Christianity - Education, Schools, Theology

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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity">Christianity</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/topic/Christianity">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref67408"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity#ref67408">The church and its history</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity#ref67409">The essence and identity of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67410" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Historical-views-of-the-essence">Historical views of the essence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Historical-views-of-the-essence#ref67411">Early views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67412"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Medieval-and-Reformation-views">Medieval and Reformation views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67413"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Modern-views">Modern views</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67414"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-question-of-Christian-identity">The question of Christian identity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity">The history of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity#ref67416">The primitive church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christianity#ref67417">The relation of the early church to late Judaism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-relation-of-the-early-church-to-the-career-and-intentions-of-Jesus">The relation of the early church to the career and intentions of Jesus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Gentile-mission-and-St-Paul">The Gentile mission and St. Paul</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67420"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-contemporary-social-religious-and-intellectual-world">The contemporary social, religious, and intellectual world</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67421" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-internal-development-of-the-early-Christian-church">The internal development of the early Christian church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67422"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-internal-development-of-the-early-Christian-church#ref67422">The problem of jurisdictional authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67423"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-scriptural-authority">The problem of scriptural authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-scriptural-authority#ref67424">The problem of theological authority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Early-heretical-movements">Early heretical movements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67426" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture">Relations between Christianity and the Roman government and the Hellenistic culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67427">Church-state relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67428"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67428">Christianity and Classical culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relations-between-Christianity-and-the-Roman-government-and-the-Hellenistic-culture#ref67429">The Apologists</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-early-liturgy-the-calendar-and-the-arts">The early liturgy, the calendar, and the arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67431"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-alliance-between-church-and-empire">The alliance between church and empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67432" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries">Theological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries#ref67433">Western controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theological-controversies-of-the-4th-and-5th-centuries#ref67434">Eastern controversies</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67436" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine">Liturgy and the arts after Constantine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine#ref67437">New forms of worship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-and-the-arts-after-Constantine#ref67438">Historical and polemical writing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Political-relations-between-East-and-West">Political relations between East and West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Literature-and-art-of-the-Dark-Ages">Literature and art of the “Dark Ages”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-and-monasticism">Missions and monasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67442" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism">The Photian schism and the great East-West schism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism#ref67443">The Photian schism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Photian-schism-and-the-great-East-West-schism#ref67444">The great East-West schism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation">From the schism to the Reformation</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67446">Papacy and empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67447">Medieval thought</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/From-the-schism-to-the-Reformation#ref67448">Reformation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-from-the-16th-to-the-21st-century">Christianity from the 16th to the 21st century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67450"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Contemporary-Christianity">Contemporary Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67451"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Contemporary-Christianity#ref67451">Roman Catholicism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67454" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches">The Eastern churches</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref340022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches#ref340022">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref340023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Eastern-churches#ref340023">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67455" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism">Protestantism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67456"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism#ref67456">Lutheranism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67457"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestantism#ref67457">Anglicanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67458"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Presbyterian-and-Reformed-churches">Presbyterian and Reformed churches</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67459"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Presbyterian-and-Reformed-churches#ref67459">Other Protestant churches</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67461"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-doctrine">Christian doctrine</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-doctrine#ref260789">The nature and functions of doctrine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scripture-and-tradition-the-apostolic-witness">Scripture and tradition: the apostolic witness</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evangelism-the-first-teaching-about-the-God-of-Jesus-Christ">Evangelism: the first teaching about the God of Jesus Christ</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Catechesis-instructing-candidates-for-baptism">Catechesis: instructing candidates for baptism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260793"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy-the-school-and-feast-of-faith">Liturgy: the school and feast of faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ethics-obeying-the-truth">Ethics: obeying the truth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aversion-of-heresy-the-establishment-of-orthodoxy">Aversion of heresy: the establishment of orthodoxy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Apologetics-defending-the-faith">Apologetics: defending the faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Restatement-respecting-language-and-knowledge">Restatement: respecting