Christianity - Scripture, Tradition, Apostolic

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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity">Christianity</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/Christianity">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref67408"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity#ref67408">The church and its history</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity#ref67409">The essence and identity of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67410" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Historical-views-of-the-essence">Historical views of the essence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Historical-views-of-the-essence#ref67411">Early views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67412"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Medieval-and-Reformation-views">Medieval and Reformation views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67413"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Modern-views">Modern views</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67414"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-question-of-Christian-identity">The question of Christian identity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity">The history of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity#ref67416">The primitive church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity#ref67417">The relation of the early church to late Judaism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-relation-of-the-early-church-to-the-career-and-intentions-of-Jesus">The relation of the early church to the career and intentions of Jesus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Gentile-mission-and-St-Paul">The Gentile mission and St. Paul</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67420"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-contemporary-social-religious-and-intellectual-world">The contemporary social, religious, and intellectual world</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67421" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-internal-development-of-the-early-Christian-church">The internal development of the early Christian church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67422"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-internal-development-of-the-early-Christian-church#ref67422">The problem of jurisdictional authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67423"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-scriptural-authority">The problem of scriptural authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-scriptural-authority#ref67424">The problem of theological authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Early-heretical-movements">Early heretical movements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67426" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture">Relations between Christianity and the Roman government and the Hellenistic culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67427">Church-state relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67428"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67428">Christianity and Classical culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67429">The Apologists</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-early-liturgy-the-calendar-and-the-arts">The early liturgy, the calendar, and the arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67431"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-alliance-between-church-and-empire">The alliance between church and empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67432" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries">Theological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries#ref67433">Western controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries#ref67434">Eastern controversies</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67436" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine">Liturgy and the arts after Constantine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine#ref67437">New forms of worship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine#ref67438">Historical and polemical writing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Political-relations-between-East-and-West">Political relations between East and West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Literature-and-art-of-the-Dark-Ages">Literature and art of the “Dark Ages”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-and-monasticism">Missions and monasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67442" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism">The Photian schism and the great East-West schism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism#ref67443">The Photian schism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism#ref67444">The great East-West schism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation">From the schism to the Reformation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67446">Papacy and empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67447">Medieval thought</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67448">Reformation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-from-the-16th-to-the-21st-century">Christianity from the 16th to the 21st century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67450"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Contemporary-Christianity">Contemporary Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67451"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Contemporary-Christianity#ref67451">Roman Catholicism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67454" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches">The Eastern churches</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref340022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches#ref340022">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref340023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches#ref340023">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67455" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism">Protestantism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67456"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism#ref67456">Lutheranism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67457"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism#ref67457">Anglicanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67458"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Presbyterian-and-Reformed-churches">Presbyterian and Reformed churches</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67459"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Presbyterian-and-Reformed-churches#ref67459">Other Protestant churches</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67461"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-doctrine">Christian doctrine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-doctrine#ref260789">The nature and functions of doctrine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scripture-and-tradition-the-apostolic-witness">Scripture and tradition: the apostolic witness</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evangelism-the-first-teaching-about-the-God-of-Jesus-Christ">Evangelism: the first teaching about the God of Jesus Christ</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Catechesis-instructing-candidates-for-baptism">Catechesis: instructing candidates for baptism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-the-school-and-feast-of-faith">Liturgy: the school and feast of faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ethics-obeying-the-truth">Ethics: obeying the truth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aversion-of-heresy-the-establishment-of-orthodoxy">Aversion of heresy: the establishment of orthodoxy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Apologetics-defending-the-faith">Apologetics: defending the faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Restatement-respecting-language-and-knowledge">Restatement: respecting language and knowledge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260798"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Inculturation-respecting-places-and-peoples">Inculturation: respecting places and peoples</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260799"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Dogma-the-most-authoritative-teaching">Dogma: the most authoritative teaching</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Consensus-patterns-of-agreement">Consensus: patterns of