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href="#Taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Taxonomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phylogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phylogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Phylogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phylogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>External</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Internal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Diet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carotenoids_and_photoheterotrophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carotenoids_and_photoheterotrophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Carotenoids and photoheterotrophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carotenoids_and_photoheterotrophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ant_mutualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ant_mutualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Ant mutualism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ant_mutualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacterial_endosymbiosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacterial_endosymbiosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Bacterial endosymbiosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacterial_endosymbiosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Predators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-predator_defences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-predator_defences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Anti-predator defences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-predator_defences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parasitoids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasitoids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Parasitoids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasitoids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plant-aphid_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plant-aphid_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Plant-aphid interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plant-aphid_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sociality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions_with_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_with_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Interactions with humans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interactions_with_humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Interactions with humans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Interactions_with_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pest_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pest_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Pest status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pest_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_human_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_human_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>In human culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_human_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Aphid</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 73 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-73" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">73 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantluis" title="Plantluis – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Plantluis" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86_(%D8%AD%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A9)" title="من (حشرة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="من (حشرة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99n%C9%99n%C9%99l%C9%99r" title="Mənənələr – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mənənələr" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1" title="এফিড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="এফিড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BB%D3%99" title="Кеблә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Кеблә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Тлі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тлі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Тлі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тлі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Листни въшки – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Листни въшки" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afido%C3%AFdeus" title="Afidoïdeus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Afidoïdeus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Ӳсентăран пыйти – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ӳсентăран пыйти" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C5%A1ice" title="Mšice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mšice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladlus" title="Bladlus – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bladlus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blattl%C3%A4use" title="Blattläuse – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Blattläuse" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahachagii_biy%C3%A1zh%C3%AD" title="Nahachagii biyázhí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Nahachagii biyázhí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Diné bizaad</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehet%C3%A4ilised" title="Lehetäilised – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lehetäilised" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1" title="Αφίδα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αφίδα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afidoj" title="Afidoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Afidoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%87" title="شته – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شته" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%AAdluzen" title="Blêdluzen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Blêdluzen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aifid" title="Aifid – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Aifid" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81fidos" title="Áfidos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Áfidos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%EB%94%A7%EB%AC%BC" title="진딧물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="진딧물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1" title="ऐफिड – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऐफिड" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afidio" title="Afidio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Afidio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutu_daun" title="Kutu daun – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kutu daun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%C3%A6%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B_%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82" title="Бæласы сыст – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Бæласы сыст" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%94" title="כנימות עלה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כנימות עלה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ბუგრები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბუგრები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%9A%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%90" title="سیٚیہِ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="سیٚیہِ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Біте – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Біте" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewen_losow" title="Lewen losow – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Lewen losow" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidukari" title="Kidukari – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kidukari" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laputis" title="Laputis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Laputis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amariniai" title="Amariniai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Amariniai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev%C3%A9ltetvek" title="Levéltetvek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Levéltetvek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE)" title="Лисни вошки (натсемејство) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Лисни вошки (натсемејство)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86_(%D9%81%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA)" title="من (فصيله من الحشرات) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="من (فصيله من الحشرات)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutu_daun" title="Kutu daun – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kutu daun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladluizen" title="Bladluizen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bladluizen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="लाही किरा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="लाही किरा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E3%82%B7" title="アブラムシ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アブラムシ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladlus" title="Bladlus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bladlus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladlus" title="Bladlus – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bladlus" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBsimlik_bitlari" title="Oʻsimlik bitlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oʻsimlik bitlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A1" title="ਐਫਿਡ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਐਫਿਡ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blattl%C3%BCse" title="Blattlüse – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Blattlüse" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mszyce" title="Mszyce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mszyce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Af%C3%ADdio" title="Afídio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Afídio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afid%C4%83" title="Afidă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Afidă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yura_usa" title="Yura usa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yura usa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Тли – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тли" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Aphid" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vo%C5%A1ky_(Aphidinea)" title="Vošky (Aphidinea) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vošky (Aphidinea)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listne_u%C5%A1i" title="Listne uši – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Listne uši" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirvat" title="Kirvat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kirvat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladl%C3%B6ss" title="Bladlöss – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bladlöss" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="செடிப்பேன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="செடிப்பேன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%A9%D0%B1%D0%BB%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Гөбләләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гөбләләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaprak_biti" title="Yaprak biti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yaprak biti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96" title="Попелиці – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Попелиці" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" title="Aphidoidea – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Aphidoidea" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em%C3%AEleures" title="Emîleures – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Emîleures" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9A%9C%E8%99%AB" title="蚜虫 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="蚜虫" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9A%9C%E8%9F%B2" title="蚜蟲 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="蚜蟲" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saus%C4%ABs" title="Sausīs – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Sausīs" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Superfamily of insects</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the insect. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Aphid_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Aphid (disambiguation)">Aphid (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Aphids<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">Permian–present</span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:118.83384615385px; width:101.16615384615px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:118.83384615385px; width:101.16615384615px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:119.83384615385px; width:99.166153846154px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphids_September_2008-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Aphids_September_2008-1.jpg/250px-Aphids_September_2008-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Aphids_September_2008-1.jpg/330px-Aphids_September_2008-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Aphids_September_2008-1.jpg/500px-Aphids_September_2008-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="2270" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%"><i><a href="/wiki/Aphis_nerii" title="Aphis nerii">Aphis nerii</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Aphidoidea" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insecta</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hemiptera" title="Hemiptera">Hemiptera</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Suborder: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sternorrhyncha" title="Sternorrhyncha">Sternorrhyncha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infraorder: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aphidomorpha" title="Aphidomorpha">Aphidomorpha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Superfamily: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aphidoidea</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Louis_Geoffroy" title="Étienne Louis Geoffroy">Geoffroy</a>, 1762</small> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Families </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphididae" title="Aphididae">Aphididae</a> <small>Latreille, 1802</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Bajsaphididae" title="Bajsaphididae">Bajsaphididae</a> <small>Homan, Zyla & Wegierek, 2015</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Canadaphididae" title="Canadaphididae">Canadaphididae</a> <small>Richards, 1966</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Cretamyzidae" title="Cretamyzidae">Cretamyzidae</a> <small>Heie, 1992</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Drepanochaitophoridae" title="Drepanochaitophoridae">Drepanochaitophoridae</a> <small>Zhang & Hong, 1999</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Oviparosiphidae" title="Oviparosiphidae">Oviparosiphidae</a> <small>Shaposhnikov, 1979</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Parvaverrucosidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Parvaverrucosidae">Parvaverrucosidae</a> <small>Poinar & Brown, 2006</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><a href="/wiki/Sinaphididae" title="Sinaphididae">Sinaphididae</a> <small>Zhang, Zhang, Hou & Ma, 1989</small></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">incertae sedis</a></i> <ul><li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><i>Palaeoforda tajmyrensis</i> <small>Kononova, 1977</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><i>Penaphis</i> <small>Lin, 1980</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><i>Plioaphis subhercynica </i> <small>Heie, 1968</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><i>Sbenaphis</i> <small>Scudder, 1890</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><i>Sunaphis</i> <small>Hong & Wang, 1990</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><i>Xilutiancallis</i> <small>Wang, 1991</small></li> <li><abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr><i>Yueaphis</i> <small>Wang, 1993</small></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><b>Aphids</b> are small <a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">sap</a>-sucking <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> and members of the <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">superfamily</a> <b>Aphidoidea</b>. Common names include <b>greenfly</b> and <b>blackfly</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white <a href="/wiki/Eriosomatinae" title="Eriosomatinae">woolly aphids</a>. A typical life cycle involves flightless females giving <a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">live birth</a> to female <a href="/wiki/Nymph_(biology)" title="Nymph (biology)">nymphs</a>—who may also be already <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnant</a>, an adaptation scientists call <a href="/wiki/Telescoping_generations" title="Telescoping generations">telescoping generations</a>—without the involvement of males. <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Maturing</a> rapidly, females breed profusely so that the number of these insects multiplies quickly. Winged females may develop later in the season, allowing the insects to colonize new plants. In <a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate</a> regions, a phase of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Autumn" title="Autumn">autumn</a>, with the insects often overwintering as <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">eggs</a>. </p><p>The life cycle of some species involves an alternation between two species of host plants, for example between an annual crop and a <a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">woody plant</a>. Some species feed on only one type of plant, while others are generalists, colonizing many plant groups. About 5,000 species of aphid have been described, all included in the family <a href="/wiki/Aphididae" title="Aphididae">Aphididae</a>. Around 400 of these are found on <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">food</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fiber_crop" title="Fiber crop">fiber crops</a>, and many are serious pests of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>, as well as an annoyance for <a href="/wiki/Gardener" title="Gardener">gardeners</a>. So-called dairying <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> relationship with aphids, tending them for their <a href="/wiki/Honeydew_(secretion)" title="Honeydew (secretion)">honeydew</a> and protecting them from <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a>. </p><p>Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions. In addition to weakening the plant by sucking sap, they act as <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vectors</a> for <a href="/wiki/Plant_virus" title="Plant virus">plant viruses</a> and disfigure ornamental plants with deposits of honeydew and the subsequent growth of <a href="/wiki/Sooty_mould" class="mw-redirect" title="Sooty mould">sooty moulds</a>. Because of their ability to rapidly increase in numbers by <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> and telescopic development, they are a highly successful group of organisms from an ecological standpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large-scale control of aphids is not easy. <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">Insecticides</a> do not always produce reliable results, because of <a href="/wiki/Pesticide_resistance" title="Pesticide resistance">resistance</a> to several classes of insecticide, and because aphids often feed on the undersides of leaves, and are thus shielded. On a small scale, water jets and soap sprays are quite effective. Natural enemies include predatory <a href="/wiki/Coccinellidae" title="Coccinellidae">ladybugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">hoverfly</a> larvae, <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic wasp">parasitic wasps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aphidoletes_aphidimyza" title="Aphidoletes aphidimyza">aphid midge larvae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crab_spider" class="mw-redirect" title="Crab spider">crab spiders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lacewing" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacewing">lacewing</a> larvae, and <a href="/wiki/Entomopathogenic_fungus" title="Entomopathogenic fungus">entomopathogenic fungi</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Integrated_pest_management" title="Integrated pest management">integrated pest management</a> strategy using <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">biological pest control</a> can work, but is difficult to achieve except in enclosed environments such as <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouses</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphis_koris.