Christianity - Church, State, Religion

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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity">Christianity</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/Christianity">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref67408"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity#ref67408">The church and its history</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity#ref67409">The essence and identity of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67410" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Historical-views-of-the-essence">Historical views of the essence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Historical-views-of-the-essence#ref67411">Early views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67412"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Medieval-and-Reformation-views">Medieval and Reformation views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67413"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Modern-views">Modern views</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67414"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-question-of-Christian-identity">The question of Christian identity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity">The history of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity#ref67416">The primitive church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity#ref67417">The relation of the early church to late Judaism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-relation-of-the-early-church-to-the-career-and-intentions-of-Jesus">The relation of the early church to the career and intentions of Jesus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Gentile-mission-and-St-Paul">The Gentile mission and St. Paul</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67420"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-contemporary-social-religious-and-intellectual-world">The contemporary social, religious, and intellectual world</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67421" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-internal-development-of-the-early-Christian-church">The internal development of the early Christian church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67422"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-internal-development-of-the-early-Christian-church#ref67422">The problem of jurisdictional authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67423"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-scriptural-authority">The problem of scriptural authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-scriptural-authority#ref67424">The problem of theological authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Early-heretical-movements">Early heretical movements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67426" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture">Relations between Christianity and the Roman government and the Hellenistic culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67427">Church-state relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67428"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67428">Christianity and Classical culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67429">The Apologists</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-early-liturgy-the-calendar-and-the-arts">The early liturgy, the calendar, and the arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67431"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-alliance-between-church-and-empire">The alliance between church and empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67432" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries">Theological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries#ref67433">Western controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries#ref67434">Eastern controversies</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67436" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine">Liturgy and the arts after Constantine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine#ref67437">New forms of worship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine#ref67438">Historical and polemical writing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Political-relations-between-East-and-West">Political relations between East and West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Literature-and-art-of-the-Dark-Ages">Literature and art of the “Dark Ages”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-and-monasticism">Missions and monasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67442" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism">The Photian schism and the great East-West schism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism#ref67443">The Photian schism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism#ref67444">The great East-West schism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation">From the schism to the Reformation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67446">Papacy and empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67447">Medieval thought</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67448">Reformation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-from-the-16th-to-the-21st-century">Christianity from the 16th to the 21st century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67450"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Contemporary-Christianity">Contemporary Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67451"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Contemporary-Christianity#ref67451">Roman Catholicism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67454" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches">The Eastern churches</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref340022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches#ref340022">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref340023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches#ref340023">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67455" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism">Protestantism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67456"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism#ref67456">Lutheranism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67457"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism#ref67457">Anglicanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67458"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Presbyterian-and-Reformed-churches">Presbyterian and Reformed churches</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67459"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Presbyterian-and-Reformed-churches#ref67459">Other Protestant churches</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67461"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-doctrine">Christian doctrine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-doctrine#ref260789">The nature and functions of doctrine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scripture-and-tradition-the-apostolic-witness">Scripture and tradition: the apostolic witness</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evangelism-the-first-teaching-about-the-God-of-Jesus-Christ">Evangelism: the first teaching about the God of Jesus Christ</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Catechesis-instructing-candidates-for-baptism">Catechesis: instructing candidates for baptism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-the-school-and-feast-of-faith">Liturgy: the school and feast of faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ethics-obeying-the-truth">Ethics: obeying the truth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aversion-of-heresy-the-establishment-of-orthodoxy">Aversion of heresy: the establishment of orthodoxy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Apologetics-defending-the-faith">Apologetics: defending the faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Restatement-respecting-language-and-knowledge">Restatement: respecting language and knowledge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260798"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Inculturation-respecting-places-and-peoples">Inculturation: respecting places and peoples</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260799"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Dogma-the-most-authoritative-teaching">Dogma: the most authoritative teaching</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Consensus-patterns-of-agreement">Consensus: patterns of agreement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260801"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theology-loving-God-with-the-mind">Theology: loving God with the mind</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Symbolics-creeds-and-confessions">Symbolics: creeds and confessions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Development-the-maturation-of-understanding">Development: the maturation of understanding</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260804"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Schism-division-over-substantial-matters">Schism: division over substantial matters</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Controversy-fighting-over-the-faith">Controversy: fighting over the faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref276591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-speaking-the-truth-in-love">Ecumenism: speaking the truth in love</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67465"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Father">God the Father</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67466"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristic-features-of-the-Christian-concept-of-God">Characteristic features of the Christian concept of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67467"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristic-features-of-the-Christian-concept-of-God#ref67467">The specific concept of God as Father</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67468"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-belief-in-the-oneness-of-the-Father-and-the-Son">The belief in the oneness of the Father and the Son</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67469"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-revelatory-character-of-God">The revelatory character of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67470"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-as-Creator-Sustainer-and-Judge">God as Creator, Sustainer, and Judge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67471"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-view-that-God-is-not-solitary">The view that God is not solitary</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67472"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Modern-views-of-God">Modern