language and knowledge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260798"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Inculturation-respecting-places-and-peoples">Inculturation: respecting places and peoples</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260799"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Dogma-the-most-authoritative-teaching">Dogma: the most authoritative teaching</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Consensus-patterns-of-agreement">Consensus: patterns of agreement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260801"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theology-loving-God-with-the-mind">Theology: loving God with the mind</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Symbolics-creeds-and-confessions">Symbolics: creeds and confessions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Development-the-maturation-of-understanding">Development: the maturation of understanding</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260804"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Schism-division-over-substantial-matters">Schism: division over substantial matters</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref260805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Controversy-fighting-over-the-faith">Controversy: fighting over the faith</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref276591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-speaking-the-truth-in-love">Ecumenism: speaking the truth in love</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67465"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Father">God the Father</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67466"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristic-features-of-the-Christian-concept-of-God">Characteristic features of the Christian concept of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67467"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristic-features-of-the-Christian-concept-of-God#ref67467">The specific concept of God as Father</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67468"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-belief-in-the-oneness-of-the-Father-and-the-Son">The belief in the oneness of the Father and the Son</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67469"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-revelatory-character-of-God">The revelatory character of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67470"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-as-Creator-Sustainer-and-Judge">God as Creator, Sustainer, and Judge</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67471"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-view-that-God-is-not-solitary">The view that God is not solitary</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67472"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Modern-views-of-God">Modern views of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67473"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil">Satan and the origin of evil</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67474"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil#ref67474">God the Son</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67475"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Satan-and-the-origin-of-evil#ref67475">Different interpretations of the person of Jesus</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67476"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christological-controversies">The Christological controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67477"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-views">Messianic views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67478"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-doctrine-of-the-Virgin-Mary-and-holy-Wisdom">The doctrine of the Virgin Mary and holy Wisdom</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67479"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Holy-Spirit">God the Holy Spirit</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67480"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/God-the-Holy-Spirit#ref67480">Contradictory aspects of the Holy Spirit</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67481"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Conflict-between-order-and-charismatic-freedom">Conflict between order and charismatic freedom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67482"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-operations-of-the-Holy-Spirit">The operations of the Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67483"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity">The Holy Trinity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67484"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity#ref67484">The basis for the doctrine of the Trinity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67485"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Holy-Trinity#ref67485">Introduction of Neoplatonic themes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67486"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity">Attempts to define the Trinity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67487"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67487">Anthropology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67488"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67488">What it is to be human</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67489"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Attempts-to-define-the-Trinity#ref67489">The human as a creature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67490"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-human-as-the-image-of-God">The human as the image of God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67491"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Human-redemption">Human redemption</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67492"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-suffering">The problem of suffering</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67493"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-problem-of-suffering#ref67493">The resurrection of the body</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67494"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Progressive-human-perfection">Progressive human perfection</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67496"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Progressive-human-perfection#ref67496">The “new man”: The human being in the light of Christ</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67497"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-reborn-human">The “reborn human”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67498"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Human-liberation">Human liberation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67499"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Joy-in-human-existence">Joy in human existence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67500"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Joy-in-human-existence#ref67500">The charismatic believer</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67501"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-perfection">Christian perfection</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67502"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Fellow-humans-as-the-present-Christ">Fellow humans as the present Christ</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67503"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-church">The church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67504"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Normative-defenses-in-the-early-church">Normative defenses in the early church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67505"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evolution-of-the-episcopal-office">Evolution of the episcopal office</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67506"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Authority-and-dissent">Authority and dissent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67508"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Organization">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67509"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-polity">Church