agreement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260801"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theology-loving-God-with-the-mind">Theology: loving God with the mind</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Symbolics-creeds-and-confessions">Symbolics: creeds and confessions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Development-the-maturation-of-understanding">Development: the maturation of understanding</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260804"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Schism-division-over-substantial-matters">Schism: division over substantial matters</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Controversy-fighting-over-the-faith">Controversy: fighting over the faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref276591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-speaking-the-truth-in-love">Ecumenism: speaking the truth in love</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67465"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Father">God the Father</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67466"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristic-features-of-the-Christian-concept-of-God">Characteristic features of the Christian concept of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67467"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristic-features-of-the-Christian-concept-of-God#ref67467">The specific concept of God as Father</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67468"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-belief-in-the-oneness-of-the-Father-and-the-Son">The belief in the oneness of the Father and the Son</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67469"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-revelatory-character-of-God">The revelatory character of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67470"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-as-Creator-Sustainer-and-Judge">God as Creator, Sustainer, and Judge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67471"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-view-that-God-is-not-solitary">The view that God is not solitary</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67472"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Modern-views-of-God">Modern views of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67473"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil">Satan and the origin of evil</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67474"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil#ref67474">God the Son</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67475"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil#ref67475">Different interpretations of the person of Jesus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67476"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christological-controversies">The Christological controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67477"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-views">Messianic views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67478"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-doctrine-of-the-Virgin-Mary-and-holy-Wisdom">The doctrine of the Virgin Mary and holy Wisdom</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67479"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Holy-Spirit">God the Holy Spirit</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67480"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Holy-Spirit#ref67480">Contradictory aspects of the Holy Spirit</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67481"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Conflict-between-order-and-charismatic-freedom">Conflict between order and charismatic freedom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67482"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-operations-of-the-Holy-Spirit">The operations of the Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67483"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity">The Holy Trinity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67484"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity#ref67484">The basis for the doctrine of the Trinity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67485"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity#ref67485">Introduction of Neoplatonic themes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67486"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity">Attempts to define the Trinity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67487"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67487">Anthropology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67488"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67488">What it is to be human</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67489"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67489">The human as a creature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67490"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-human-as-the-image-of-God">The human as the image of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67491"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Human-redemption">Human redemption</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67492"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-suffering">The problem of suffering</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67493"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-suffering#ref67493">The resurrection of the body</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67494"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Progressive-human-perfection">Progressive human perfection</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67496"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Progressive-human-perfection#ref67496">The “new man”: The human being in the light of Christ</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67497"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-reborn-human">The “reborn human”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67498"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Human-liberation">Human liberation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67499"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Joy-in-human-existence">Joy in human existence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67500"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Joy-in-human-existence#ref67500">The charismatic believer</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67501"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-perfection">Christian perfection</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67502"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Fellow-humans-as-the-present-Christ">Fellow humans as the present Christ</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67503"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-church">The church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67504"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Normative-defenses-in-the-early-church">Normative defenses in the early church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67505"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evolution-of-the-episcopal-office">Evolution of the episcopal office</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67506"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Authority-and-dissent">Authority and dissent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67508"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Organization">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67509"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-polity">Church polity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67510"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67511"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/New-liturgical-forms-and-antiliturgical-attitudes">New liturgical forms and antiliturgical attitudes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67513"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-tradition">Church tradition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67512"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-sacraments">The sacraments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67514"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scriptural-traditions">Scriptural traditions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67515"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Veneration-of-places-objects-and-people">Veneration of places, objects, and