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Aphis_koris.svg/110px-Aphis_koris.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Aphis_koris.svg/165px-Aphis_koris.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Aphis_koris.svg/220px-Aphis_koris.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="321" data-file-height="321" /></a><figcaption>Probable etymology of 'aphis' by misreading Greek κόρῐς as αφῐς<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Dict_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Dict-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The name aphid is from <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>'s modern Latin, most likely from misreading the Middle Greek κόρῐς, koris, 'bug' as αφῐς, aphis.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Dict_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Dict-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aphids are <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitan_distribution" title="Cosmopolitan distribution">distributed worldwide</a>, but are most common in <a href="/wiki/Temperate_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate zone">temperate zones</a>. In contrast to many <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a>, aphid species diversity is much lower in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> than in the temperate zones.<sup id="cite_ref-Zyla2017_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zyla2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can migrate great distances, mainly through <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">passive dispersal</a> by winds. Winged aphids may also rise up in the day as high as 600 m where they are transported by strong winds.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the currant-lettuce aphid, <i><a href="/wiki/Nasonovia_ribisnigri" title="Nasonovia ribisnigri">Nasonovia ribisnigri</a></i>, is believed to have spread from <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a> around 2004 through easterly winds.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aphids have also <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">been spread by human transportation</a> of infested plant materials, making some species nearly <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitan_distribution" title="Cosmopolitan distribution">cosmopolitan</a> in their distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vosegus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vosegus.jpg/250px-Vosegus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vosegus.jpg/330px-Vosegus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vosegus.jpg/500px-Vosegus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Forewing of the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle Triassic</a> (early Anisian) aphid <i>Vosegus triassicus</i><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baltic_amber_inclusions_-_Aphid_(Hemiptera,_Sternorrhyncha,_Aphidoidea)7.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Baltic_amber_inclusions_-_Aphid_%28Hemiptera%2C_Sternorrhyncha%2C_Aphidoidea%297.JPG/250px-Baltic_amber_inclusions_-_Aphid_%28Hemiptera%2C_Sternorrhyncha%2C_Aphidoidea%297.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Baltic_amber_inclusions_-_Aphid_%28Hemiptera%2C_Sternorrhyncha%2C_Aphidoidea%297.JPG/330px-Baltic_amber_inclusions_-_Aphid_%28Hemiptera%2C_Sternorrhyncha%2C_Aphidoidea%297.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Baltic_amber_inclusions_-_Aphid_%28Hemiptera%2C_Sternorrhyncha%2C_Aphidoidea%297.JPG/500px-Baltic_amber_inclusions_-_Aphid_%28Hemiptera%2C_Sternorrhyncha%2C_Aphidoidea%297.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2244" data-file-height="2890" /></a><figcaption>An aphid fossilised in <a href="/wiki/Baltic_amber" title="Baltic amber">Baltic amber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_history">Fossil history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fossil history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aphids, and the closely related <a href="/wiki/Adelgidae" title="Adelgidae">adelgids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylloxeridae" title="Phylloxeridae">phylloxerans</a>, probably evolved from a <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common ancestor</a> some <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=280">280</a> million years ago</span>, in the <a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">Early Permian</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-Capinera2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Capinera2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They probably fed on plants like <a href="/wiki/Cordaitales" title="Cordaitales">Cordaitales</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a>. With their soft bodies, aphids do not fossilize well, and the oldest known <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> is of the species <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triassoaphis_cubitus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triassoaphis cubitus (page does not exist)">Triassoaphis cubitus</a></i> from the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They do however sometimes get stuck in plant exudates which solidify into <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>. In 1967, when Professor <a href="/wiki/Ole_Engel_Heie" title="Ole Engel Heie">Ole Heie</a> wrote his monograph <i>Studies on Fossil Aphids</i>, about sixty species have been described from the Triassic, <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> and mostly the <a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a> periods, with <a href="/wiki/Baltic_amber" title="Baltic amber">Baltic amber</a> contributing another forty species.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total number of species was small, but increased considerably with the appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=160">160</a> million years ago</span>, as this allowed aphids to specialise, the speciation of aphids going hand-in-hand with the diversification of flowering plants. The earliest aphids were probably <a href="/wiki/Polyphagous" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphagous">polyphagous</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Monophagy" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophagy">monophagy</a> developing later.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been hypothesized that the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Adelgidae" title="Adelgidae">Adelgidae</a> lived on <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> while those of the Aphididae fed on the sap of <a href="/wiki/Podocarpaceae" title="Podocarpaceae">Podocarpaceae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Araucariaceae" title="Araucariaceae">Araucariaceae</a> that survived extinctions in the late Cretaceous. Organs like the cornicles did not appear until the Cretaceous period.<sup id="cite_ref-Capinera2008_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Capinera2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study alternatively suggests that ancestral aphids may have lived on angiosperm bark and that feeding on leaves may be a <a href="/wiki/Derived_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Derived trait">derived trait</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lachninae" title="Lachninae">Lachninae</a> have long mouth parts that are suitable for living on bark and it has been suggested that the mid-Cretaceous ancestor fed on the bark of angiosperm trees, switching to leaves of conifer hosts in the late Cretaceous.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_Favret_Jiang_Wang_pp._555–572_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen_Favret_Jiang_Wang_pp._555–572-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phylloxeridae may well be the oldest family still extant, but their fossil record is limited to the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Miocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Miocene">Lower Miocene</a> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palaeophylloxera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palaeophylloxera (page does not exist)">Palaeophylloxera</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Taxonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Late 20th-century reclassification within the Hemiptera reduced the old taxon "Homoptera" to two suborders: <a href="/wiki/Sternorrhyncha" title="Sternorrhyncha">Sternorrhyncha</a> (aphids, whiteflies, <a href="/wiki/Scale_insect" title="Scale insect">scales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psylloidea" title="Psylloidea">psyllids</a>, etc.) and <a href="/wiki/Auchenorrhyncha" title="Auchenorrhyncha">Auchenorrhyncha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cicada" title="Cicada">cicadas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leafhopper" title="Leafhopper">leafhoppers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treehopper" title="Treehopper">treehoppers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planthopper" title="Planthopper">planthoppers</a>, etc.) with the suborder <a href="/wiki/Heteroptera" title="Heteroptera">Heteroptera</a> containing a large group of insects known as the <a href="/wiki/True_bugs" class="mw-redirect" title="True bugs">true bugs</a>. The infraorder Aphidomorpha within the Sternorrhyncha varies with circumscription with several fossil groups being especially difficult to place but includes the Adelgoidea, the Aphidoidea and the Phylloxeroidea.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors use a single superfamily Aphidoidea within which the <a href="/wiki/Phylloxeridae" title="Phylloxeridae">Phylloxeridae</a> and Adelgidae are also included while others have Aphidoidea with a sister superfamily Phylloxeroidea within which the Adelgidae and Phylloxeridae are placed.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early 21st-century reclassifications substantially rearranged the families within Aphidoidea: some old families were reduced to subfamily rank (<i>e.g.</i>, <a href="/wiki/Eriosomatidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Eriosomatidae">Eriosomatidae</a>), and many old subfamilies were elevated to family rank. The most recent authoritative classifications have three superfamilies Adelgoidea, Phylloxeroidea and Aphidoidea. The Aphidoidea includes a single large family <a href="/wiki/Aphididae" title="Aphididae">Aphididae</a> that includes all the ~5000<sup id="cite_ref-Zyla2017_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zyla2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> extant species.<sup id="cite_ref-ASF_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ASF-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="External">External</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aphids, adelgids, and <a href="/wiki/Phylloxera" title="Phylloxera">phylloxerids</a> are very closely related within the suborder Sternorrhyncha, the plant-sucking bugs. They are either placed in the insect superfamily Aphidoidea<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or into the superfamily <a href="/wiki/Phylloxeroidea" title="Phylloxeroidea">Phylloxeroidea</a> which contains the family Adelgidae and the family Phylloxeridae.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like aphids, phylloxera feed on the roots, leaves, and shoots of grape plants, but unlike aphids, do not produce <a href="/wiki/Honeydew_(secretion)" title="Honeydew (secretion)">honeydew</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cornicle" title="Cornicle">cornicle</a> secretions.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phylloxera (<i>Daktulosphaira vitifoliae</i>) are insects which caused the <a href="/wiki/Great_French_Wine_Blight" title="Great French Wine Blight">Great French Wine Blight</a> that devastated European <a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">viticulture</a> in the 19th century. Similarly, adelgids or woolly conifer aphids, also feed on plant phloem and are sometimes described as aphids, but are more properly classified as aphid-like insects, because they have no cauda or cornicles.<sup id="cite_ref-McGavin_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGavin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The treatment of the groups especially concerning fossil groups varies greatly due to difficulties in resolving relationships. Most modern treatments include the three superfamilies, the Adelogidea, the Aphidoidea, and the Phylloxeroidea within the infraorder Aphidomorpha along with several fossil groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Favret_Eades_2020_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Favret_Eades_2020-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261294616">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto;display:table}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf p{padding-right:5px;padding-left:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Sternorrhyncha" title="Sternorrhyncha">Sternorrhyncha</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Psylloidea" title="Psylloidea">Psylloidea</a> (jumping plant lice, etc) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Psyllia_pyricola.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Psyllia_pyricola.png/250px-Psyllia_pyricola.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="752" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Aleyrodoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleyrodoidea">Aleyrodoidea</a> (whiteflies) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Neomaskellia_bergii_from_CSIRO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Neomaskellia_bergii_from_CSIRO.jpg/90px-Neomaskellia_bergii_from_CSIRO.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Neomaskellia_bergii_from_CSIRO.jpg/135px-Neomaskellia_bergii_from_CSIRO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Neomaskellia_bergii_from_CSIRO.jpg/180px-Neomaskellia_bergii_from_CSIRO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="203" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Coccoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccoidea">Coccoidea</a> (scale insects) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceroplastes_ceriferus_from_CSIRO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Ceroplastes_ceriferus_from_CSIRO.jpg/120px-Ceroplastes_ceriferus_from_CSIRO.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Ceroplastes_ceriferus_from_CSIRO.jpg/250px-Ceroplastes_ceriferus_from_CSIRO.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Aphidomorpha" title="Aphidomorpha">Aphidomorpha</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Phylloxeroidea" title="Phylloxeroidea">Phylloxeroidea</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Phylloxeridae" title="Phylloxeridae">Phylloxeridae</a> (phylloxerans) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Daktulosphaira_vitifoliae_from_CSIRO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Daktulosphaira_vitifoliae_from_CSIRO.jpg/60px-Daktulosphaira_vitifoliae_from_CSIRO.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Daktulosphaira_vitifoliae_from_CSIRO.jpg/90px-Daktulosphaira_vitifoliae_from_CSIRO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Daktulosphaira_vitifoliae_from_CSIRO.jpg/120px-Daktulosphaira_vitifoliae_from_CSIRO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Adelgidae" title="Adelgidae">Adelgidae</a> (woolly conifer aphids) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chermes_pinifoliae.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chermes_pinifoliae.png/120px-Chermes_pinifoliae.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chermes_pinifoliae.png/250px-Chermes_pinifoliae.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1068" data-file-height="525" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><b>Aphidoidea</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Aphididae" title="Aphididae">Aphididae</a></b> (aphids) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphid_icon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Aphid_icon.png/120px-Aphid_icon.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Aphid_icon.png/250px-Aphid_icon.png 1.5x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="588" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal">Internal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Internal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phylogenetic tree, based on Papasotiropoulos 2013 and Kim 2011, with additions from Ortiz-Rivas and Martinez-Torres 2009, shows the internal <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a> of the Aphididae.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kim2011_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim2011-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ortiz-Rivas_Martínez-Torres_2010_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ortiz-Rivas_Martínez-Torres_2010-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested that the phylogeny of the aphid groups might be revealed by examining the phylogeny of their bacterial <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a>, especially the obligate endosymbiont <i><a href="/wiki/Buchnera_(bacterium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchnera (bacterium)">Buchnera</a></i>. The results depend on the assumption that the symbionts are strictly <a href="/wiki/Vertical_transmission_(symbiont)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical transmission (symbiont)">transmitted vertically</a> through the generations. This assumption is well supported by the evidence, and several phylogenetic relationships have been suggested on the basis of endosymbiont studies.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><b>Aphididae</b> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Lachninae" title="Lachninae">Lachninae</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schizolachnus_sp_20120528.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Schizolachnus_sp_20120528.JPG/120px-Schizolachnus_sp_20120528.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Schizolachnus_sp_20120528.JPG/250px-Schizolachnus_sp_20120528.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="4440" data-file-height="2941" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Hormaphidinae" title="Hormaphidinae">Hormaphidinae</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Witch_Hazel_Cone_Gall_Aphid_-_Flickr_-_treegrow_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Witch_Hazel_Cone_Gall_Aphid_-_Flickr_-_treegrow_%282%29.jpg/80px-Witch_Hazel_Cone_Gall_Aphid_-_Flickr_-_treegrow_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Witch_Hazel_Cone_Gall_Aphid_-_Flickr_-_treegrow_%282%29.jpg/120px-Witch_Hazel_Cone_Gall_Aphid_-_Flickr_-_treegrow_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Witch_Hazel_Cone_Gall_Aphid_-_Flickr_-_treegrow_%282%29.jpg/160px-Witch_Hazel_Cone_Gall_Aphid_-_Flickr_-_treegrow_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Calaphidinae" title="Calaphidinae">Calaphidinae</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calaphis.flava.-.lindsey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Calaphis.flava.-.lindsey.jpg/120px-Calaphis.flava.-.lindsey.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Calaphis.flava.-.lindsey.jpg/250px-Calaphis.flava.-.lindsey.