polity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67510"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67511"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/New-liturgical-forms-and-antiliturgical-attitudes">New liturgical forms and antiliturgical attitudes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67513"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-tradition">Church tradition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67512"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-sacraments">The sacraments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67514"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scriptural-traditions">Scriptural traditions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67515"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Veneration-of-places-objects-and-people">Veneration of places, objects, and people</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67516"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67517"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-saintly-life">The saintly life</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67518"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Art-and-iconography">Art and iconography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67519"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Theology-of-icons">Theology of icons</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67521"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatology">Eschatology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67522"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatology#ref67522">Expectations of the kingdom of God in early Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67523"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Expectations-of-the-kingdom-of-God-in-the-medieval-and-Reformation-periods">Expectations of the kingdom of God in the medieval and Reformation periods</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67524"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Expectations-of-the-kingdom-of-God-in-the-medieval-and-Reformation-periods#ref67524">Expectations of the kingdom of God in the post-Reformation period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67525"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-role-of-imminent-expectation-in-missions-and-emigrations">The role of imminent expectation in missions and emigrations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67526"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eschatological-expectations-and-secularization">Eschatological expectations and secularization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67527"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Concepts-of-life-after-death">Concepts of life after death</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref67528"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion">Aspects of the Christian religion</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67529"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67529">Christian philosophy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67530" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67530">History of the interactions of philosophy and theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67531"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aspects-of-the-Christian-religion#ref67531">Influence of Greek philosophy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67532"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Emergence-of-official-doctrine">Emergence of official doctrine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67533"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Aristotle-and-Aquinas">Aristotle and Aquinas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67534"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Other-influences">Other influences</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67535"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Faith-and-reason">Faith and reason</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67536" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology">Christian philosophy as natural theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67537"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology#ref67537">Arguments for the existence of God</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67538"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-philosophy-as-natural-theology#ref67538">The design (or teleological) argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67539"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-cosmological-argument">The cosmological argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67540"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-ontological-argument">The ontological argument</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67541"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Moral-arguments">Moral arguments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67542"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Arguments-from-religious-experience-and-miracles">Arguments from religious experience and miracles</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67543"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-immortality-of-the-soul">The immortality of the soul</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67544" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/20th-century-discussions">20th-century discussions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67545"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/20th-century-discussions#ref67545">Influence of logical positivism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67546"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Evidentialist-approach">Evidentialist approach</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67547"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-mysticism">Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67548" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-mysticism">History of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67549"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67549">Early church</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67550"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Eastern-Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67551"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Western-Catholic-Christianity">Western Catholic Christianity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67552"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-Christianity">Protestant Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67553" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism">Stages of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67554"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67554">The dying to self</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67555"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67555">The union with God</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67556"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Stages-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67556">The readjustment</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67557" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism">Forms of Christian mysticism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67558"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67558">Christ-mysticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67559"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67559">Trinitarian mysticism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67560"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67560">Negative mysticism: God and the Godhead</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67561"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-mysticism#ref67561">Significance of Christian mysticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67562"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-myth-and-legend">Christian myth and legend</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67563"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Characteristics-of-Christian-myth-and-legend">Characteristics of Christian myth and legend</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67564" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend">History of Christian myth and