people</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67516"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67517"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-saintly-life">The saintly life</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67518"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Art-and-iconography">Art and iconography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67519"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theology-of-icons">Theology of icons</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67521"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatology">Eschatology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67522"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatology#ref67522">Expectations of the kingdom of God in early Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67523"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Expectations-of-the-kingdom-of-God-in-the-medieval-and-Reformation-periods">Expectations of the kingdom of God in the medieval and Reformation periods</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67524"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Expectations-of-the-kingdom-of-God-in-the-medieval-and-Reformation-periods#ref67524">Expectations of the kingdom of God in the post-Reformation period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67525"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-role-of-imminent-expectation-in-missions-and-emigrations">The role of imminent expectation in missions and emigrations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67526"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatological-expectations-and-secularization">Eschatological expectations and secularization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67527"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Concepts-of-life-after-death">Concepts of life after death</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref67528"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion">Aspects of the Christian religion</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67529"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67529">Christian philosophy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67530" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67530">History of the interactions of philosophy and theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67531"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67531">Influence of Greek philosophy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67532"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Emergence-of-official-doctrine">Emergence of official doctrine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67533"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aristotle-and-Aquinas">Aristotle and Aquinas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67534"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Other-influences">Other influences</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67535"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Faith-and-reason">Faith and reason</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67536" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology">Christian philosophy as natural theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67537"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology#ref67537">Arguments for the existence of God</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67538"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology#ref67538">The design (or teleological) argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67539"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-cosmological-argument">The cosmological argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67540"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-ontological-argument">The ontological argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67541"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Moral-arguments">Moral arguments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67542"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Arguments-from-religious-experience-and-miracles">Arguments from religious experience and miracles</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67543"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-immortality-of-the-soul">The immortality of the soul</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67544" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/20th-century-discussions">20th-century discussions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67545"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/20th-century-discussions#ref67545">Influence of logical positivism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67546"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evidentialist-approach">Evidentialist approach</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67547"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-mysticism">Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67548" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-mysticism">History of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67549"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67549">Early church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67550"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eastern-Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67551"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Western-Catholic-Christianity">Western Catholic Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67552"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-Christianity">Protestant Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67553" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism">Stages of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67554"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67554">The dying to self</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67555"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67555">The union with God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67556"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67556">The readjustment</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67557" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism">Forms of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67558"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67558">Christ-mysticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67559"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67559">Trinitarian mysticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67560"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67560">Negative mysticism: God and the Godhead</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67561"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67561">Significance of Christian mysticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67562"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-myth-and-legend">Christian myth and legend</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67563"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristics-of-Christian-myth-and-legend">Characteristics of Christian myth and legend</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67564" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend">History of Christian myth and legend</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67565"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend#ref67565">The early church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67566"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend#ref67566">The ages of the world</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67567"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-secrets-and-the-mysteries-of-salvation">Messianic secrets and the mysteries of salvation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67568"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-secrets-and-the-mysteries-of-salvation#ref67568">The Magi and the Child of Wondrous Light</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67569"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relics-and-saints">Relics and saints</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67570"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Middle-Ages">The Middle Ages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67571"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Renaissance-magic-and-science">Renaissance magic and science</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67572"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-practice-in-the-modern-world">Christian