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="426" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Chaitophorinae" title="Chaitophorinae">Chaitophorinae</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Periphyllus_sp._aphids_on_sycamore_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Periphyllus_sp._aphids_on_sycamore_%28cropped%29.jpg/120px-Periphyllus_sp._aphids_on_sycamore_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Periphyllus_sp._aphids_on_sycamore_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Periphyllus_sp._aphids_on_sycamore_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="433" data-file-height="335" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eriosomatinae" title="Eriosomatinae">Eriosomatinae</a> (woolly aphids) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eriosoma_ulmi_(European_Elm_Leafcurl_Aphid).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Eriosoma_ulmi_%28European_Elm_Leafcurl_Aphid%29.jpg/80px-Eriosoma_ulmi_%28European_Elm_Leafcurl_Aphid%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Eriosoma_ulmi_%28European_Elm_Leafcurl_Aphid%29.jpg/120px-Eriosoma_ulmi_%28European_Elm_Leafcurl_Aphid%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Eriosoma_ulmi_%28European_Elm_Leafcurl_Aphid%29.jpg/160px-Eriosoma_ulmi_%28European_Elm_Leafcurl_Aphid%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="646" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Anoeciinae" title="Anoeciinae">Anoeciinae</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anoecia_corni1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Anoecia_corni1.jpg/80px-Anoecia_corni1.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Anoecia_corni1.jpg/120px-Anoecia_corni1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Anoecia_corni1.jpg/160px-Anoecia_corni1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Capitophorus" title="Capitophorus">Capitophorus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pterocomma" title="Pterocomma">Pterocomma</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Aphidinae" title="Aphidinae">Aphidinae</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Macrosiphini" title="Macrosiphini">Macrosiphini</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Macrosiphum_rosae_(alate_i.e._winged_form)_on_a_rose_bud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Macrosiphum_rosae_%28alate_i.e._winged_form%29_on_a_rose_bud.jpg/120px-Macrosiphum_rosae_%28alate_i.e._winged_form%29_on_a_rose_bud.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Macrosiphum_rosae_%28alate_i.e._winged_form%29_on_a_rose_bud.jpg/250px-Macrosiphum_rosae_%28alate_i.e._winged_form%29_on_a_rose_bud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="538" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Aphidini" title="Aphidini">Aphidini</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616" /> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhopalosiphina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhopalosiphina (page does not exist)">Rhopalosiphina</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Snodgrass_Rhopalosiphum_prunifoliae_(wings_closed).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Snodgrass_Rhopalosiphum_prunifoliae_%28wings_closed%29.jpg/100px-Snodgrass_Rhopalosiphum_prunifoliae_%28wings_closed%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Snodgrass_Rhopalosiphum_prunifoliae_%28wings_closed%29.jpg/150px-Snodgrass_Rhopalosiphum_prunifoliae_%28wings_closed%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Snodgrass_Rhopalosiphum_prunifoliae_%28wings_closed%29.jpg/200px-Snodgrass_Rhopalosiphum_prunifoliae_%28wings_closed%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="564" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphidina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aphidina (page does not exist)">Aphidina</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Aphis" title="Aphis">Aphis</a></i> spp) <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphids_May_2010-3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Aphids_May_2010-3.jpg/60px-Aphids_May_2010-3.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Aphids_May_2010-3.jpg/120px-Aphids_May_2010-3.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="832" /></a></span> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schizaphis_graminum_usda_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Schizaphis_graminum_usda_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Schizaphis_graminum_usda_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Schizaphis_graminum_usda_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Schizaphis_graminum_usda_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Schizaphis_graminum_usda_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Schizaphis_graminum_usda_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>Front view of <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> aphid, <i><a href="/wiki/Schizaphis_graminum" title="Schizaphis graminum">Schizaphis graminum</a></i>, showing the piercing-sucking mouthparts</figcaption></figure> <p>Most aphids have soft bodies, which may be green, black, brown, pink, or almost colorless. Aphids have antennae with two short, broad basal segments and up to four slender terminal segments. They have a pair of <a href="/wiki/Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">compound eyes</a>, with an ocular tubercle behind and above each eye, made up of three lenses (called triommatidia).<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They feed on sap using sucking mouthparts called <a href="/wiki/Stylet_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stylet (anatomy)">stylets</a>, enclosed in a sheath called a <a href="/wiki/Rostrum_(anatomy)" title="Rostrum (anatomy)">rostrum</a>, which is formed from modifications of the <a href="/wiki/Mandible_(insect_mouthpart)" title="Mandible (insect mouthpart)">mandible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maxilla_(arthropod_mouthpart)" title="Maxilla (arthropod mouthpart)">maxilla</a> of the insect mouthparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They have long, thin legs with two-jointed, two-clawed <a href="/wiki/Arthropod_leg" title="Arthropod leg">tarsi</a>. The majority of aphids are wingless, but winged forms are produced at certain times of year in many species. Most aphids have a pair of <a href="/wiki/Cornicle" title="Cornicle">cornicles (siphunculi)</a>, abdominal tubes on the dorsal surface of their fifth abdominal segment, through which they exude droplets of a quick-hardening defensive fluid<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> containing <a href="/wiki/Triacylglycerol" class="mw-redirect" title="Triacylglycerol">triacylglycerols</a>, called cornicle wax. Other defensive compounds can also be produced by some species.<sup id="cite_ref-McGavin_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGavin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aphids have a tail-like protrusion called a cauda above their rectal apertures.<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have lost their <a href="/wiki/Malpighian_tubule_system" title="Malpighian tubule system">Malpighian tubules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When host plant quality becomes poor or conditions become crowded, some aphid species produce winged offspring (<a href="/wiki/Alate" title="Alate">alates</a>) that can disperse to other food sources. The mouthparts or eyes can be small or missing in some species and forms.<sup id="cite_ref-McGavin_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGavin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diet">Diet</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woolly_Aphids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Woolly_Aphids.jpg/250px-Woolly_Aphids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Woolly_Aphids.jpg/330px-Woolly_Aphids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Woolly_Aphids.jpg/500px-Woolly_Aphids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Woolly Aphids on Apple tree branch</figcaption></figure> <p>Many aphid species are monophagous (that is, they feed on only one plant species). Others, like the green peach aphid, feed on hundreds of plant species across many <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>. About 10% of species feed on different plants at different times of the year.<sup id="cite_ref-Emden_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emden-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A new host plant is chosen by a winged adult by using visual cues, followed by olfaction using the antennae; if the plant smells right, the next action is probing the surface upon landing. The stylus is inserted and saliva secreted, the sap is sampled, the xylem may be tasted and finally, the phloem is tested. Aphid saliva may inhibit phloem-sealing mechanisms and has pectinases that ease penetration.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-host plants can be rejected at any stage of the probe, but the transfer of viruses occurs early in the investigation process, at the time of the introduction of the saliva, so non-host plants can become infected.<sup id="cite_ref-Emden_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emden-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aphids usually feed passively on <a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">sap</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> vessels in plants, as do many of other hemipterans such as scale insects and cicadas. Once a phloem vessel is punctured, the sap, which is under pressure, is forced into the aphid's food canal. Occasionally, aphids also ingest <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> sap, which is a more dilute diet than phloem sap as the concentrations of sugars and amino acids are 1% of those in the phloem.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xylem sap is under negative hydrostatic pressure and requires active sucking, suggesting an important role in aphid physiology.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As xylem sap ingestion has been observed following a dehydration period, aphids are thought to consume xylem sap to replenish their water balance; the consumption of the dilute sap of xylem permitting aphids to rehydrate.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, recent data showed aphids consume more xylem sap than expected and they notably do so when they are not dehydrated and when their fecundity decreases. This suggests aphids, and potentially, all the phloem-sap feeding species of the order Hemiptera, consume xylem sap for reasons other than replenishing water balance.<sup id="cite_ref-Pompon_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pompon-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although aphids passively take in phloem sap, which is under pressure, they can also draw fluid at negative or atmospheric pressure using the cibarial-pharyngeal pump mechanism present in their head.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Xylem sap consumption may be related to <a href="/wiki/Osmoregulation" title="Osmoregulation">osmoregulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pompon_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pompon-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High osmotic pressure in the stomach, caused by high sucrose concentration, can lead to water transfer from the hemolymph to the stomach, thus resulting in hyperosmotic stress and eventually to the death of the insect. Aphids avoid this fate by osmoregulating through several processes. Sucrose concentration is directly reduced by assimilating sucrose toward metabolism and by synthesizing <a href="/wiki/Oligosaccharide" title="Oligosaccharide">oligosaccharides</a> from several sucrose <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, thus reducing the solute concentration and consequently the osmotic pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oligosaccharides are then excreted through honeydew, explaining its high sugar concentrations, which can then be used by other animals such as ants. Furthermore, water is transferred from the <a href="/wiki/Hindgut" title="Hindgut">hindgut</a>, where osmotic pressure has already been reduced, to the stomach to dilute stomach content.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, aphids consume xylem sap to dilute the stomach osmotic pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Pompon_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pompon-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All these processes function synergetically, and enable aphids to feed on high-sucrose-concentration plant sap, as well as to adapt to varying sucrose concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Pompon_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pompon-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plant sap is an unbalanced diet for aphids, as it lacks <a href="/wiki/Essential_amino_acid" title="Essential amino acid">essential amino acids</a>, which aphids, like all animals, cannot synthesise, and possesses a high <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a> due to its high <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Essential amino acids are provided to aphids by bacterial <a href="/wiki/Endosymbionts" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbionts">endosymbionts</a>, harboured in special cells, <a href="/wiki/Bacteriocyte" title="Bacteriocyte">bacteriocytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These symbionts recycle glutamate, a metabolic waste of their host, into essential amino acids.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carotenoids_and_photoheterotrophy">Carotenoids and photoheterotrophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Carotenoids and photoheterotrophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some species of aphids have acquired the ability to synthesise red <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> by <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are the only animals other than <a href="/wiki/Two-spotted_spider_mites" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-spotted spider mites">two-spotted spider mites</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Oriental_hornet" title="Oriental hornet">oriental hornet</a> with this capability.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using their carotenoids, aphids may well be able to absorb solar energy and convert it to a form that their cells can use, <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>. This is the only known example of <a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">photoheterotrophy</a> in animals. The <a href="/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene">carotene</a> pigments in aphids form a layer close to the surface of the cuticle, ideally placed to absorb sunlight. The excited carotenoids seem to reduce NAD to <a href="/wiki/NADH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADH">NADH</a> which is oxidized in the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> for energy.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soybeanaphidlifecycle.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Soybeanaphidlifecycle.gif/510px-Soybeanaphidlifecycle.gif" decoding="async" width="510" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Soybeanaphidlifecycle.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Soybean_aphid" title="Soybean aphid">Soybean aphid</a> alternates between hosts and between <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang1962_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang1962-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The simplest reproductive strategy is for an aphid to have a single host all year round. On this it may alternate between <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual</a> and asexual generations (holocyclic) or alternatively, all young may be produced by <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">eggs</a> never being laid (anholocyclic). Some species can have both holocyclic and anholocyclic populations under different circumstances but no known aphid species reproduce solely by sexual means.<sup id="cite_ref-Helmut_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helmut-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alternation of sexual and asexual generations may have evolved repeatedly.<sup id="cite_ref-Von_Dohlen_Moran_2000_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Von_Dohlen_Moran_2000-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, aphid reproduction is often more complex than this and involves migration between different host plants. In about 10% of species, there is an alternation between <a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">woody</a> (primary hosts) on which the aphids overwinter and <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbaceous</a> (secondary) host plants, where they reproduce abundantly in the summer.<sup id="cite_ref-McGavin_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGavin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Helmut_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helmut-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few species can produce a soldier caste, other species show extensive <a href="/wiki/Polyphenism" title="Polyphenism">polyphenism</a> under different environmental conditions and some can control the sex ratio of their offspring depending on external factors.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a typical sophisticated reproductive strategy is used, only females are present in the population at the beginning of the seasonal cycle (although a few species of aphids have been found to have both male and female sexes at this time). The overwintering eggs that hatch in the spring result in females, called fundatrices (stem mothers). Reproduction typically does not involve males (<a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a>) and results in a live birth (<a href="/wiki/Viviparity" title="Viviparity">viviparity</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Blackman2008_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackman2008-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The live young are produced by pseudoplacental viviparity, which is the development of eggs, deficient in the yolk, the embryos fed by a tissue acting as a placenta. The young emerge from the mother soon after hatching.<sup id="cite_ref-GullanCranston2010_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GullanCranston2010-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eggs are parthenogenetically produced without <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hales2002_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hales2002-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Blackman2008_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackman2008-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the offspring are clonal to their mother, so they are all female (<a href="/wiki/Thelytoky" title="Thelytoky">thelytoky</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GullanCranston2010_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GullanCranston2010-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The embryos develop within the mothers' <a href="/wiki/Ovarioles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovarioles">ovarioles</a>, which then give birth to live (already hatched) first-<a href="/wiki/Instar" title="Instar">instar</a> female nymphs. As the eggs begin to develop immediately after ovulation, an adult female can house developing female nymphs which already have parthenogenetically developing embryos inside them (i.e. they are born pregnant). This <a href="/wiki/Telescoping_generations" title="Telescoping generations">telescoping of generations</a> enables aphids to increase in number with great rapidity. The offspring resemble their parent in every way except size. Thus, a female's diet can affect the body size and birth rate of more than two generations (daughters and granddaughters).<sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This process repeats itself throughout the summer, producing multiple generations that typically live 20 to 40 days. For example, some species of cabbage aphids (like <i><a href="/wiki/Brevicoryne_brassicae" title="Brevicoryne brassicae">Brevicoryne brassicae</a></i>) can produce up to 41 generations of females in a season. Thus, one female hatched in spring can theoretically produce billions of descendants, were they all to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphid-giving-birth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Aphid-giving-birth.jpg/220px-Aphid-giving-birth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Aphid-giving-birth.jpg/330px-Aphid-giving-birth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Aphid-giving-birth.jpg/440px-Aphid-giving-birth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>Aphid giving birth to live young: populations are often entirely female.