legend</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67565"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend#ref67565">The early church</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67566"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/History-of-Christian-myth-and-legend#ref67566">The ages of the world</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67567"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-secrets-and-the-mysteries-of-salvation">Messianic secrets and the mysteries of salvation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67568"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Messianic-secrets-and-the-mysteries-of-salvation#ref67568">The Magi and the Child of Wondrous Light</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67569"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Relics-and-saints">Relics and saints</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67570"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Middle-Ages">The Middle Ages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67571"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Renaissance-magic-and-science">Renaissance magic and science</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67572"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-practice-in-the-modern-world">Christian practice in the modern world</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref67573"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world">The Christian community and the world</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67574"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world#ref67574">The relationships of Christianity</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67575"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Christian-community-and-the-world#ref67575">Historical views</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67576"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-sect-and-mystical-movement">Church, sect, and mystical movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67577" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state">Church and state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67578"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state">The history of church and state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67579"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state#ref67579">The church and the Roman Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67580"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state#ref67580">The church and the Byzantine, or Eastern, Empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67581"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-church-and-Western-states">The church and Western states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67582"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Separation-of-church-and-state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67583"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology">Church and state in Eastern and Western theology</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67584"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67584">The views of Eusebius of Caesarea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67585"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67585">The views of Augustine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67586"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-state-in-Eastern-and-Western-theology#ref67586">Later developments</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67587" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society">Church and society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67588"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society#ref67588">The problem of slavery and persecution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67589"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-society#ref67589">Theological and humanitarian motivations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67590" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-education">Church and education</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67591"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-education#ref67591">Intellectualism versus anti-intellectualism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67592"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Forms-of-Christian-education">Forms of Christian education</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67594" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare">Church and social welfare</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67595"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67595">Curing and caring for the sick</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67596"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67596">Healing the sick</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67597"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-social-welfare#ref67597">Care for the sick</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67598"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Care-for-widows-and-orphans">Care for widows and orphans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67599"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Property-poverty-and-the-poor">Property, poverty, and the poor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67600"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Pastoral-care">Pastoral care</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67601"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-minorities">Church and minorities</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67602" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family">Church and family</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67603"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family#ref67603">The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67604"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-family#ref67604">The tendency toward asceticism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67605" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual">Church and the individual</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67606"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual#ref67606">Love as the basis for Christian ethics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67607"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Church-and-the-individual#ref67607">Freedom and responsibility</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67608"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-missions">Christian missions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67609"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christian-missions#ref67609">Biblical foundations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67610" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christian-missions">The history of Christian missions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-Christian-missions#ref67611">First transition, to 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce">Second transition, to 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67613"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67613">Western mission</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67614">Papal mission</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67615">Eastern and Nestorian missions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Second-transition-to-1500-ce#ref67616">The rise of Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Third-transition-to-1950">Third transition, to 1950</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67618"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Third-transition-to-1950#ref67618">Roman Catholic mission, 1500–1950</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67619"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950">Protestant missions, 1500–1950</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950#ref260806">Early Protestant missions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Protestant-missions-1500-1950#ref260807">Missions to Asia</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific">Missions to South East Asia and the Pacific</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260809"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific#ref260809">Missions to Africa and South