practice in the modern world</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref67573"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world">The Christian community and the world</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67574"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world#ref67574">The relationships of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67575"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world#ref67575">Historical views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67576"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-sect-and-mystical-movement">Church, sect, and mystical movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67577" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state">Church and state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67578"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state">The history of church and state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67579"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state#ref67579">The church and the Roman Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67580"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state#ref67580">The church and the Byzantine, or Eastern, Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67581"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-church-and-Western-states">The church and Western states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67582"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Separation-of-church-and-state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67583"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology">Church and state in Eastern and Western theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67584"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67584">The views of Eusebius of Caesarea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67585"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67585">The views of Augustine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67586"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67586">Later developments</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67587" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society">Church and society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67588"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society#ref67588">The problem of slavery and persecution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67589"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society#ref67589">Theological and humanitarian motivations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67590" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-education">Church and education</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-education#ref67591">Intellectualism versus anti-intellectualism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67592"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-education">Forms of Christian education</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67594" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare">Church and social welfare</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67595"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67595">Curing and caring for the sick</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67596"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67596">Healing the sick</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67597">Care for the sick</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67598"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Care-for-widows-and-orphans">Care for widows and orphans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67599"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Property-poverty-and-the-poor">Property, poverty, and the poor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67600"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Pastoral-care">Pastoral care</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67601"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-minorities">Church and minorities</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67602" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family">Church and family</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67603"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family#ref67603">The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67604"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family#ref67604">The tendency toward asceticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67605" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual">Church and the individual</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67606"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual#ref67606">Love as the basis for Christian ethics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67607"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual#ref67607">Freedom and responsibility</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67608"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-missions">Christian missions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67609"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-missions#ref67609">Biblical foundations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67610" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christian-missions">The history of Christian missions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christian-missions#ref67611">First transition, to 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce">Second transition, to 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67613"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67613">Western mission</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67614">Papal mission</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67615">Eastern and Nestorian missions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67616">The rise of Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Third-transition-to-1950">Third transition, to 1950</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67618"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Third-transition-to-1950#ref67618">Roman Catholic mission, 1500–1950</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67619"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950">Protestant missions, 1500–1950</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950#ref260806">Early Protestant missions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950#ref260807">Missions to Asia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific">Missions to South East Asia and the Pacific</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260809"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific#ref260809">Missions to Africa and South America</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific#ref260810">Missionary associations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67620"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Orthodox-and-nondenominational-missions">Orthodox and nondenominational missions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67621"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Fourth-transition-from-1950">Fourth transition, from 1950</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67622"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scripture-translations">Scripture translations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-biblical-perspective">The biblical perspective</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67625" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-ecumenism">The history of ecumenism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-ecumenism#ref67626">Early controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67627"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Schism-of-1054">The Schism of 1054</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Reformation">The Reformation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-in-the-17th-and-18th-centuries">Ecumenism in the 17th and 18th centuries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/19th-century-efforts">19th-century efforts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-since-the-start-of-the-20th-century">Ecumenism since the start of the 20th century</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67632"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions">Christianity and world religions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67633"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions#ref67633">Conflicting Christian attitudes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions#ref67634">Contemporary views</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Christianity">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/images-videos">Images, Videos & Interactives</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a 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Author of <i>One World, One Mission.