views of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67473"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil">Satan and the origin of evil</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67474"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil#ref67474">God the Son</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67475"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil#ref67475">Different interpretations of the person of Jesus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67476"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christological-controversies">The Christological controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67477"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-views">Messianic views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67478"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-doctrine-of-the-Virgin-Mary-and-holy-Wisdom">The doctrine of the Virgin Mary and holy Wisdom</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67479"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Holy-Spirit">God the Holy Spirit</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67480"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Holy-Spirit#ref67480">Contradictory aspects of the Holy Spirit</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67481"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Conflict-between-order-and-charismatic-freedom">Conflict between order and charismatic freedom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67482"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-operations-of-the-Holy-Spirit">The operations of the Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67483"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity">The Holy Trinity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67484"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity#ref67484">The basis for the doctrine of the Trinity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67485"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity#ref67485">Introduction of Neoplatonic themes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67486"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity">Attempts to define the Trinity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67487"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67487">Anthropology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67488"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67488">What it is to be human</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67489"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67489">The human as a creature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67490"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-human-as-the-image-of-God">The human as the image of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67491"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Human-redemption">Human redemption</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67492"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-suffering">The problem of suffering</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67493"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-suffering#ref67493">The resurrection of the body</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67494"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Progressive-human-perfection">Progressive human perfection</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67496"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Progressive-human-perfection#ref67496">The “new man”: The human being in the light of Christ</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67497"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-reborn-human">The “reborn human”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67498"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Human-liberation">Human liberation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67499"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Joy-in-human-existence">Joy in human existence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67500"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Joy-in-human-existence#ref67500">The charismatic believer</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67501"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-perfection">Christian perfection</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67502"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Fellow-humans-as-the-present-Christ">Fellow humans as the present Christ</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67503"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-church">The church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67504"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Normative-defenses-in-the-early-church">Normative defenses in the early church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67505"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evolution-of-the-episcopal-office">Evolution of the episcopal office</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67506"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Authority-and-dissent">Authority and dissent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67508"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Organization">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67509"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-polity">Church polity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67510"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67511"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/New-liturgical-forms-and-antiliturgical-attitudes">New liturgical forms and antiliturgical attitudes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67513"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-tradition">Church tradition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67512"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-sacraments">The sacraments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67514"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scriptural-traditions">Scriptural traditions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67515"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Veneration-of-places-objects-and-people">Veneration of places, objects, and people</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67516"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67517"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-saintly-life">The saintly life</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67518"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Art-and-iconography">Art and iconography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67519"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theology-of-icons">Theology of icons</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67521"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatology">Eschatology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67522"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatology#ref67522">Expectations of the kingdom of God in early Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67523"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Expectations-of-the-kingdom-of-God-in-the-medieval-and-Reformation-periods">Expectations of the kingdom of God in the medieval and Reformation periods</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67524"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Expectations-of-the-kingdom-of-God-in-the-medieval-and-Reformation-periods#ref67524">Expectations of the kingdom of God in the post-Reformation period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67525"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-role-of-imminent-expectation-in-missions-and-emigrations">The role of imminent expectation in missions and emigrations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67526"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatological-expectations-and-secularization">Eschatological expectations and secularization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67527"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Concepts-of-life-after-death">Concepts of life after death</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref67528"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion">Aspects of the Christian religion</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67529"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67529">Christian philosophy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67530" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67530">History of the interactions of philosophy and theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67531"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67531">Influence of Greek philosophy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67532"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Emergence-of-official-doctrine">Emergence of official doctrine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67533"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aristotle-and-Aquinas">Aristotle and Aquinas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67534"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Other-influences">Other influences</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67535"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Faith-and-reason">Faith and reason</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67536" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology">Christian philosophy as natural theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67537"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology#ref67537">Arguments for the existence of God</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67538"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology#ref67538">The design (or teleological) argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67539"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-cosmological-argument">The cosmological argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67540"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-ontological-argument">The ontological argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67541"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Moral-arguments">Moral arguments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67542"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Arguments-from-religious-experience-and-miracles">Arguments from religious experience and miracles</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67543"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-immortality-of-the-soul">The immortality of the soul</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67544" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/20th-century-discussions">20th-century discussions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67545"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/20th-century-discussions#ref67545">Influence