</figcaption></figure> <p>In autumn, aphids reproduce sexually and <a href="/wiki/Oviparity" title="Oviparity">lay eggs</a>. Environmental factors such as a change in <a href="/wiki/Photoperiod" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoperiod">photoperiod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, or perhaps a lower food quantity or quality, causes females to parthenogenetically produce sexual females and males.<sup id="cite_ref-Hales2002_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hales2002-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The males are genetically identical to their mothers except that, with the aphids' <a href="/wiki/X0_sex-determination_system" class="mw-redirect" title="X0 sex-determination system">X0 sex-determination system</a>, they have one fewer <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hales2002_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hales2002-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These sexual aphids may lack wings or even mouthparts.<sup id="cite_ref-McGavin_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGavin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sexual females and males mate, and females lay eggs that develop outside the mother. The eggs survive the winter and hatch into winged (alate) or wingless females the following spring. This occurs in, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Rose_aphid" class="mw-redirect" title="Rose aphid">rose aphid</a> (<i>Macrosiphum rosae</i>), which may be considered typical of the family. However, in warm environments, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a>, aphids may go on reproducing asexually for many years.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Aphids reproducing asexually by <a href="/wiki/Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a> can have genetically identical winged and non-winged female progeny. Control is complex; some aphids alternate during their life-cycles between genetic control (<a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphism</a>) and environmental control (<a href="/wiki/Polyphenism" title="Polyphenism">polyphenism</a>) of production of winged or wingless forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Brisson_2010_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brisson_2010-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Winged progeny tend to be produced more abundantly under unfavorable or stressful conditions. Some species produce winged progeny in response to low food quality or quantity. e.g. when a host plant is starting to <a href="/wiki/Senesce" class="mw-redirect" title="Senesce">senesce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The winged females migrate to start new colonies on a new host plant. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Apple_aphid" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple aphid">apple aphid</a> (<i>Aphis pomi</i>), after producing many generations of wingless females gives rise to winged forms that fly to other branches or trees of its typical food plant.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aphids that are attacked by <a href="/wiki/Coccinellidae" title="Coccinellidae">ladybugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroptera" title="Neuroptera">lacewings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid_wasp" title="Parasitoid wasp">parasitoid wasps</a>, or other predators can change the dynamics of their progeny production. When aphids are attacked by these predators, alarm pheromones, in particular <a href="/wiki/Farnesene" title="Farnesene">beta-farnesene</a>, are released from the <a href="/wiki/Cornicle" title="Cornicle">cornicles</a>. These alarm pheromones cause several behavioral modifications that, depending on the aphid species, can include walking away and dropping off the host plant. Additionally, alarm pheromone perception can induce the aphids to produce winged progeny that can leave the host plant in search of a safer feeding site.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viral infections, which can be extremely harmful to aphids, can also lead to the production of winged offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Ambidensovirus" title="Ambidensovirus">Densovirus</a></i> infection has a negative impact on rosy apple aphid (<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://influentialpoints.com/Gallery/Dysaphis_plantaginea_Rosy_apple_aphid.htm">Dysaphis plantaginea</a></i>) reproduction, but contributes to the development of aphids with wings, which can transmit the virus more easily to new host plants.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, symbiotic bacteria that live inside of the aphids can also alter aphid reproductive strategies based on the exposure to environmental stressors.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg/330px-Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg/500px-Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg/960px-Snodgrass_Aphis_pomi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1515" data-file-height="1515" /></a><figcaption>The life stages of the green apple aphid (<i>Aphis pomi</i>). Drawing by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Evans_Snodgrass" title="Robert Evans Snodgrass">Robert Evans Snodgrass</a>, 1930</figcaption></figure> <p>In the autumn, host-alternating (<a href="/wiki/Heteroecious" title="Heteroecious">heteroecious</a>) aphid species produce a special winged generation that flies to different host plants for the sexual part of the life cycle. Flightless female and male sexual forms are produced and lay eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species such as <i><a href="/wiki/Aphis_fabae" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphis fabae">Aphis fabae</a></i> (black bean aphid), <i><a href="/wiki/Metopolophium_dirhodum" title="Metopolophium dirhodum">Metopolophium dirhodum</a></i> (rose-grain aphid), <i><a href="/wiki/Myzus_persicae" title="Myzus persicae">Myzus persicae</a></i> (peach-potato aphid), and <i><a href="/wiki/Rhopalosiphum_padi" title="Rhopalosiphum padi">Rhopalosiphum padi</a></i> (bird cherry-oat aphid) are serious pests. They overwinter on primary hosts on trees or bushes; in summer, they migrate to their secondary host on a herbaceous plant, often a crop, then the gynoparae return to the tree in autumn. Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Soybean_aphid" title="Soybean aphid">soybean aphid</a> (<i>Aphis glycines</i>). As fall approaches, the soybean plants begin to senesce from the bottom upwards. The aphids are forced upwards and start to produce winged forms, first females and later males, which fly off to the primary host, <a href="/wiki/Buckthorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckthorn">buckthorn</a>. Here they mate and overwinter as eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang1962_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang1962-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ant_mutualism">Ant mutualism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ant mutualism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ant_guards_its_Aphids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Ant_guards_its_Aphids.jpg/250px-Ant_guards_its_Aphids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Ant_guards_its_Aphids.jpg/330px-Ant_guards_its_Aphids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Ant_guards_its_Aphids.jpg/500px-Ant_guards_its_Aphids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1725" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>An ant guards its aphids</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myrmica_puceron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Myrmica_puceron.jpg/330px-Myrmica_puceron.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Myrmica_puceron.jpg/500px-Myrmica_puceron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Myrmica_puceron.jpg/520px-Myrmica_puceron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Ants tending aphids</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ant_feeding_on_honeydew.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ant_feeding_on_honeydew.JPG/220px-Ant_feeding_on_honeydew.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ant_feeding_on_honeydew.JPG/330px-Ant_feeding_on_honeydew.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Ant_feeding_on_honeydew.JPG/440px-Ant_feeding_on_honeydew.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1176" data-file-height="1030" /></a><figcaption>Ant extracting honeydew from an aphid</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/220px-seek%3D35-Aphids_and_ants.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="141" data-mwtitle="Aphids_and_ants.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Aphids_and_ants.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/Aphids_and_ants.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/Aphids_and_ants.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/Aphids_and_ants.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/Aphids_and_ants.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/Aphids_and_ants.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/Aphids_and_ants.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c5/Aphids_and_ants.webm/Aphids_and_ants.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">Ants</a> tending aphids and collecting <a href="/wiki/Honeydew_(secretion)" title="Honeydew (secretion)">honeydew</a> secreted. A <a href="/wiki/Podabrus_rugosulus" title="Podabrus rugosulus">wrinkled solder beetle</a> flies in and eats an aphid before being chased away by the ants.</figcaption></figure> <p>Some species of <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> farm aphids, protecting them on the plants where they are feeding, and consuming the honeydew the aphids release from the <a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">terminations</a> of their <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">alimentary canals</a>. This is a <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic relationship</a>, with these dairying ants milking the aphids by stroking them with their <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hooper_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooper-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although mutualistic, the feeding behaviour of aphids is altered by ant attendance. Aphids attended by ants tend to increase the production of honeydew in smaller drops with a greater concentration of amino acids.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some farming ant species gather and store the aphid eggs in their nests over the winter. In the spring, the ants carry the newly hatched aphids back to the plants. Some species of dairying ants (such as the European <a href="/wiki/Yellow_meadow_ant" title="Yellow meadow ant">yellow meadow ant</a>, <i>Lasius flavus</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-wootton_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wootton-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> manage large herds of aphids that feed on roots of plants in the ant colony. Queens leaving to start a new colony take an aphid egg to found a new herd of underground aphids in the new colony. These farming ants protect the aphids by fighting off aphid predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooper_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooper-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a> in <a href="/wiki/Coniferous_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniferous forest">coniferous forests</a> collect aphid honeydew to make <a href="/wiki/Honey#Honeydew_honey" title="Honey">forest honey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An interesting variation in ant–aphid relationships involves <a href="/wiki/Lycaenidae" title="Lycaenidae">lycaenid butterflies</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Myrmica" title="Myrmica">Myrmica</a></i> ants. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Niphanda_fusca" title="Niphanda fusca">Niphanda fusca</a></i> butterflies lay eggs on plants where ants tend herds of aphids. The eggs hatch as <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar" title="Caterpillar">caterpillars</a> which feed on the aphids. The ants do not defend the aphids from the caterpillars, since the caterpillars produce a <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromone</a> which deceives the ants into treating them like ants, and carrying the caterpillars into their nest. Once there, the ants feed the caterpillars, which in return produce honeydew for the ants. When the caterpillars reach full size, they crawl to the colony entrance and form <a href="/wiki/Cocoon_(silk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocoon (silk)">cocoons</a>. After two weeks, the adult butterflies emerge and take flight. At this point, the ants attack the butterflies, but the butterflies have a sticky wool-like substance on their wings that disables the ants' jaws, allowing the butterflies to fly away without being harmed.<sup id="cite_ref-I&S_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I&S-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another <a href="/wiki/Ant_mimicry" title="Ant mimicry">ant-mimicking</a> gall aphid, <i><a href="/wiki/Paracletus_cimiciformis" title="Paracletus cimiciformis">Paracletus cimiciformis</a></i> (Eriosomatinae), has evolved a complex double strategy involving two morphs of the same clone and <i><a href="/wiki/Tetramorium" title="Tetramorium">Tetramorium</a></i> ants. Aphids of the round morph cause the ants to farm them, as with many other aphids. The flat morph aphids are <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">aggressive mimics</a> with a "<a href="/wiki/Wolf_in_sheep%27s_clothing" title="Wolf in sheep's clothing">wolf in sheep's clothing</a>" strategy: they have hydrocarbons in their cuticle that mimic those of the ants, and the ants carry them into the brood chamber of the ants' nest and raise them like ant larvae. Once there, the flat morph aphids behave like predators, drinking the body fluids of ant larvae.<sup id="cite_ref-SalazarFürstenau2015_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SalazarFürstenau2015-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacterial_endosymbiosis">Bacterial endosymbiosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bacterial endosymbiosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiosis">Endosymbiosis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Micro-organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-organism">micro-organisms</a> is common in insects, with more than 10% of insect species relying on intracellular bacteria for their development and survival.<sup id="cite_ref-BaumannMoran2006_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BaumannMoran2006-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aphids harbour a vertically transmitted (from parent to its offspring) obligate <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> with <i><a href="/wiki/Buchnera_aphidicola" title="Buchnera aphidicola">Buchnera aphidicola</a></i>, the primary symbiont, inside specialized cells, the <a href="/wiki/Bacteriocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriocytes">bacteriocytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Douglas1998_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Douglas1998-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Five of the bacteria genes have been transferred to the aphid nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original association is estimated to have occurred in a common ancestor <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=280–160">280 to 160</a> million years ago</span> and enabled aphids to exploit a new <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a>, feeding on phloem-sap of vascular plants. <i>B. aphidicola</i> provides its host with essential amino acids, which are present in low concentrations in plant sap.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The metabolites from endosymbionts are also excreted in honeydew.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stable intracellular conditions, as well as the bottleneck effect experienced during the transmission of a few bacteria from the mother to each nymph, increase the probability of transmission of mutations and gene deletions.<sup id="cite_ref-Perez-BrocalGil2006_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perez-BrocalGil2006-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MiraMoran2002_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MiraMoran2002-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the size of the <i>B. aphidicola</i> genome is greatly reduced, compared to its putative ancestor.<sup id="cite_ref-SakakiShigenobu2000_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SakakiShigenobu2000-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the apparent loss of <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factors</a> in the reduced genome, <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> is highly regulated, as shown by the ten-fold variation in expression levels between different genes under normal conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-ViñuelasCalevro2007_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ViñuelasCalevro2007-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Buchnera aphidicola</i> <a href="/wiki/Gene_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene transcription">gene transcription</a>, although not well understood, is thought to be regulated by a small number of global transcriptional regulators and/or through nutrient supplies from the aphid host.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some aphid colonies also harbour secondary or facultative (optional extra) bacterial symbionts. These are vertically transmitted, and sometimes also horizontally (from one lineage to another and possibly from one species to another).<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SakuraiKoga2005_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SakuraiKoga2005-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So far, the role of only some of the secondary symbionts has been described; <i><a href="/wiki/Regiella_insecticola" title="Regiella insecticola">Regiella insecticola</a></i> plays a role in defining the host-plant range,<sup id="cite_ref-FerrariScarborough2007_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FerrariScarborough2007-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SimonCarre2003_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SimonCarre2003-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonella_defensa" title="Hamiltonella defensa">Hamiltonella defensa</a></i> provides resistance to parasitoids but only when it is in turn infected by the <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> APSE,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Serratia_symbiotica" title="Serratia symbiotica">Serratia symbiotica</a></i> prevents the deleterious effects of heat.