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> William Richey Hogg</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Jaroslav-Jan-Pelikan/2275" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Jaroslav Jan Pelikan</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Sterling Professor of History, Yale University. President, American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Author of <i>The Christian Tradition; The Riddle of Roman Catholicism; </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Jaroslav Jan Pelikan</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-22T00:00:00CST" >Nov 22, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm 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href="/biography/Nikolaus-Ludwig-Graf-von-Zinzendorf" topicid="657444">Nikolaus Ludwig, count von Zinzendorf</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/biblical-literature" topicid="64496">biblical literature</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Roman-Catholicism" topicid="507284">Roman Catholicism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Protestantism" topicid="479892">Protestantism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/temple-garment" topicid="2214167">temple garment</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/novena" topicid="2118383">novena</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Christianity"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/52b74577982b34ce2607b693bd51cae7" rel="nofollow">Texas education board approves optional Bible-infused curriculum for elementary schools</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 5:39 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/eee11dc29462ea9051bb4086c571dd1b" rel="nofollow">Beyond evangelicals, Trump and his allies courted smaller faith groups, from the Amish to Chabad</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 8:11 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/37b6b746ec64adfaf495be6179d7234e" rel="nofollow">Archbishop of Canterbury will end official duties in early January amid sex abuse scandal</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 20, 2024, 1:06 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/0585dc0a1ecb04b6cf426cce08af7543" rel="nofollow">Texas board advances plan to allow Bible material in elementary school lessons</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 19, 2024, 10:37 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/7ef18c115c8e1e76210820e0146bc3a5" rel="nofollow">Big voter turnout this year benefited Republicans, contradicting conventional political wisdom</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 17, 2024, 1:16 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3" id="ref260790">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In his First <span id="ref926624"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Letter-of-Paul-to-the-Corinthians" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Letter to the Corinthians</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Apostle" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Apostle</a> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Paul</a> summarized the gospel he himself had received and then preached to them, in which they now stood for their salvation: “that <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Christ</a> died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures [that is, the Old Testament], and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures, and that he appeared to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Cephas</a> [Peter], then to the twelve” (15:1–8). The speeches in the <span id="ref926626"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Acts-of-the-Apostles-New-Testament" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Acts of the Apostles</a> are the basis of the following synthesis, by the biblical scholar <span id="ref926628"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/C-H-Dodd" class="md-crosslink ">C.H. Dodd</a>, of the early apostolic preaching, or <span id="ref926631"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/kerygma" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">kerygma</a> (from the Greek term for a herald’s proclamation). In Dodd’s synthesis, the story of Jesus is located a little more fully in God’s history with Israel and with the entire human race:</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <blockquote> <p>The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kingdom-of-God" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kingdom of God</a> had made its appearance with the coming of the Messiah; His works of power and His ‘new teaching with authority’ had provided evidence of the presence of God among men; His death ‘according to the determinate <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="counsel" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/counsel" data-type="MW">counsel</a> and foreknowledge of God’ had marked the end of the old order, and his <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/resurrection-religion" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">resurrection</a> and exaltation had definitely inaugurated the new age, characterized, as the prophets had foretold, by the outpouring of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Holy-Spirit" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Holy Spirit</a> upon the people of God. It remained only for the new order to be <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="consummated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/consummated" data-type="MW">consummated</a> by the return of Christ in glory to judge the quick and the dead and to save His own from the wrath to come.</p> </blockquote> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Moreover, according to Dodd, “the kerygma always closes with an appeal for repentance, the offer of forgiveness and of the Holy Spirit, and the promise of ‘salvation,’ that is, of ‘the life of the Age to come,’ to those who enter the elect community.”</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Embedded in the New Testament also are certain short formulas used by believers to confess their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/faith" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">faith</a> (<em>homologein</em>): “Jesus is Lord” (Romans 10:9; 1 Corinthians 12:3), “Jesus is the Son of God” (1 John 4:15), and Peter’s “You are the Christ” (Mark 8:29) and Thomas’s “My Lord and my God” (John 20:28). Confessions of faith were sometimes sung when the Christians assembled for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/worship" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">worship</a> (Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16); Paul seems to use quotations from such hymns in arguments in his letters to the Philippians (2:5–11) and Colossians (1:15–20). The earthly worship of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/church-architecture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">church</a> is probably the immediate source for the heavenly songs of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="Apocalypse" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Apocalypse" data-type="MW">Apocalypse</a> (Revelation 4:8–11; 5:9–10, 13–14; 7:9–12; 11:16–18; 19:1–8).</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The fullest apostolic record of the teachings of Jesus is found in narrative form in the Gospels, where his life and sayings are set amid faithful conclusions about who he was and is and what he will still accomplish. Although a degree of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="diversity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/diversity" data-type="MW">diversity</a> in presentation and emphasis is found in the four <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="canonical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/canonical" data-type="MW">canonical</a> Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) as a result of the material available to the authors (the Evangelists), the interests of their audience, and the authors’ own interpretations, the overwhelming perception of the church through the centuries has been that the four canonical Gospels are mutually complementary rather than contradictory. Turning from the traditional understanding, modern scholarship for a time maximized the differences among the Gospels, but this was followed by the recovered sense of a complex unity as in fact characteristic of the Scriptures in their entirety (an important record in this regard is the 1993 report of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, <em>The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church</em>).