of logical positivism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67546"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evidentialist-approach">Evidentialist approach</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67547"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-mysticism">Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67548" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-mysticism">History of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67549"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67549">Early church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67550"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eastern-Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67551"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Western-Catholic-Christianity">Western Catholic Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67552"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-Christianity">Protestant Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67553" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism">Stages of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67554"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67554">The dying to self</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67555"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67555">The union with God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67556"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67556">The readjustment</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67557" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism">Forms of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67558"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67558">Christ-mysticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67559"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67559">Trinitarian mysticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67560"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67560">Negative mysticism: God and the Godhead</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67561"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67561">Significance of Christian mysticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67562"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-myth-and-legend">Christian myth and legend</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67563"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristics-of-Christian-myth-and-legend">Characteristics of Christian myth and legend</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67564" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend">History of Christian myth and legend</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67565"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend#ref67565">The early church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67566"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend#ref67566">The ages of the world</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67567"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-secrets-and-the-mysteries-of-salvation">Messianic secrets and the mysteries of salvation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67568"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-secrets-and-the-mysteries-of-salvation#ref67568">The Magi and the Child of Wondrous Light</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67569"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relics-and-saints">Relics and saints</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67570"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Middle-Ages">The Middle Ages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67571"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Renaissance-magic-and-science">Renaissance magic and science</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67572"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-practice-in-the-modern-world">Christian practice in the modern world</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref67573"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world">The Christian community and the world</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67574"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world#ref67574">The relationships of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67575"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world#ref67575">Historical views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67576"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-sect-and-mystical-movement">Church, sect, and mystical movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67577" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state">Church and state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67578"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state">The history of church and state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67579"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state#ref67579">The church and the Roman Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67580"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state#ref67580">The church and the Byzantine, or Eastern, Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67581"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-church-and-Western-states">The church and Western states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67582"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Separation-of-church-and-state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67583"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology">Church and state in Eastern and Western theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67584"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67584">The views of Eusebius of Caesarea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67585"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67585">The views of Augustine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67586"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67586">Later developments</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67587" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society">Church and society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67588"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society#ref67588">The problem of slavery and persecution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67589"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society#ref67589">Theological and humanitarian motivations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67590" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-education">Church and education</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-education#ref67591">Intellectualism versus anti-intellectualism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67592"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-education">Forms of Christian education</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67594" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare">Church and social welfare</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67595"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67595">Curing and caring for the sick</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67596"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67596">Healing the sick</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67597">Care for the sick</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67598"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Care-for-widows-and-orphans">Care for widows and orphans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67599"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Property-poverty-and-the-poor">Property, poverty, and the poor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67600"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Pastoral-care">Pastoral care</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67601"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-minorities">Church and minorities</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67602" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family">Church and family</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67603"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family#ref67603">The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67604"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family#ref67604">The tendency toward asceticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67605" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual">Church and the individual</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67606"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual#ref67606">Love as the basis for Christian ethics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67607"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual#ref67607">Freedom and responsibility</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67608"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-missions">Christian missions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67609"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-missions#ref67609">Biblical foundations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67610" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christian-missions">The history of Christian missions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christian-missions#ref67611">First transition, to 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce">Second transition, to 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67613"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67613">Western mission</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67614">Papal mission</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67615">Eastern and Nestorian missions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67616">The rise of Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Third-transition-to-1950">Third transition, to 1950</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67618"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Third-transition-to-1950#ref67618">Roman Catholic mission, 1500–1950</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67619"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950">Protestant missions, 1500–1950</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950#ref260806">Early Protestant missions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950#ref260807">Missions to Asia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific">Missions to South East Asia and the Pacific</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260809"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific#ref260809">Missions to Africa and South America</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific#ref260810">Missionary