<sup id="cite_ref-OliverMoran2006_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OliverMoran2006-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predators">Predators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Predators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aphids are eaten by many bird and insect predators. In a study on a farm in <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, six species of <a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">passerine bird</a> consumed nearly a million aphids per day between them, the top predators being the <a href="/wiki/American_goldfinch" title="American goldfinch">American goldfinch</a>, with aphids forming 83% of its diet, and the <a href="/wiki/Vesper_sparrow" title="Vesper sparrow">vesper sparrow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Capinera2011_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Capinera2011-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insects that attack aphids include the adults and larvae of predatory ladybirds, <a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">hoverfly</a> larvae, parasitic <a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aphid_midge" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphid midge">aphid midge</a> larvae, "aphid lions" (the larvae of <a href="/wiki/Green_lacewings" class="mw-redirect" title="Green lacewings">green lacewings</a>), and arachnids such as <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a>. Among ladybirds, <i><a href="/wiki/Myzia_oblongoguttata" title="Myzia oblongoguttata">Myzia oblongoguttata</a></i> is a dietary specialist which only feeds on conifer aphids, whereas <i><a href="/wiki/Adalia_bipunctata" title="Adalia bipunctata">Adalia bipunctata</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Coccinella_septempunctata" title="Coccinella septempunctata">Coccinella septempunctata</a></i> are generalists, feeding on large numbers of species. The eggs are laid in batches, each female laying several hundred. Female hoverflies lay several thousand eggs. The adults feed on pollen and nectar but the larvae feed voraciously on aphids; <i><a href="/wiki/Eupeodes_corollae" title="Eupeodes corollae">Eupeodes corollae</a></i> adjusts the number of eggs laid to the size of the aphid colony.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:581px;max-width:581px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Predators eating aphids</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphid-attack.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Aphid-attack.jpg/250px-Aphid-attack.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Aphid-attack.jpg/500px-Aphid-attack.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="853" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Ladybird" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladybird">Ladybird</a> <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larva</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrphid.maggot3554.5.13.08cw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Syrphid.maggot3554.5.13.08cw.jpg/250px-Syrphid.maggot3554.5.13.08cw.jpg" decoding="async" width="161" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Syrphid.maggot3554.5.13.08cw.jpg/330px-Syrphid.maggot3554.5.13.08cw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1441" data-file-height="1245" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">Hoverfly</a> larva</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:185px;max-width:185px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P-14_lady_beetle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/P-14_lady_beetle.jpg/250px-P-14_lady_beetle.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/P-14_lady_beetle.jpg/330px-P-14_lady_beetle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/P-14_lady_beetle.jpg/500px-P-14_lady_beetle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1445" data-file-height="1185" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The ladybird beetle <i><a href="/wiki/Propylea_quatuordecimpunctata" title="Propylea quatuordecimpunctata">Propylea quatuordecimpunctata</a></i></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Aphids are often infected by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, and fungi. They are affected by the weather, such as <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-brust_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brust-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> temperature<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi that attack aphids include <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neozygites_fresenii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neozygites fresenii (page does not exist)">Neozygites fresenii</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Entomophthora" title="Entomophthora">Entomophthora</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Beauveria_bassiana" title="Beauveria bassiana">Beauveria bassiana</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Metarhizium_anisopliae" title="Metarhizium anisopliae">Metarhizium anisopliae</a></i>, and entomopathogenic fungi such as <i><a href="/wiki/Lecanicillium_lecanii" title="Lecanicillium lecanii">Lecanicillium lecanii</a></i>. Aphids brush against the microscopic spores. These stick to the aphid, germinate, and penetrate the aphid's skin. The fungus grows in the aphid's <a href="/wiki/Hemolymph" title="Hemolymph">hemolymph</a>. After about three days, the aphid dies and the fungus releases more spores into the air. Infected aphids are covered with a woolly mass that progressively grows thicker until the aphid is obscured. Often, the visible fungus is not the one that killed the aphid, but a secondary infection.<sup id="cite_ref-brust_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brust-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aphids can be easily killed by unfavourable weather, such as late spring freezes.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excessive heat kills the symbiotic bacteria that some aphids depend on, which makes the aphids infertile.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rain prevents winged aphids from dispersing, and knocks aphids off plants and thus kills them from the impact or by starvation,<sup id="cite_ref-brust_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brust-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but cannot be relied on for aphid control.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-predator_defences">Anti-predator defences</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Anti-predator defences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphid-sap2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Aphid-sap2.jpg/250px-Aphid-sap2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Aphid-sap2.jpg/330px-Aphid-sap2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Aphid-sap2.jpg/500px-Aphid-sap2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>Aphid secreting defensive fluid from the cornicles</figcaption></figure> <p>Most aphids have little protection from predators. Some species interact with plant tissues forming a <a href="/wiki/Gall" title="Gall">gall</a>, an abnormal swelling of plant tissue. Aphids can live inside the gall, which provides protection from predators and the elements. A number of galling aphid species are known to produce specialised "soldier" forms, sterile nymphs with defensive features which defend the gall from invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kutsukake2012_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kutsukake2012-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Alexander's horned aphids are a type of soldier aphid that has a hard <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pincer_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pincer (biology)">pincer</a>-like mouthparts.<sup id="cite_ref-I&S_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I&S-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 144">: 144 </span></sup> A woolly aphid, <i><a href="/wiki/Colophina_clematis" title="Colophina clematis">Colophina clematis</a></i>, has first instar "soldier" nymphs that protect the aphid colony, killing larvae of ladybirds, hoverflies and the flower bug <i><a href="/wiki/Anthocoris_nemoralis" title="Anthocoris nemoralis">Anthocoris nemoralis</a></i> by climbing on them and inserting their stylets.<sup id="cite_ref-Preston_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Preston-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although aphids cannot fly for most of their life cycle, they can escape predators and accidental ingestion by herbivores by dropping off the plant onto the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others species use the soil as a permanent protection, feeding on the vascular systems of roots and remaining underground all their lives. They are often attended by ants, for the honeydew they produce and are carried from plant to plant by the ants through their tunnels.<sup id="cite_ref-Capinera2011_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Capinera2011-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some species of aphid, known as "woolly aphids" (<a href="/wiki/Eriosomatinae" title="Eriosomatinae">Eriosomatinae</a>), excrete a "fluffy wax coating" for protection.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cabbage aphid, <i><a href="/wiki/Brevicoryne_brassicae" title="Brevicoryne brassicae">Brevicoryne brassicae</a></i>, sequesters secondary metabolites from its host, stores them and releases chemicals that produce a violent <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> and strong <a href="/wiki/Mustard_oil" title="Mustard oil">mustard oil</a> smell to repel predators.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peptides produced by aphids, <a href="/wiki/Thaumatin" title="Thaumatin">Thaumatins</a>, are thought to provide them with resistance to some fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was common at one time to suggest that the cornicles were the source of the honeydew, and this was even included in the <i><a href="/wiki/Shorter_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Shorter Oxford English Dictionary">Shorter Oxford English Dictionary</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 2008 edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/World_Book_Encyclopedia" title="World Book Encyclopedia">World Book Encyclopedia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, honeydew secretions are produced from the anus of the aphid,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while cornicles mostly produce defensive chemicals such as waxes. There also is evidence of cornicle wax <a href="/wiki/Kairomone" title="Kairomone">attracting aphid predators</a> in some cases.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some clones of <i><a href="/wiki/Aphis_craccivora" title="Aphis craccivora">Aphis craccivora</a></i> are sufficiently toxic to the invasive and dominant predatory ladybird <i><a href="/wiki/Harmonia_axyridis" title="Harmonia axyridis">Harmonia axyridis</a></i> to suppress it locally, favouring other ladybird species; the toxicity is in this case narrowly specific to the dominant predator species.<sup id="cite_ref-Lenhart_Jackson_White_p=20180523_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lenhart_Jackson_White_p=20180523-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parasitoids">Parasitoids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Parasitoids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">Parasitoid</a></div> <p>Aphids are abundant and widespread, and serve as hosts to a large number of <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">parasitoids</a>, many of them being very small (c. 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) long) <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid_wasp" title="Parasitoid wasp">parasitoid wasps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One species, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphis_ruborum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aphis ruborum (page does not exist)">Aphis ruborum</a></i>, for example, is host to at least 12 species of parasitoid wasps.<sup id="cite_ref-Havelka_Tomanović_Kavallieratos_Rakhshani_pp._386–394_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Havelka_Tomanović_Kavallieratos_Rakhshani_pp._386–394-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parasitoids have been investigated intensively as biological control agents, and many are used commercially for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-management-ucd_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-management-ucd-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plant-aphid_interactions">Plant-aphid interactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Plant-aphid interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012.10.19.-25-Mannheim_Vogelstang-Blattlaeuse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/2012.10.19.-25-Mannheim_Vogelstang-Blattlaeuse.jpg/250px-2012.10.19.-25-Mannheim_Vogelstang-Blattlaeuse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/2012.10.19.-25-Mannheim_Vogelstang-Blattlaeuse.jpg/330px-2012.10.19.-25-Mannheim_Vogelstang-Blattlaeuse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/2012.10.19.-25-Mannheim_Vogelstang-Blattlaeuse.jpg/500px-2012.10.19.-25-Mannheim_Vogelstang-Blattlaeuse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4976" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption>Aphids on plant host</figcaption></figure> <p>Plants mount local and systemic defenses against aphid attack. Young leaves in some plants contain chemicals that discourage attack while the older leaves have lost this resistance, while in other plant species, resistance is acquired by older tissues and the young shoots are vulnerable. Volatile products from interplanted onions have been shown to prevent aphid attack on adjacent potato plants by encouraging the production of <a href="/wiki/Terpenoid" title="Terpenoid">terpenoids</a>, a benefit exploited in the traditional practice of <a href="/wiki/Companion_planting" title="Companion planting">companion planting</a>, while plants neighboring infested plants showed increased root growth at the expense of the extension of aerial parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Emden_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emden-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wild potato, <i><a href="/wiki/Solanum_berthaultii" title="Solanum berthaultii">Solanum berthaultii</a></i>, produces an aphid alarm pheromone, (E)-β-<a href="/wiki/Farnesene" title="Farnesene">farnesene</a>, as an <a href="/wiki/Allomone" title="Allomone">allomone</a>, a pheromone to ward off attack; it effectively repels the aphid <i><a href="/wiki/Myzus_persicae" title="Myzus persicae">Myzus persicae</a></i> at a range of up to 3 millimetres.<sup id="cite_ref-GibsonPickett1983_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GibsonPickett1983-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>S. berthaultii</i> and other wild potato species have a further anti-aphid defence in the form of glandular hairs which, when broken by aphids, discharge a sticky liquid that can immobilise some 30% of the aphids infesting a plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson1971_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson1971-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plants exhibiting aphid damage can have a variety of symptoms, such as decreased growth rates, mottled leaves, yellowing, stunted growth, curled leaves, browning, wilting, low yields, and death. The removal of sap creates a lack of vigor in the plant, and aphid saliva is toxic to plants. Aphids frequently transmit <a href="/wiki/Plant_virus" title="Plant virus">plant viruses</a> to their hosts, such as to <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugarbeet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugarbeet">sugarbeets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two types of virus transmission between plant-aphid interactions: non-circulative transmission and circulative transmission. In non-circulative transmission, the virus attaches itself to the aphids <a href="/wiki/Insect_mouthparts" title="Insect mouthparts">mouthparts</a> and is released when the aphids feed on a different plant. These non-circulatory transmitted viruses promotes rapid dispersion of the vector, or aphids. In circulative transmission, the virus is ingested and passes through the gut lining to enter the <a href="/wiki/Hemolymph" title="Hemolymph">hemolymph</a>, where it is then circulated throughout the entire body. After reaching the <a href="/wiki/Salivary_glands" class="mw-redirect" title="Salivary glands">salivary glands</a>, the virus is then released into the saliva upon transmission sites in plants. Circulatory transmitted viruses allows for long-term feeding by the aphids and increases the chances of being infected with the virus.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The green peach aphid, <i><a href="/wiki/Myzus_persicae" title="Myzus persicae">Myzus persicae</a></i>, is a vector for more than 110 plant viruses. Cotton aphids (<i>Aphis gossypii</i>) often infect <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papaya" title="Papaya">papaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a> with viruses.<sup id="cite_ref-McGavin_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGavin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In plants which produce the phytoestrogen <a href="/wiki/Coumestrol" title="Coumestrol">coumestrol</a>, such as alfalfa, damage by aphids is linked with higher concentrations of coumestrol.<sup id="cite_ref-USDA_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDA-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blattlaus_mit_Honigtau_6644.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Blattlaus_mit_Honigtau_6644.jpg/250px-Blattlaus_mit_Honigtau_6644.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Blattlaus_mit_Honigtau_6644.jpg/330px-Blattlaus_mit_Honigtau_6644.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Blattlaus_mit_Honigtau_6644.jpg/500px-Blattlaus_mit_Honigtau_6644.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="749" /></a><figcaption>Aphid with honeydew, from the anus, not the cornicles</figcaption></figure> <p>The coating of plants with honeydew can contribute to the spread of fungi which can damage plants.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Honeydew produced by aphids has been observed to reduce the effectiveness of fungicides as well.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A hypothesis that insect feeding may improve plant fitness was floated in the mid-1970s by Owen and Wiegert. It was felt that the excess honeydew would nourish soil micro-organisms, including nitrogen fixers. In a nitrogen-poor environment, this could provide an advantage to an infested plant over an uninfested plant. However, this does not appear to be supported by observational evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociality">Sociality</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sociality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some aphids show some of the traits of <a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">eusociality</a>, joining insects such as ants, bees, and <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a>. However, there are differences between these sexual social insects and the clonal aphids, which are all descended from a single female parthenogenetically and share an identical <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. About fifty species of aphid, scattered among the closely related, host-alternating lineages <a href="/wiki/Eriosomatinae" title="Eriosomatinae">Eriosomatinae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hormaphidinae" title="Hormaphidinae">Hormaphidinae</a>, have some type of defensive morph. These are gall-creating species, with the colony living and feeding inside a gall that they form in the host's tissues. Among the clonal population of these aphids, there may be several distinct morphs and this lays the foundation for a possible specialization of function, in this case, a defensive caste. The soldier morphs are mostly first and second instars with the third instar being involved in <i>Eriosoma moriokense</i> and only in <i>Smythurodes betae</i> are adult soldiers known. The hind legs of soldiers are clawed, heavily sclerotized and the stylets are robust making it possible to rupture and crush small predators.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larval soldiers are altruistic individuals, unable to advance to breeding adults but acting permanently in the interests of the colony. Another requirement for the development of sociality is provided by the gall, a colonial home to be defended by the soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Choe_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choe-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The soldiers of gall-forming aphids also carry out the job of cleaning the gall. The honeydew secreted by the aphids is coated in a powdery wax to form "<a href="/wiki/Liquid_marbles" title="Liquid marbles">liquid marbles</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-Pike2002_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pike2002-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the soldiers roll out of the gall through small orifices.