</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The most <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="discursive" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discursive" data-type="MW">discursive</a> reflections of the apostolic faith are found in the New Testament epistles, where <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/salvation-religion" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">salvation</a> is at stake in the matter of right belief and right practice. Thus, in the <span id="ref926633"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Letter-of-Paul-to-the-Romans" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Letter to the Romans</a>, the Apostle Paul first shows how worshipping creatures rather than the Creator leads to destruction. He then expounds the redemptive work of God in Christ and shows how those who believe are renewed by the Holy Spirit for life as God means it to be. In the First Letter of John, faith in the <span id="ref926634"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Incarnation-Jesus-Christ" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Incarnation</a>—that “Jesus Christ has come in the flesh”—is bound up with God’s love for humankind and humankind’s love for God, as well as with human beings’ love for each other, in all of which eternal life consists.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By the late 2nd century there was <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="widespread" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/widespread" data-type="EB">widespread</a> agreement among the local churches about which writings were to be reckoned apostolic by virtue of their origin and content, but it was not until the 4th century that the list became settled into what is now known as the “New Testament.” This canon has remained virtually invariable ever since, being drawn on for regular positive teaching and appealed to whenever controversies have arisen. The writings that form it are believed by Christians to have been divinely inspired, whether the mode of inspiration was that of dictation or of a more complex mediation through the human writers’ minds, experiences, and churchly location.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">About 400 <span id="ref926639"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Augustine</a> wrote the highly influential <em>De doctrina christiana</em> (<em><span id="ref926637"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christian-Doctrine" class="md-crosslink ">On Christian Doctrine</a></em>), which provides practical guidance for interpreting the faith. The work consists largely of rules for the reading and teaching of Scripture, both <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Old-Testament" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Old Testament</a> and New. Augustine emphasized that familiarity with the text, sound philology, and an understanding of the relation between signs and things are all needed, and he demonstrated how different literary <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="genres" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/genres" data-type="MW">genres</a> and figures are to be recognized. <em>De doctrina christiana</em> also showed how difficult passages can be <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="illuminated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/illuminated" data-type="MW">illuminated</a> by clearer ones and how basic axioms, themselves internal to the Scriptures—such as love of God and love of neighbour—should guide the reading of the whole.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="medieval" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medieval" data-type="MW">medieval</a> terms, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sacred" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sacred</a> doctrine (<em>sacra doctrina</em>) is to be read as directly as possible from the sacred page (<em><span id="ref926640"></span>sacra pagina</em>). Moreover, it is a commonplace—from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-a-Kempis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Thomas à Kempis</a> (<em>The Imitation of Christ</em>, I.5) in the 15th century through <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Calvin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John Calvin</a> (<em>Institutes</em> I.7.1–5) in the 16th century to the 1992 <em>Catechism of the Catholic Church</em> (§ 111)—that Scripture must be read in the same (Holy) Spirit as that in which it was written. In other words, the reading of Scripture, whether corporate or individual, is properly done prayerfully by people who have pure hearts and live holy lives. It is such use that permits Scripture to function authoritatively in Christian teaching.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">While the New Testament, which sets the terms also for the reading of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hebrew-Bible" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Hebrew Scriptures</a> as the promissory and prophetic Old Testament, is consistently held to be the primary witness to the apostolic preaching and a permanent statement of “the faith once delivered to the saints” (Jude 3), there are other possible <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="legacies" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legacies" data-type="MW">legacies</a> from the Apostles. Thus <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Basil-the-Great" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Basil of Caesarea</a>, a 4th-century <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Church-Father" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Church Father</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/bishop-Christianity" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">bishop</a>, claimed that certain practices and expressions not mentioned in the New Testament—such as facing East for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/prayer" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">prayer</a>, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/asceticism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">renunciation</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Satan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Satan</a> before <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/baptism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">baptism</a>, the threefold <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="immersion" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/immersion" data-type="MW">immersion</a>, the words for <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="invoking" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/invoking" data-type="MW">invoking</a> the Spirit over the bread and cup—are nevertheless of apostolic origin. In the 16th century, when the Protestant reformers sought to bring the Western church back from what they perceived as departures from Scripture, the <span id="ref926644"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Trent" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Council of Trent</a> responded with the declaration that equal respect was to be shown to “the truth and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="discipline" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discipline" data-type="MW">discipline</a> contained in the written books and (Latin <em>et</em>) in the unwritten traditions handed down to us, which the Apostles received from the mouth of Christ himself or by the dictation of the Holy Spirit.” As some scholars have argued, the <em>et</em> seemingly left open the question whether oral and practical traditions may add substantially to what is known from the Apostles through the Scriptures or are rather to be viewed as parallel modes for transmitting the same content.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":29,"pagesTotal":154,"pageId":115240,"pageLength":1207,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":29,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Christianity - Scripture, Tradition, Apostolic | Britannica