique of Anti-Anthropocentric Biocentrism"</a>. <i>Environmental Ethics</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fenviroethics19835325">10.5840/enviroethics19835325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+Critique+of+Anti-Anthropocentric+Biocentrism&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=253&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fenviroethics19835325&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FWATACO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1983" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Richard (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/rec/WATACO">"A Critique of Anti-Anthropocentric Biocentrism"</a>. <i>Environmental Ethics</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fenviroethics19835325">10.5840/enviroethics19835325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+Critique+of+Anti-Anthropocentric+Biocentrism&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=254&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fenviroethics19835325&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FWATACO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biocentrism_(ethics)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgar,_Nicholas2001" class="citation book cs1">Agar, Nicholas (2001). "Recent defenses of biocentrism". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifesintrinsicva00agar"><i>Life's intrinsic value: science, ethics, and nature</i></a></span>. Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifesintrinsicva00agar/page/63">63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11786-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11786-9"><bdi>978-0-231-11786-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recent+defenses+of+biocentrism&rft.btitle=Life%27s+intrinsic+value%3A+science%2C+ethics%2C+and+nature&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-231-11786-9&rft.au=Agar%2C+Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifesintrinsicva00agar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Coghlan et al (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1186/s42522-021-00053-8">A bolder One Health: expanding the moral circle to optimize health for all</a>. One Health Outlook.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReichmann,_James_B.2000" class="citation book cs1">Reichmann, James B. (2000). "Anthropocentrism, Biocentrism, and Envirocentrism". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionanimalr0000reic"><i>Evolution, animal 'rights,' and the environment</i></a></span>. CUA Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionanimalr0000reic/page/318">318</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0954-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8132-0954-8"><bdi>978-0-8132-0954-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anthropocentrism%2C+Biocentrism%2C+and+Envirocentrism&rft.btitle=Evolution%2C+animal+%27rights%2C%27+and+the+environment&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=CUA+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8132-0954-8&rft.au=Reichmann%2C+James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionanimalr0000reic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSterba,_James_P.1998" class="citation book cs1">Sterba, James P. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AIMweP2DhtUC&pg=PA63">"Biocentrism and ecological integrity"</a>. In Lemons, John; et al. (eds.). <i>Ecological sustainability and integrity: concepts and approaches</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4909-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4909-9"><bdi>978-0-7923-4909-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biocentrism+and+ecological+integrity&rft.btitle=Ecological+sustainability+and+integrity%3A+concepts+and+approaches&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-4909-9&rft.au=Sterba%2C+James+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAIMweP2DhtUC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_EmmeneggerAxel_Tschentscher1994" class="citation journal cs1">Susan Emmenegger; Axel Tschentscher (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203062113/http://www.ibr.unibe.ch/content/e8911/e9031/e9154/e9155/e10479/taking_nature.neu.pdf">"Taking Nature's Rights Seriously: The Long Way to Biocentrism in Environmental Law"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Georgetown International Environmental Law Journal</i>. <b>VI</b>: 592. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibr.unibe.ch/content/e8911/e9031/e9154/e9155/e10479/taking_nature.neu.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 3 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Georgetown+International+Environmental+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Taking+Nature%27s+Rights+Seriously%3A+The+Long+Way+to+Biocentrism+in+Environmental+Law&rft.volume=VI&rft.pages=592&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Susan+Emmenegger&rft.au=Axel+Tschentscher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibr.unibe.ch%2Fcontent%2Fe8911%2Fe9031%2Fe9154%2Fe9155%2Fe10479%2Ftaking_nature.neu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_Paul_W.2010" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Paul W. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YKQmqFfrT5EC&pg=PA175">"Egalitarian Biocentrism"</a>. In Keller, David R. (ed.). <i>Environmental Ethics: The Big Questions</i>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7639-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7639-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7639-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egalitarian+Biocentrism&rft.btitle=Environmental+Ethics%3A+The+Big+Questions&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7639-2&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Paul+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYKQmqFfrT5EC%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilkka,_Leena1997" class="citation book cs1">Vilkka, Leena (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DqNGvRF9iMC&pg=PA53">"Biocentrism"</a>. <i>The intrinsic value of nature</i>. Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-0325-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-0325-5"><bdi>978-90-420-0325-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biocentrism&rft.btitle=The+intrinsic+value+of+nature&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-420-0325-5&rft.au=Vilkka%2C+Leena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DqNGvRF9iMC%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABiocentrism+%28ethics%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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style="color: #ADD8E6; text-decoration: inherit;">Outline of environmentalism</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Key topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">Environmental conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_history_of_environmentalism" title="Timeline of history of environmentalism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_conflicts" title="List of environmental conflicts">List of environmental conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental organization">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_psychology" title="Environmental psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Views</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Philosophical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environmental philosophy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Biocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_jurisprudence" title="Earth jurisprudence">Earth jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocentrism" title="Ecocentrism">Ecocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resacralization_of_nature" title="Resacralization of nature">Resacralization of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">Social ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioconservatism" title="Bioconservatism">Bioconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bright_green_environmentalism" title="Bright green environmentalism">Bright green environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofascism" title="Ecofascism">Ecofascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-nationalism" title="Eco-nationalism">Eco-nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-terrorism" title="Eco-terrorism">Eco-terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomodernism" title="Ecomodernism">Ecomodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_environmentalism" title="Free-market environmentalism">Free-market environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism" title="Green conservatism">Green conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_left" title="Green left">Green left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_libertarianism" title="Green libertarianism">Green libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_syndicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Green syndicalism">Green syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_coal" title="War on coal">War on coal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecotheology" title="Ecotheology">Ecotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_environmentalism" title="Evangelical environmentalism">Evangelical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_environmentalism" title="Islamic environmentalism">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_environmentalism" title="Judaism and environmentalism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship (theology)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Opposition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-environmentalism" title="Anti-environmentalism">Anti-environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_skepticism" title="Environmental skepticism">Environmental skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_killings" title="List of environmental killings">List of environmental killings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis" title="Biophilia hypothesis">Biophilia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_of_the_poor" title="Environmentalism of the poor">Environmentalism of the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_stewardship" title="Environmental stewardship">Environmental stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardline_(subculture)" title="Hardline (subculture)">Hardline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">Nature conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_environmentalism" title="Radical environmentalism">Radical environmentalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Offshoots</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fracking_movement" title="Anti-fracking movement">Anti-fracking movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">Conservation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">Degrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Optimism" title="Earth Optimism">Earth Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-anxiety" title="Eco-anxiety">Eco-anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_defender" title="Environmental defender">Environmental defender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_banking" title="Ethical banking">Ethical banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_shame" title="Flight shame">Flight shame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_stewardship" title="Product stewardship">Product stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organization" title="Sustainability organization">Sustainability organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Goals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_civilization" title="Ecological civilization">Ecological civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_personhood" title="Environmental personhood">Environmental personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_corporate_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental, social, and corporate governance">Environmental, social, and corporate governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally 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class="mw-redirect" title="Filmography of environmentalism">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_films" title="List of environmental films">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_film_festivals" title="List of environmental film festivals">festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_eco-horror_films" title="List of eco-horror films">horror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_journalism" title="Environmental journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Environmentalism in The Lord of the Rings"><i>The Lord of the Rings</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_music" title="Environmentalism in music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecomusicology" title="Ecomusicology">Ecomusicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_motorsport" title="Environmentalism in motorsport">Motorsport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sculpture" title="Environmental sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfing_and_environmentalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Surfing and environmentalism">Surfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">Tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eco_hotel" title="Eco hotel">Eco hotel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_environmental_publications" title="Lists of environmental publications">Publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Environmentalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalist" title="Environmentalist">Environmentalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_defender" title="Environmental defender">Environmental defender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_protector" class="mw-redirect" title="Water protector">Water protector</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Notable_people" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunderlal_Bahuguna" title="Sunderlal Bahuguna">Sunderlal Bahuguna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Murray Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brower" title="David Brower">David Brower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng_Cho-nam" title="Ng Cho-nam">Ng Cho-nam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Flannery" title="Tim Flannery">Tim Flannery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_activism_of_Al_Gore" title="Environmental 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