<sup id="cite_ref-Kutsukake2012_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kutsukake2012-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aphids that form closed galls use the plant's vascular system for their plumbing: the inner surfaces of the galls are highly absorbent and wastes are absorbed and carried away by the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Kutsukake2012_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kutsukake2012-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactions_with_humans">Interactions with humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Interactions with humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pest_status">Pest status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pest status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>About 5000 species of aphid have been described and of these, some 450 species have colonized food and fiber crops. As direct feeders on plant sap, they damage crops and reduce yields, but they have a greater impact by being <a href="/wiki/Vector_(disease)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (disease)">vectors</a> of plant viruses. The transmission of these viruses depends on the movements of aphids between different parts of a plant, between nearby plants, and further afield. In this respect, the probing behavior of an aphid tasting a host is more damaging than lengthy aphid feeding and reproduction by stay-put individuals. The movement of aphids influences the timing of virus epidemics.<sup id="cite_ref-vanEmden_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanEmden-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are major pests of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a> crops and species often encountered in greenhouses include: green peach aphid (<i><a href="/wiki/Myzus_persicae" title="Myzus persicae">Myzus persicae</a></i>), cotton or melon aphid (<i><a href="/wiki/Aphis_gossypii" title="Aphis gossypii">Aphis gossypii</a></i>), potato aphid (<i><a href="/wiki/Macrosiphum_euphorbiae" title="Macrosiphum euphorbiae">Macrosiphum euphorbiae</a></i>), foxglove aphid (<i><a href="/wiki/Aulacorthum_solani" title="Aulacorthum solani">Aulacorthum solani</a></i>) and chrysanthemum aphid (<i><a href="/wiki/Macrosiphoniella_sanborni" title="Macrosiphoniella sanborni">Macrosiphoniella sanborni</a></i>) and others, which cause leaf yellowing, distorted leaves, and plant stunting; the excreted honeydew is a growing medium for a number of fungal pathogens including black sooty molds from the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Capnodium" title="Capnodium">Capnodium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fumago" title="Fumago">Fumago</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Scorias" title="Scorias">Scorias</a></i> which then infect leaves and inhibit growth by reducing <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aphids, especially during large outbreaks, have been known to trigger allergic inhalant reactions in sensitive humans.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dispersal can be by walking or flight, appetitive dispersal, or by migration. Winged aphids are weak fliers, lose their wings after a few days and only fly by day. Dispersal by flight is affected by the impact, air currents, gravity, precipitation, and other factors, or dispersal may be accidental, caused by the movement of plant materials, animals, farm machinery, vehicles, or aircraft.<sup id="cite_ref-vanEmden_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanEmden-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control">Control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wasp_%26_aphid_May_2010-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Wasp_%26_aphid_May_2010-1.jpg/250px-Wasp_%26_aphid_May_2010-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Wasp_%26_aphid_May_2010-1.jpg/330px-Wasp_%26_aphid_May_2010-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Wasp_%26_aphid_May_2010-1.jpg/500px-Wasp_%26_aphid_May_2010-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parasitoid_wasp" title="Parasitoid wasp">Parasitoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Braconid_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Braconid wasp">braconid wasp</a> ovipositing in <a href="/wiki/Black_bean_aphid" title="Black bean aphid">black bean aphid</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">Insecticide</a> control of aphids is difficult, as they breed rapidly, so even small areas missed may enable the population to recover promptly. Aphids may occupy the undersides of leaves where spray misses them, while <a href="/wiki/Systemic_insecticide" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic insecticide">systemic insecticides</a> do not move satisfactorily into flower petals. Finally, some aphid species are <a href="/wiki/Insecticide_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecticide resistance">resistant to common insecticide classes</a> including <a href="/wiki/Carbamate" title="Carbamate">carbamates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pyrethroid" title="Pyrethroid">pyrethroids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For small backyard infestations, spraying plants thoroughly with a strong water jet every few days may be sufficient protection. An <a href="/wiki/Insecticidal_soap" title="Insecticidal soap">insecticidal soap</a> solution can be an effective household remedy to control aphids, but it only kills aphids on contact and has no residual effect. Soap spray may damage plants, especially at higher concentrations or at temperatures above 32 °C (90 °F); some plant species are sensitive to soap sprays.<sup id="cite_ref-management-ucd_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-management-ucd-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-soap-uc_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soap-uc-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-soap-clemson_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soap-clemson-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pandora_neoaphidis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Pandora_neoaphidis.jpg/250px-Pandora_neoaphidis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Pandora_neoaphidis.jpg/330px-Pandora_neoaphidis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Pandora_neoaphidis.jpg/500px-Pandora_neoaphidis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Green peach aphid, <i><a href="/wiki/Myzus_persicae" title="Myzus persicae">Myzus persicae</a></i>, killed by the fungus <i><a href="/wiki/Pandora_(fungus)" title="Pandora (fungus)">Pandora neoaphidis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Entomophthorales" title="Entomophthorales">Entomophthorales</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Aphid populations can be sampled using yellow-pan or <a href="/wiki/Volker_Moericke" title="Volker Moericke">Moericke</a> traps. These are yellow containers with water that attract aphids.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aphids respond positively to green and their attraction to yellow may not be a true colour preference but related to brightness. Their visual receptors peak in sensitivity from 440 to 480 nm and are insensitive in the red region. Moericke found that aphids avoided landing on white coverings placed on soil and were repelled even more by shiny aluminium surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Integrated_pest_management" title="Integrated pest management">Integrated pest management</a> of various species of aphids can be achieved using biological insecticides based on fungi such as <i>Lecanicillium lecanii</i>, <i>Beauveria bassiana</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Isaria_fumosorosea" title="Isaria fumosorosea">Isaria fumosorosea</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lacey_2017_p._135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacey_2017_p.-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fungi are the main pathogens of aphids; <a href="/wiki/Entomophthorales" title="Entomophthorales">Entomophthorales</a> can quickly cut aphid numbers in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-Steinkraus_2006_pp._125–131_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steinkraus_2006_pp._125–131-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aphids may also be <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">controlled by the release of natural enemies</a>, in particular <a href="/wiki/Lady_beetles" class="mw-redirect" title="Lady beetles">lady beetles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid_wasp" title="Parasitoid wasp">parasitoid wasps</a>. However, since adult lady beetles tend to fly away within 48 hours after release, without laying eggs, repeated applications of large numbers of lady beetles are needed to be effective. For example, one large, heavily infested rose bush may take two applications of 1500 beetles each.<sup id="cite_ref-management-ucd_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-management-ucd-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ability to produce allomones such as <a href="/wiki/Farnesene" title="Farnesene">farnesene</a> to repel and disperse aphids and to attract their predators has been experimentally transferred to <a href="/wiki/Transgenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic">transgenic</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i> plants using an Eβf synthase gene in the hope that the approach could protect transgenic crops.<sup id="cite_ref-Beale2006_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beale2006-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eβ farnesene has however found to be ineffective in crop situations although stabler synthetic forms help improve the effectiveness of control using fungal spores and insecticides through increased uptake caused by movements of aphids.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_human_culture">In human culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: In human culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aphids are familiar to farmers and gardeners, mainly as pests. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Marren" title="Peter Marren">Peter Marren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mabey" title="Richard Mabey">Richard Mabey</a> record that <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> described an invading "army" of black aphids that arrived in his village of <a href="/wiki/Selborne" title="Selborne">Selborne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hampshire,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Hampshire, England">Hampshire, England</a>, in August 1774 in "great clouds", covering every plant, while in the unusually hot summer of 1783, White found that honeydew was so abundant as to "deface and destroy the beauties of my garden", though he thought the aphids were consuming rather than producing it.<sup id="cite_ref-BB_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BB-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Infestation of the Chinese sumac (<i><a href="/wiki/Rhus_chinensis" title="Rhus chinensis">Rhus chinensis</a></i>) by Chinese sumac aphids (<i><a href="/wiki/Schlechtendalia_chinensis" title="Schlechtendalia chinensis">Schlechtendalia chinensis</a></i>) can create "Chinese galls" which are valued as a commercial product. As "Galla Chinensis", they are used in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a> to treat <a href="/wiki/Cough" title="Cough">coughs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, night sweats, <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> and to stop intestinal and uterine bleeding. Chinese galls are also an important source of <a href="/wiki/Tannin" title="Tannin">tannins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroyan_30-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stroyan-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Beetle_icon.svg/38px-Beetle_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Beetle_icon.svg/50px-Beetle_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="143" data-file-height="159" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Insects" title="Portal:Insects">insects portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_entomology" title="Economic entomology">Economic entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineapple_gall" class="mw-redirect" title="Pineapple gall">Pineapple gall</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term "black fly" is also used for the <a href="/wiki/Simuliidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Simuliidae">Simuliidae</a>, among them the vector of <a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">river blindness</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dairying ants also milk <a href="/wiki/Mealybug" title="Mealybug">mealybugs</a> and other insects.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPiper,_Ross2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ross_Piper" title="Ross Piper">Piper, Ross</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/extraordinaryani0000pipe"><i>Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals</i></a></span>. Greenwood Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/extraordinaryani0000pipe/page/6">6–9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33922-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33922-6"><bdi>978-0-313-33922-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extraordinary+Animals%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Curious+and+Unusual+Animals&rft.pages=6-9&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33922-6&rft.au=Piper%2C+Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fextraordinaryani0000pipe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_Dict-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Dict_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Dict_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/aphid">"aphid noun"</a>. Oxford Dictionaries<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2025</span>. <q>late 19th cent.: back-formation from aphides, plural of aphis modern Latin, from Greek, perhaps a misreading of koris 'bug' (interpreting the characters κoρ 'kor' as αϕ 'aph').</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=aphid+noun&rft.pub=Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Faphid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zyla2017-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zyla2017_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zyla2017_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFŻyłaHomanWegierek2017" class="citation journal cs1">Żyła, Dagmara; Homan, Agnieszka; Wegierek, Piotr (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5405925">"Polyphyly of the extinct family Oviparosiphidae and its implications for inferring aphid evolution (Hemiptera, Sternorrhyncha)"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>12</b> (4): e0174791. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PLoSO..1274791Z">2017PLoSO..1274791Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0174791">10.1371/journal.pone.0174791</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5405925">5405925</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28445493">28445493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Polyphyly+of+the+extinct+family+Oviparosiphidae+and+its+implications+for+inferring+aphid+evolution+%28Hemiptera%2C+Sternorrhyncha%29&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0174791&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5405925%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28445493&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0174791&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PLoSO..1274791Z&rft.aulast=%C5%BBy%C5%82a&rft.aufirst=Dagmara&rft.au=Homan%2C+Agnieszka&rft.au=Wegierek%2C+Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5405925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerryTaylor1968" class="citation journal cs1">Berry, R. E.; Taylor, L. R. (1968). "High-Altitude Migration of Aphids in Maritime and Continental Climates". <i>Journal of Animal Ecology</i>. <b>37</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">713–</span>722. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968JAnEc..37..713B">1968JAnEc..37..713B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3084">10.2307/3084</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3084">3084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Animal+Ecology&rft.atitle=High-Altitude+Migration+of+Aphids+in+Maritime+and+Continental+Climates&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E713-%3C%2Fspan%3E722&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3084%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3084&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1968JAnEc..37..713B&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+L.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIsardIrwinHollinger1990" class="citation journal cs1">Isard, Scott A.; Irwin, Michael E.; Hollinger, Steven E. (1990-10-01). "Vertical Distribution of Aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) in the Planetary Boundary Layer". <i>Environmental Entomology</i>. <b>19</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1473–</span>1484. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fee%2F19.5.1473">10.1093/ee/19.5.1473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Entomology&rft.atitle=Vertical+Distribution+of+Aphids+%28Homoptera%3A+Aphididae%29+in+the+Planetary+Boundary+Layer&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1473-%3C%2Fspan%3E1484&rft.date=1990-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fee%2F19.5.1473&rft.aulast=Isard&rft.aufirst=Scott+A.&rft.au=Irwin%2C+Michael+E.&rft.au=Hollinger%2C+Steven+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHill,_L.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, L. (2012). "The currant lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri arrives in Tasmania: Part 1". <i>Victorian Entomologist</i>. <b>42</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">29–</span>31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Victorian+Entomologist&rft.atitle=The+currant+lettuce+aphid%2C+Nasonovia+ribisnigri+arrives+in+Tasmania%3A+Part+1&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Hill%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMargaritopoulosKasprowiczMallochFenton2009" class="citation journal cs1">Margaritopoulos, John T.; Kasprowicz, Louise; Malloch, Gaynor L.; Fenton, Brian (2009-05-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2687420">"Tracking the global dispersal of a cosmopolitan insect pest, the peach potato aphid"</a>. <i>BMC Ecology</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 13. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009BMCE....9...13M">2009BMCE....9...13M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1472-6785-9-13">10.1186/1472-6785-9-13</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2687420">2687420</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19432979">19432979</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Ecology&rft.atitle=Tracking+the+global+dispersal+of+a+cosmopolitan+insect+pest%2C+the+peach+potato+aphid&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2009-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2687420%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19432979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1472-6785-9-13&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009BMCE....9...13M&rft.aulast=Margaritopoulos&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft.au=Kasprowicz%2C+Louise&rft.au=Malloch%2C+Gaynor+L.&rft.au=Fenton%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2687420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSzwedoNel2011" class="citation journal cs1">Szwedo, J.; Nel, A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4202%2Fapp.2010.0034">"The oldest aphid insect from the Middle Triassic of the Vosges, France"</a>. <i>Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</i>. <b>56</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">757–</span>766. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4202%2Fapp.2010.0034">10.4202/app.2010.0034</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Palaeontologica+Polonica&rft.atitle=The+oldest+aphid+insect+from+the+Middle+Triassic+of+the+Vosges%2C+France&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E757-%3C%2Fspan%3E766&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4202%2Fapp.2010.0034&rft.aulast=Szwedo&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Nel%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4202%252Fapp.2010.0034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Capinera2008-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Capinera2008_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Capinera2008_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCapinera,_John_L.2008" class="citation book cs1">Capinera, John L. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i9ITMiiohVQC&pg=PA193"><i>Encyclopedia of Entomology</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. <span class="nowrap">193–</span>194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6242-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6242-1"><bdi>978-1-4020-6242-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200805231221/https://books.google.com/books?id=i9ITMiiohVQC&pg=PA193">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-08-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Entomology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E194&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-6242-1&rft.au=Capinera%2C+John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di9ITMiiohVQC%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_ChristineAgosti,_DonatDelabie,_Jocques_H.Dumpert,_Klaus2001" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Christine; Agosti, Donat; Delabie, Jocques H.; Dumpert, Klaus; Williams, D. J.; von Tschirnhaus, Michael; Macshwitz, Ulrich (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.amnh.org/~cjohnson/Johnson_etal_2001_Novitates.pdf">"<i>Acropyga</i> and <i>Azteca</i> ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with scale insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea): 20 million years of intimate symbiosis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Museum_Novitates" title="American Museum Novitates">American Museum Novitates</a></i> (3335): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1206%2F0003-0082%282001%29335%3C0001%3AAAAAHF%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1206/0003-0082(2001)335<0001:AAAAHF>2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55067700">55067700</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120927153952/http://research.amnh.org/~cjohnson/Johnson_etal_2001_Novitates.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2012-09-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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K. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aphidtransmitted19913chan"><i>Aphid-transmitted viruses and their vectors of the world</i></a></span>. Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0662183347" title="Special:BookSources/0662183347"><bdi>0662183347</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/872604083">872604083</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aphid-transmitted+viruses+and+their+vectors+of+the+world&rft.pub=Research+Branch%2C+Agriculture+Canada&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F872604083&rft.isbn=0662183347&rft.au=Chan%2C+C.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faphidtransmitted19913chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReyesLaughtonParkerWichmann2019" class="citation journal cs1">Reyes, Miguel L.; Laughton, Alice M.; Parker, Benjamin J.; Wichmann, Hannah; Fan, Maretta; Sok, Daniel; Hrček, Jan; Acevedo, Tarik; Gerardo, Nicole M. 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IET Department of the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources. <i>extension.umd.edu</i>. College Park, Maryland: University of Maryland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180626044828/http://extension.umd.edu/hgic/aphid-parasitoids">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-06-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-04-29</span></span> – via College of Agriculture & Natural Sciences. <q>Aphid parasitoids are very tiny wasps, about 1/10 inch long. 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(1966-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.oup.com/jee/article/59/6/1526/2208682/Improved-Method-of-Using-YellowPan-Aphid-Traps1">"Improved Method of Using Yellow-Pan Aphid Traps1"</a>. <i>Journal of Economic Entomology</i>. <b>59</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1526–</span>1527. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjee%2F59.6.1526">10.1093/jee/59.6.1526</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1938-291X">1938-291X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211113215423/https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/59/6/1526/2208682?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Entomology&rft.atitle=Improved+Method+of+Using+Yellow-Pan+Aphid+Traps1&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1526-%3C%2Fspan%3E1527&rft.date=1966-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjee%2F59.6.1526&rft.issn=1938-291X&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=D.+A.&rft.au=Medler%2C+J.+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fjee%2Farticle%2F59%2F6%2F1526%2F2208682%2FImproved-Method-of-Using-YellowPan-Aphid-Traps1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDöringChittka2007" class="citation journal cs1">Döring, Thomas Felix; Chittka, Lars (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orgprints.org/19804/1/2007.Doring_%26_Chittka.APIS.pdf">"Visual ecology of aphids—a critical review on the role of colours in host finding"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Arthropod-Plant Interactions</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>16. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007APInt...1....3D">2007APInt...1....3D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11829-006-9000-1">10.1007/s11829-006-9000-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20066025">20066025</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200919102110/https://orgprints.org/19804/1/2007.Doring_%26_Chittka.APIS.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2020-09-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arthropod-Plant+Interactions&rft.atitle=Visual+ecology+of+aphids%E2%80%94a+critical+review+on+the+role+of+colours+in+host+finding&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20066025%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11829-006-9000-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007APInt...1....3D&rft.aulast=D%C3%B6ring&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Felix&rft.au=Chittka%2C+Lars&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forgprints.org%2F19804%2F1%2F2007.Doring_%2526_Chittka.APIS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lacey_2017_p.-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lacey_2017_p._135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJaronskiMascarin2017" class="citation book cs1">Jaronski, S. T.; Mascarin, G. M. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128035276000093">"Mass Production of Fungal Entomopathogens"</a>. In Lacey, Lawrence (ed.). <i>Microbial control of insect and mite pests: from theory to practice</i>. Academic Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">141–</span>155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-803527-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-803527-6"><bdi>978-0-12-803527-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mass+Production+of+Fungal+Entomopathogens&rft.btitle=Microbial+control+of+insect+and+mite+pests%3A+from+theory+to+practice&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E155&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-12-803527-6&rft.aulast=Jaronski&rft.aufirst=S.+T.&rft.au=Mascarin%2C+G.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FB9780128035276000093&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steinkraus_2006_pp._125–131-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Steinkraus_2006_pp._125–131_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteinkraus2006" class="citation journal cs1">Steinkraus, Donald C. (2006). "Factors affecting transmission of fungal pathogens of aphids". <i>Journal of Invertebrate Pathology</i>. <b>92</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">125–</span>131. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JInvP..92..125S">2006JInvP..92..125S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jip.2006.03.009">10.1016/j.jip.2006.03.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16780867">16780867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Invertebrate+Pathology&rft.atitle=Factors+affecting+transmission+of+fungal+pathogens+of+aphids&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E131&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16780867&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jip.2006.03.009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JInvP..92..125S&rft.aulast=Steinkraus&rft.aufirst=Donald+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/ladybeetle_releases.pdf">Lady Beetle Releases for Aphid Control: How to Help Them Work</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111512/http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/NE/ladybeetle_releases.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-04-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Clark, J.K., University of California Davis, June 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beale2006-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beale2006_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBealeBirkettBruceChamberlain2006" class="citation journal cs1">Beale, M. H.; Birkett, M. A.; Bruce, T. J. A.; Chamberlain, K.; Field, L. M.; Huttly, A. K.; Martin, J. L.; Parker, R.; Phillips, A. L.; Pickett, J. A.; Prosser, I. M.; Shewry, P. R.; Smart, L. E.; Wadhams, L. J.; Woodcock, C. M.; Zhang, Y. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1502488">"Aphid alarm pheromone produced by transgenic plants affects aphid and parasitoid behavior"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>103</b> (27): <span class="nowrap">10509–</span>10513. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..10310509B">2006PNAS..10310509B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0603998103">10.1073/pnas.0603998103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1502488">1502488</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16798877">16798877</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Aphid+alarm+pheromone+produced+by+transgenic+plants+affects+aphid+and+parasitoid+behavior&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10509-%3C%2Fspan%3E10513&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1502488%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16798877&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0603998103&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PNAS..10310509B&rft.aulast=Beale&rft.aufirst=M.+H.&rft.au=Birkett%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Bruce%2C+T.+J.+A.&rft.au=Chamberlain%2C+K.&rft.au=Field%2C+L.+M.&rft.au=Huttly%2C+A.+K.&rft.au=Martin%2C+J.+L.&rft.au=Parker%2C+R.&rft.au=Phillips%2C+A.+L.&rft.au=Pickett%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Prosser%2C+I.+M.&rft.au=Shewry%2C+P.+R.&rft.au=Smart%2C+L.+E.&rft.au=Wadhams%2C+L.+J.&rft.au=Woodcock%2C+C.+M.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1502488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPickettWadhamsWoodcockHardie1992" class="citation journal cs1">Pickett, J. A.; Wadhams, L. J.; Woodcock, C. M.; Hardie, J. (1992). "The Chemical Ecology of Aphids". <i>Annual Review of Entomology</i>. <b>37</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">67–</span>90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.en.37.010192.000435">10.1146/annurev.en.37.010192.000435</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Entomology&rft.atitle=The+Chemical+Ecology+of+Aphids&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.en.37.010192.000435&rft.aulast=Pickett&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft.au=Wadhams%2C+L.+J.&rft.au=Woodcock%2C+C.+M.&rft.au=Hardie%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BB-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BB_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarren,_PeterMabey,_Richard2010" class="citation book cs1">Marren, Peter; <a href="/wiki/Richard_Mabey" title="Richard Mabey">Mabey, Richard</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah62bUZLDOwC"><i>Bugs Britannica</i></a>. Chatto & Windus. pp. <span class="nowrap">191–</span>194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-8180-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-8180-2"><bdi>978-0-7011-8180-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170314080048/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah62bUZLDOwC">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bugs+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E191-%3C%2Fspan%3E194&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7011-8180-2&rft.au=Marren%2C+Peter&rft.au=Mabey%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAh62bUZLDOwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAphid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aphid&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media 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decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Aphides" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aphides">Aphides</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Aphidoidea" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Aphidoidea">Aphidoidea</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090221223558/http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/fasulo/woodypest/aphids.htm">Aphids of southeastern U.S. woody ornamentals</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130930092324/http://www.metapathogen.com/aphid/"><i>Acyrthosiphon pisum</i></a>, MetaPathogen – facts, life cycle, life cycle image</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100223.htm">Sequenced Genome of Pea Aphid</a>, Agricultural Research Service</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.olfacts.nl/">Insect Olfaction of Plant Odour: Colorado Potato Beetle and Aphid Studies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cisr.ucr.edu/hackberry.html">Asian woolly hackberry aphid</a>, Center for Invasive Species Research</li></ul> <p>On the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida" title="University of Florida">University of Florida</a> / <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Food_and_Agricultural_Sciences" title="Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences">Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences</a> <i>Featured Creatures</i> website: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/aphid/melon_aphid.htm"><i>Aphis gossypii</i>, melon or cotton aphid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/shrubs/oleander_aphid.htm"><i>Aphis nerii</i>, oleander aphid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/aphid/coriander_aphid.htm"><i>Hyadaphis coriandri</i>, coriander aphid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/trees/giant_bark_aphid.htm"><i> Longistigma caryae</i>, giant bark aphid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/aphid/green_peach_aphid.htm"><i>Myzus persicae</i>, green peach aphid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/trees/crapemyrtle_aphid.htm"><i>Sarucallis kahawaluokalani</i>, crapemyrtle aphid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/trees/asian_hackberry.htm"><i>Shivaphis celti</i>, an Asian woolly hackberry aphid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/citrus/bc_aphid.htm"><i>Toxoptera citricida</i>, brown citrus aphid</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insecta</a></li> <li>Subclass: <a href="/wiki/Pterygota" title="Pterygota">Pterygota</a></li> <li>Infraclass: <a href="/wiki/Neoptera" title="Neoptera">Neoptera</a></li> <li>Superorder: <a href="/wiki/Paraneoptera" title="Paraneoptera">Paraneoptera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Suborder_Auchenorrhyncha448" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Suborder <a href="/wiki/Auchenorrhyncha" title="Auchenorrhyncha">Auchenorrhyncha</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em"><a href="/wiki/Cicadomorpha" title="Cicadomorpha">Cicadomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Froghopper" class="mw-redirect" title="Froghopper">Cercopoidea</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(froghoppers)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphrophoridae" title="Aphrophoridae">Aphrophoridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercopidae" title="Cercopidae">Cercopidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clastopteridae" title="Clastopteridae">Clastopteridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ischnorhinidae" title="Ischnorhinidae">Ischnorhinidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machaerotidae" title="Machaerotidae">Machaerotidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Cicada" title="Cicada">Cicadoidea</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(cicadas)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cicada" title="Cicada">Cicadidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tettigarctidae" title="Tettigarctidae">Tettigarctidae <small>(hairy cicadas)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Membracoidea" title="Membracoidea">Membracoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aetalionidae" title="Aetalionidae">Aetalionidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leafhopper" title="Leafhopper">Cicadellidae <small>(leafhoppers)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melizoderidae" title="Melizoderidae">Melizoderidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treehopper" title="Treehopper">Membracidae <small>(typical treehoppers, thorn bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myerslopiidae" title="Myerslopiidae">Myerslopiidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em"><a href="/wiki/Planthopper" title="Planthopper">Fulgoromorpha</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(planthoppers)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Planthopper" title="Planthopper">Fulgoroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acanaloniidae" title="Acanaloniidae">Acanaloniidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achilidae" title="Achilidae">Achilidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achilixiidae" title="Achilixiidae">Achilixiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cixiidae" title="Cixiidae">Cixiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphacidae" title="Delphacidae">Delphacidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derbidae" title="Derbidae">Derbidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyopharidae" title="Dictyopharidae">Dictyopharidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurybrachidae" title="Eurybrachidae">Eurybrachidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatidae" title="Flatidae">Flatidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulgoridae" title="Fulgoridae">Fulgoridae <small>(lanternflies)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gengidae" title="Gengidae">Gengidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochthonellidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypochthonellidae">Hypochthonellidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issidae" title="Issidae">Issidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinnaridae" title="Kinnaridae">Kinnaridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lophopidae" title="Lophopidae">Lophopidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meenoplidae" title="Meenoplidae">Meenoplidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogodinidae" title="Nogodinidae">Nogodinidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricaniidae" title="Ricaniidae">Ricaniidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tettigometridae" title="Tettigometridae">Tettigometridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropiduchidae" title="Tropiduchidae">Tropiduchidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Suborder_Sternorrhyncha448" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Suborder <a href="/wiki/Sternorrhyncha" title="Sternorrhyncha">Sternorrhyncha</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:23.3em"><a