associations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67620"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Orthodox-and-nondenominational-missions">Orthodox and nondenominational missions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67621"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Fourth-transition-from-1950">Fourth transition, from 1950</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67622"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scripture-translations">Scripture translations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-biblical-perspective">The biblical perspective</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67625" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-ecumenism">The history of ecumenism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-ecumenism#ref67626">Early controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67627"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Schism-of-1054">The Schism of 1054</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Reformation">The Reformation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-in-the-17th-and-18th-centuries">Ecumenism in the 17th and 18th centuries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/19th-century-efforts">19th-century efforts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-since-the-start-of-the-20th-century">Ecumenism since the start of the 20th century</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67632"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions">Christianity and world religions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67633"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions#ref67633">Conflicting Christian attitudes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions#ref67634">Contemporary views</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Christianity">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/images-videos">Images, Videos & Interactives</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a 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Lindberg</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of Church History, Boston University. Author of <i>The Third Reformation?</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Carter H. Lindberg</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Geoffrey-Wainwright/5201" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Geoffrey Wainwright</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Cushman Professor of Christian Theology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. Author of <i>Leslie Newbigin: a Theological Life; Is the Reformation Over? : Catholics and Protestants at the Turn of the...</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Geoffrey Wainwright</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-22T00:00:00CST" >Nov 22, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm 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href="/biography/Nikolaus-Ludwig-Graf-von-Zinzendorf" topicid="657444">Nikolaus Ludwig, count von Zinzendorf</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/biblical-literature" topicid="64496">biblical literature</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Roman-Catholicism" topicid="507284">Roman Catholicism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Protestantism" topicid="479892">Protestantism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/temple-garment" topicid="2214167">temple garment</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/novena" topicid="2118383">novena</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Christianity"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/52b74577982b34ce2607b693bd51cae7" rel="nofollow">Texas education board approves optional Bible-infused curriculum for elementary schools</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 5:39 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/eee11dc29462ea9051bb4086c571dd1b" rel="nofollow">Beyond evangelicals, Trump and his allies courted smaller faith groups, from the Amish to Chabad</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 8:11 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/37b6b746ec64adfaf495be6179d7234e" rel="nofollow">Archbishop of Canterbury will end official duties in early January amid sex abuse scandal</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 20, 2024, 1:06 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/0585dc0a1ecb04b6cf426cce08af7543" rel="nofollow">Texas board advances plan to allow Bible material in elementary school lessons</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 19, 2024, 10:37 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/7ef18c115c8e1e76210820e0146bc3a5" rel="nofollow">Big voter turnout this year benefited Republicans, contradicting conventional political wisdom</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 17, 2024, 1:16 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref67577">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The relationship of Christians and Christian institutions to forms of the political order has shown an extraordinary <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diversity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity" data-type="MW">diversity</a> throughout <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/church-architecture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">church</a> history. There have been, for example, <span id="ref301626"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/theocracy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">theocratically</a> founded <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/monarchy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monarchies</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/democracy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">democracies</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/communism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">communist</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="communities" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communities" data-type="MW">communities</a>. In various periods, however, political revolution, based on theological foundations, has also belonged to this diversity.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In certain eras of church history the desire to establish the <span id="ref301627"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kingdom-of-God" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">kingdom of God</a> stimulated political and social strivings. The political power of the Christian proclamation of the coming <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sovereignty" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereignty" data-type="MW">sovereignty</a> of God resided in its promise of both the establishment of a kingdom of peace and the execution of judgment.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The church, like the state, has been exposed to the temptation of power, which resulted in the transformation of the church into an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ecclesiastical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ecclesiastical" data-type="MW">ecclesiastical</a> state. This took place in the development of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Papal-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Papal States</a> and, to a lesser degree, in several theocratic churches, as well as in Calvin’s ecclesiastical state in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Geneva-Switzerland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Geneva</a> in the 16th century. At times, too, the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="secular" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/secular" data-type="MW">secular</a> state declared itself Christian and the executor of the spiritual, political, and social commission of the church; it understood itself to be the representative of the kingdom of God. This development took place in both the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Byzantine</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Carolingian-dynasty" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Carolingian</a> empires as well as in the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="medieval" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medieval" data-type="MW">medieval</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Holy-Roman-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Holy Roman Empire</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The struggle between the church, understanding itself as state, and the state, understanding itself as representative of the church, not only dominated the Middle Ages but also continued into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Reformation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Reformation</a> period. The wars of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">religion</a> in the era of the Reformation and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Counter-Reformation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Counter-Reformation</a> discredited in the eyes of many the theological and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="metaphysical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/metaphysical" data-type="MW">metaphysical</a> rationales for a Christian state. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anabaptists" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Anabaptists</a> in the 16th century and some <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Puritanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Puritans</a> in the 17th century contributed to this <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/skepticism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">skepticism</a> by advocating religious liberty and rejecting the involvement of the state in religious matters. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Enlightenment</a> idea of grounding the relationship between church and state on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/natural-law" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">natural law</a>, as advanced by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Friedrich-Schleiermacher" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a> among others, led to the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="advocacy" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/advocacy" data-type="MW">advocacy</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/separation-marriage" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">legal separation</a> of church and state.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":122,"pagesTotal":154,"pageId":115240,"pageLength":392,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"D","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":122,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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