America</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h6"><li data-target="#ref260810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Missions-to-South-East-Asia-and-the-Pacific#ref260810">Missionary associations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref67620"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Orthodox-and-nondenominational-missions">Orthodox and nondenominational missions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67621"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Fourth-transition-from-1950">Fourth transition, from 1950</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67622"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Scripture-translations">Scripture translations</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-biblical-perspective">The biblical perspective</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67625" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-ecumenism">The history of ecumenism</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-ecumenism#ref67626">Early controversies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67627"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Schism-of-1054">The Schism of 1054</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/The-Reformation">The Reformation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-in-the-17th-and-18th-centuries">Ecumenism in the 17th and 18th centuries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/19th-century-efforts">19th-century efforts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref67631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Ecumenism-since-the-start-of-the-20th-century">Ecumenism since the start of the 20th century</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref67632"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions">Christianity and world religions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67633"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions#ref67633">Conflicting Christian attitudes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref67634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/topic/Christianity/Christianity-and-world-religions#ref67634">Contemporary views</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/Christianity">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/images-videos">Images, Videos & Interactives</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a 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The female figures are believed to be either Santa Pudenziana and Santa Praxedes or symbols of the Jewish and Gentile churches. 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/christianity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">World History Encyclopedia - Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/christianity" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Canadian Encyclopedia - Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://uri.org/kids/world-religions/christian-beliefs" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">United Religions Initiative - Christianity: Background, Basic Beliefs, and Sacred Texts</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/C/christianity.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Biblical Cyclopedia - Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1164&context=history_and_government_publications" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">DigitalCommons at Cedarville - Human Nature and the Christian</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Religious_Studies/World_Religions%3A_The_Spirit_Searching_(Ondich)/04%3A_Middle_Eastern_Origins/4.03%3A_Christianity" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Humanities LibreTexts - Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/unromantest/chapter/christians/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">BCcampus Open Publishing - UnRoman Romans - Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancient-rome/rome-and-christianity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The History Learning Site - Rome and Christianity</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/christianity-2" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Jewish Virtual Library - Christianity</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Christianity/352957" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Christianity - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Christianity/273658" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Christianity - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/William-Richey-Hogg/3466" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">William Richey Hogg</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor of World Christianity, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas. Author of <i>One World, One Mission.</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> William Richey Hogg</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Martin-E-Marty/1923" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Martin E. Marty</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Fairfax M. Cone Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus, Divinity School, University of Chicago. Senior Editor, <i>The Christian Century. </i>Author of <i>Religion & Republic: The American Circumstance</i>...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Martin E. 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They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-27T00:00:00CST" >Nov 27, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle" topicid="447019">St. Paul the Apostle</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Martin-Buber-German-religious-philosopher" topicid="82688">Martin Buber</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Jan-Hus" topicid="277400">Jan Hus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus" topicid="12923">St. Albertus Magnus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Nikolaus-Ludwig-Graf-von-Zinzendorf" topicid="657444">Nikolaus Ludwig, count von Zinzendorf</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Related Topics: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/biblical-literature" topicid="64496">biblical literature</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Roman-Catholicism" topicid="507284">Roman Catholicism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Protestantism" topicid="479892">Protestantism</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/temple-garment" topicid="2214167">temple garment</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/novena" topicid="2118383">novena</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Christianity"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/c57edb05211d3840b4dbebeaa5985aab" rel="nofollow">Who are the Border Patrol chaplains? And why does the agency need more of them now?</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 27, 2024, 3:43 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/4c30a12046422d46666fed7ace413415" rel="nofollow">Border Patrol trains more chaplains as the job and polarizing immigration debate rattle agents</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 27, 2024, 9:52 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/52b74577982b34ce2607b693bd51cae7" rel="nofollow">Texas education board approves optional Bible-infused curriculum for elementary schools</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 5:39 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/eee11dc29462ea9051bb4086c571dd1b" rel="nofollow">Beyond evangelicals, Trump and his allies courted smaller faith groups, from the Amish to Chabad</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 8:11 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/115240/37b6b746ec64adfaf495be6179d7234e" rel="nofollow">Archbishop of Canterbury will end official duties in early January amid sex abuse scandal</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 20, 2024, 1:06 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="4" id="ref67592">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Christian <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/church-architecture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">church</a> created the bases of the Western <span id="ref301729"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/educational-system" class="md-crosslink ">system of education</a>. From its beginning the Christian <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> faced external and internal challenges to its <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/faith" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">faith</a>, which it met by developing and utilizing <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intellectual" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intellectual" data-type="MW">intellectual</a> and educational resources. The response to the external challenge of rival religions and philosophical perspectives is termed apologetics—i.e., the intellectual defense of the faith. Apologetic theologians from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Justin-Martyr" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">St. Justin Martyr</a> in the 2nd century to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Tillich" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Paul Tillich</a> in the 20th promoted critical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dialogue" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dialogue" data-type="MW">dialogue</a> between the Christian community, the educated world, and other religions. This exchange was further encouraged by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Vatican-Council" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Second Vatican Council</a>, Pope John Paul II, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ecumenism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">ecumenical movement</a>. The internal challenges to the Christian community were met not only by formulating the faith in creeds and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dogmas" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dogmas" data-type="MW">dogmas</a> but also by passing this faith on to the next generations through education.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By the 8th and 9th centuries, cathedral schools were established to provide basic education in Latin grammar and Christian doctrine to the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/clergy-Christianity" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">clergy</a>, and by the 11th century these schools emerged as centres of higher learning. The school at the court of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charlemagne" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Charlemagne</a> (which was conducted by clergy), the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="medieval" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medieval" data-type="MW">medieval</a> schools of the religious orders, cathedrals, monasteries, convents, and churches, the flourishing schools of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brethren-of-the-Common-Life" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Brethren of the Common Life</a>, and the <span id="ref301731"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Roman Catholic</a> school systems that came into existence during the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Counter-Reformation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Counter-Reformation</a> under the leadership of the Jesuits and other new teaching orders contributed much to the civilization of the West. Equally important were the schools started by the German reformers Luther, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philipp-Melanchthon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Philipp Melanchthon</a>, Johann Bugenhagen, John and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/August-Hermann-Francke" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">August Hermann Francke</a>, and the Moravian reformers <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Amos-Comenius" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">John Amos Comenius</a> and the Graf von Zinzendorf. The church was responsible for overseeing schools even after the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Reformation" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Reformation</a>. Only in the 18th century did the school system start to separate itself from its Christian roots and fall more and more under state control.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">With the separation of <span id="ref301732"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/church-and-state" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">church and state</a>, both institutions have entered into tensely <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="manifold" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/manifold" data-type="EB">manifold</a> relationships. In some countries the state has taken over the school system and does not allow private church schools except in a few special cases. Other countries (e.g., France) maintain school systems basically free of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">religion</a> and leave the religious instruction to the private undertakings of the different churches. In the <span id="ref301733"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American Revolution</a> the concept of the separation of state and church was intended to free the church from all patronization by the state and to make possible a maximum of free activity, particularly in the area of education. The <span id="ref301734"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Soviet Union</a> used its schools particularly for an anti-religious education based upon the state <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">philosophy</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/dialectical-materialism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">dialectical materialism</a>, practicing the constitutionally guaranteed freedom of anti-religious <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="propaganda" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/propaganda" data-type="MW">propaganda</a> in schools, though the churches were forbidden to give any education outside their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/worship" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">worship</a> services.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A second issue that results from the separation of church and state is the question of state <span id="ref301735"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/government-support" class="md-crosslink ">subsidies</a> to private church schools. These are claimed in those countries in which the church schools in many places take over part of the functions of the state schools (e.g., in the United States). After the ideological positivism and the materialism of the 19th century faded away in many areas, it was realized that religious life had an important role in the cultural development of the West and the New World and that the exclusion of religious instruction from the <span id="ref301736"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/curriculum" class="md-crosslink ">curricula</a> of the schools indicated a lack of balance in education. In the 20th century, religion was adopted as a subject among the humanities. State universities in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">United States</a>, Canada, and Australia, which did not have theological <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="faculties" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/faculties" data-type="EB">faculties</a> because of the separation of church and state, founded departments of religion of an interdenominational nature and included non-Christians as academic teachers of religion.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Another development in the history of Christian education was the founding of universities. The origins of the <span id="ref301737"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/university" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">university</a> can be traced to the 12th century, and by the 13th century the medieval university had reached its mature form. Universities were founded during the rest of the Middle Ages throughout <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a> and spread from there to other continents after the 16th century. The earliest universities emerged as associations of masters or students (the Latin <em>universitas</em> means “guild” or “union”) that were dedicated to the pursuit of higher learning. The universities, which superseded the cathedral schools as centres of advanced study, came to have a number of shared traits: the teaching methods of lecture and disputation, the extended communal living in colleges, the periodically changing leadership of an elected dean, the inner structure according to faculties or “nations,” and the European recognition of academic degrees. Universities provided instruction in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/liberal-arts" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">liberal arts</a> and advanced study in the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="disciplines" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/disciplines" data-type="MW">disciplines</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/law" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">law</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/medicine" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">medicine</a>, and, most importantly, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/theology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">theology</a>. Many of the great theologians of the era, notably <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">St. Thomas Aquinas</a>, were associated with the universities.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The advent of <span id="ref301738"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/humanism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">humanism</a> and the Reformation, as well as the reforms initiated by some university faculty, created a new situation for all systems of education, especially the universities. Humanists demanded plans to provide designated places for free research in academies that were princely or private institutions and, as such, not controlled by the church. On the other hand, Protestant states and principalities founded new universities, such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Marburg-Germany" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Marburg</a> in 1527, Königsberg in 1544, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Jena-Germany" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jena</a> in 1558. As a counteraction, the <span id="ref301739"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jesuits" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jesuits</a> took over the leadership in the older universities that had remained Roman Catholic or else founded new ones in Europe and overseas.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In areas of missionary work, Christian education has had a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="twofold" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/twofold" data-type="EB">twofold</a> task. First, its function was to lay an educational foundation for evangelization of non-Christian peoples by forming a system of education for all levels from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/grammar-school-British-education" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">grammar school</a> to university. Second, its function was to take care of the education of European settlers. To a large extent the European colonial powers had left the formation of an educational system in their colonies or dominions to the churches. In the Spanish <span id="ref301740"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-colonialism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">colonial</a> regions in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Americas" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">America</a>, Roman Catholic universities were founded very early (e.g., <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Santo-Domingo" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Santo Domingo</a> in 1538, Mexico and Lima in 1551, Guatemala in 1562, and Bogotá in 1573). In China, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jesuits" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Jesuit</a> missionaries acted mainly as agents of European education and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> (e.g., astronomy, mathematics, and technology) in their positions as civil servants of the court.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Since the 18th century, the activities of competing Christian denominations in <span id="ref301741"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/missions-Christianity" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">mission</a> areas led to an intensification of the Christian system of education in <span id="ref301742"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Asia</a> and <span id="ref301743"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Africa</a>. Even where the African and Asian states have their own system of schools and universities, Christian educational institutions have performed a significant function (St. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Xavier-University-Cincinnati-Ohio" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Xavier University</a> in Mumbai and Sophia University in Tokyo are Jesuit foundations; Dōshisha University in Kyōto is a Japanese Presbyterian foundation).</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In <span id="ref301744"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North America</a>, Christian education took a different course. From the beginning, the churches took over the creation of general educational institutions, and various <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="denominations" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/denominations" data-type="EB">denominations</a> did pioneer work in the field of education. In the English colonies that later became the United States, the denominations founded theological colleges for the purpose of educating their ministers and established universities dealing with all major disciplines, including theology, often emphasizing a denominational slant. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Harvard-University" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Harvard University</a> was founded in 1636 and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yale-University" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yale University</a> in 1701 as Congregational establishments, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/College-of-William-Mary" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">College of William and Mary</a> was established in 1693 as an Anglican institution. They were followed during the 19th century by other Protestant universities (e.g., <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Southern-Methodist-University" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Southern Methodist University</a>, Dallas, Texas) and colleges (e.g., <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Augustana-College-Rock-Island-Illinois" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Augustana College</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rock-Island" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Rock Island</a>, Illinois) and by Roman Catholic universities (e.g., the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/University-of-Notre-Dame" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">University of Notre Dame</a>, Notre Dame, Indiana) and colleges (e.g., <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Boston-College" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Boston College</a>, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts). In addition, many private universities were based upon a Christian idea of education according to the wishes of their founders.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Christian education has been undertaken in a variety of forms. The system of Sunday schools is nearly universal in all denominations. <span id="ref301745"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/confirmation" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confirmation</a> instruction is more specialized, serving different tasks, such as preparation of the children for confirmation, their conscious acknowledgment of the Christian <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ethic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethic" data-type="MW">ethic</a>, of the Christian confessions, of the meaning of the sacraments, and of the special forms of congregational life.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Ernst-Wilhelm-Benz/244">Ernst Wilhelm Benz</a></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Carter-H-Lindberg/3405">Carter H. 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