href="/wiki/Whitefly" title="Whitefly">Aleyrodoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whitefly" title="Whitefly">Aleyrodidae <small>(whiteflies)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:23.3em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aphidoidea</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(aphids)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphididae" title="Aphididae">Aphididae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:23.3em"><a href="/wiki/Scale_insect" title="Scale insect">Coccoidea</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(scale insects)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aclerdidae" title="Aclerdidae">Aclerdidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterolecaniidae" title="Asterolecaniidae">Asterolecaniidae <small>(pit scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beesoniidae" title="Beesoniidae">Beesoniidae <small>(beesoniids)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carayonemidae" title="Carayonemidae">Carayonemidae <small>(carayonemids)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerococcidae" title="Cerococcidae">Cerococcidae <small>(ornate pit scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccidae" title="Coccidae">Coccidae <small>(soft scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conchaspididae" title="Conchaspididae">Conchaspididae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dactylopius" title="Dactylopius">Dactylopiidae <small>(cochineals)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspididae" title="Diaspididae">Diaspididae <small>(armored scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eriococcidae" title="Eriococcidae">Eriococcidae <small>(felt scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halimococcidae" title="Halimococcidae">Halimococcidae <small>(pupillarial palm scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermesidae" title="Kermesidae">Kermesidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerriidae" title="Kerriidae">Kerriidae <small>(lac scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecanodiaspididae" title="Lecanodiaspididae">Lecanodiaspididae <small>(false pit scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margarodidae" title="Margarodidae">Margarodidae <small>(cottony cushion scales, giant coccids, ground pearls)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrococcidae" title="Micrococcidae">Micrococcidae <small>(Mediterranean scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophlebidae" title="Monophlebidae">Monophlebidae <small>(giant scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ortheziidae" title="Ortheziidae">Ortheziidae <small>(ensign scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenacoleachiidae" title="Phenacoleachiidae">Phenacoleachiidae <small>(phenacoleachiids)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicococcidae" title="Phoenicococcidae">Phoenicococcidae <small>(palm scales)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mealybug" title="Mealybug">Pseudococcidae <small>(mealybugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putoidae" title="Putoidae">Putoidae <small>(giant mealybugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stictococcidae" title="Stictococcidae">Stictococcidae <small>(stictococcids)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:23.3em"><a href="/wiki/Phylloxeroidea" title="Phylloxeroidea">Phylloxeroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adelgidae" title="Adelgidae">Adelgidae <small>(woolly conifer aphids)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylloxeridae" title="Phylloxeridae">Phylloxeridae <small>(phylloxerans)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:23.3em"><a href="/wiki/Psylloidea" title="Psylloidea">Psylloidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphalaridae" title="Aphalaridae">Aphalaridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calophyidae" title="Calophyidae">Calophyidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsidaridae" title="Carsidaridae">Carsidaridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homotomidae" title="Homotomidae">Homotomidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phacopteronidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phacopteronidae">Phacopteronidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psyllidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Psyllidae">Psyllidae <small>(jumping plant lice)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triozidae" title="Triozidae">Triozidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Suborder_Heteroptera_(with_Coleorrhyncha)448" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Suborder <a href="/wiki/Heteroptera" title="Heteroptera">Heteroptera</a> <small><span class="nobold">(with</span> <a href="/wiki/Peloridiidae" title="Peloridiidae">Coleorrhyncha</a><span class="nobold">)</span></small></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dipsocoromorpha19" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em;padding-right:11.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Dipsocoromorpha" title="Dipsocoromorpha">Dipsocoromorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceratocombidae" title="Ceratocombidae">Ceratocombidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipsocoridae" title="Dipsocoridae">Dipsocoridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsipterygidae" title="Hypsipterygidae">Hypsipterygidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizopteridae" title="Schizopteridae">Schizopteridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stemmocryptidae" title="Stemmocryptidae">Stemmocryptidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em"><a href="/wiki/Enicocephalomorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Enicocephalomorpha">Enicocephalomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Enicocephalomorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Enicocephalomorpha">Enicocephaloidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aenictopecheidae" title="Aenictopecheidae">Aenictopecheidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enicocephalidae" title="Enicocephalidae">Enicocephalidae <small>(unique-headed bugs, gnat bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em"><a href="/wiki/Gerromorpha" title="Gerromorpha">Gerromorpha</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(semiaquatic bugs)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Gerroidea" title="Gerroidea">Gerroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerridae" title="Gerridae">Gerridae <small>(water striders)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermatobatidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermatobatidae">Hermatobatidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veliidae" title="Veliidae">Veliidae <small>(riffle bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Velvet_water_bug" title="Velvet water bug">Hebroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_water_bug" title="Velvet water bug">Hebridae <small>(velvet water bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Hydrometroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrometroidea">Hydrometroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrometridae" title="Hydrometridae">Hydrometridae <small>(marsh treaders or water measurers)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroveliidae" title="Macroveliidae">Macroveliidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphrynoveliidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphrynoveliidae">Paraphrynoveliidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Water_treader" title="Water treader">Mesovelioidea</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(water treaders)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madeoveliidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Madeoveliidae">Madeoveliidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoveliidae" title="Mesoveliidae">Mesoveliidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Leptopodomorpha19" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em;padding-right:11.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Leptopodomorpha" title="Leptopodomorpha">Leptopodomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saldidae" title="Saldidae">Saldidae <small>(shore bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptopodidae" title="Leptopodidae">Leptopodidae <small>(spiny shore bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaniidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Omaniidae">Omaniidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aepophilidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Aepophilidae">Aepophilidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em"><a href="/wiki/Nepomorpha" title="Nepomorpha">Nepomorpha</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(true water bugs)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Corixidae" title="Corixidae">Corixoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corixidae" title="Corixidae">Corixidae <small>(water boatmen)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Nepoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Nepoidea">Nepoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belostomatidae" title="Belostomatidae">Belostomatidae <small>(giant water bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepidae" title="Nepidae">Nepidae <small>(water scorpions, needle bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Ochteroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochteroidea">Ochteroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gelastocoridae" title="Gelastocoridae">Gelastocoridae <small>(toad bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochteridae" title="Ochteridae">Ochteridae <small>(velvety shore bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Aphelocheiroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelocheiroidea">Aphelocheiroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aphelocheiridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Aphelocheiridae">Aphelocheiridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potamocoridae" title="Potamocoridae">Potamocoridae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Naucoridae" title="Naucoridae">Naucoroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naucoridae" title="Naucoridae">Naucoridae <small>(creeping water bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Notonectidae" title="Notonectidae">Notonectoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Notonectidae" title="Notonectidae">Notonectidae <small>(backswimmers)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Pleoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleoidea">Pleoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helotrephidae" title="Helotrephidae">Helotrephidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleidae" title="Pleidae">Pleidae <small>(pygmy backswimmers)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peloridiomorpha(Coleorrhyncha)122" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em;padding-right:11.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Peloridiidae" title="Peloridiidae">Peloridiomorpha<br /><span class="nobold">(Coleorrhyncha)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peloridiidae" title="Peloridiidae">Peloridiidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em"><a href="/wiki/Cimicomorpha" title="Cimicomorpha">Cimicomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Cimicoidea" title="Cimicoidea">Cimicoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthocoridae" title="Anthocoridae">Anthocoridae <small>(minute pirate bugs or flower bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimicidae" title="Cimicidae">Cimicidae <small>(bed bugs, bat bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curalium" title="Curalium">Curaliidae <small>(<i>Curalium cronini</i>)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joppeicidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Joppeicidae">Joppeicidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasiochilidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Lasiochilidae">Lasiochilidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyctocoridae" title="Lyctocoridae">Lyctocoridae</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medocostidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medocostidae (page does not exist)">Medocostidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphysidae" title="Microphysidae">Microphysidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miridae" title="Miridae">Miridae <small>(plant bugs, leaf bugs, grass bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabidae" title="Nabidae">Nabidae <small>(damsel bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachynomidae" title="Pachynomidae">Pachynomidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plokiophilidae" title="Plokiophilidae">Plokiophilidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyctenidae" title="Polyctenidae">Polyctenidae <small>(old world bat bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduviidae" title="Reduviidae">Reduviidae <small>(assassin bugs, wheel bugs, thread-legged bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaumastocoridae" title="Thaumastocoridae">Thaumastocoridae <small>(royal palm bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tingidae" title="Tingidae">Tingidae <small>(lace bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Velocipedidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Velocipedidae (page does not exist)">Velocipedidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.15em"><a href="/wiki/Pentatomomorpha" title="Pentatomomorpha">Pentatomomorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Aradoidea" title="Aradoidea">Aradoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aradidae" title="Aradidae">Aradidae <small>(flat bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Termitaphididae" title="Termitaphididae">Termitaphididae <small>(termite bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Pentatomoidea" title="Pentatomoidea">Pentatomoidea</a><br /><span style="color:#696969"><small><span class="nobold">(shield bugs)</span></small></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urostylididae" title="Urostylididae">Urostylididae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthosomatidae" title="Acanthosomatidae">Acanthosomatidae <small>(shield bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessaratomidae" title="Tessaratomidae">Tessaratomidae <small>(giant shield bugs and relatives)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinidoridae" title="Dinidoridae">Dinidoridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cydnidae" title="Cydnidae">Cydnidae <small>(burrowing bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaumastellidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Thaumastellidae">Thaumastellidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parastrachiidae" title="Parastrachiidae">Parastrachiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyreocoridae" title="Thyreocoridae">Thyreocoridae <small>(includes ebony bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lestoniidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Lestoniidae">Lestoniidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloeidae" title="Phloeidae">Phloeidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scutelleridae" title="Scutelleridae">Scutelleridae <small>(jewel bugs or metallic shield bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plataspidae" title="Plataspidae">Plataspidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentatomidae" title="Pentatomidae">Pentatomidae <small>(stink bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Canopidae">Canopidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarididae" title="Megarididae">Megarididae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Coreoidea" title="Coreoidea">Coreoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alydidae" title="Alydidae">Alydidae <small>(broad-headed bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coreidae" title="Coreidae">Coreidae <small>(squash bugs, leaf-footed bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyocephalidae" title="Hyocephalidae">Hyocephalidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhopalidae" title="Rhopalidae">Rhopalidae <small>(scentless plant bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stenocephalidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Stenocephalidae">Stenocephalidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Lygaeoidea" title="Lygaeoidea">Lygaeoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artheneidae" title="Artheneidae">Artheneidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytidae" title="Berytidae">Berytidae <small>(stilt bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissidae" title="Blissidae">Blissidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colobathristidae" title="Colobathristidae">Colobathristidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptorhamphidae" title="Cryptorhamphidae">Cryptorhamphidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cymidae" title="Cymidae">Cymidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocoridae" title="Geocoridae">Geocoridae</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henicocoridae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henicocoridae (page does not exist)">Henicocoridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogastridae" title="Heterogastridae">Heterogastridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiostolidae" title="Idiostolidae">Idiostolidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lygaeidae" title="Lygaeidae">Lygaeidae <small>(milkweed bugs, true seed bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcidae" title="Malcidae">Malcidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meschiidae" title="Meschiidae">Meschiidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninidae" title="Ninidae">Ninidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycarenidae" title="Oxycarenidae">Oxycarenidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachygronthidae" title="Pachygronthidae">Pachygronthidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyparochromidae" title="Rhyparochromidae">Rhyparochromidae <small>(atypical seed bugs)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piesmatidae" title="Piesmatidae">Piesmatidae <small>(ash-grey leaf bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhocoroidea" title="Pyrrhocoroidea">Pyrrhocoroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhocoridae" title="Pyrrhocoridae">Pyrrhocoridae <small>(red bugs, cotton stainers)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Largidae" title="Largidae">Largidae <small>(bordered plant bugs)</small></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><small>Note: <a href="/wiki/Coleorrhyncha" title="Coleorrhyncha">Coleorrhyncha</a> are a different <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> from <a href="/wiki/Heteroptera" title="Heteroptera">Heteroptera</a>. Heteroptera with Coleorrhyncha were referred to as <a href="/wiki/Prosorrhyncha" title="Prosorrhyncha">Prosorrhyncha</a>.</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers2875" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers2875" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Aphidoidea</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183350" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q183350">Q183350</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Aphidoidea" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Aphidoidea">Aphidoidea</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Aphidoidea/">Aphidoidea</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Faunal_Directory" title="Australian Faunal Directory">AFD</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Aphidoidea">Aphidoidea</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">BioLib: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id16836">16836</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/BugGuide" title="BugGuide">BugGuide</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bugguide.net/node/view/12742">12742</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8NKG4">8NKG4</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/551">551</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eu-nomen.eu/portal/taxon.php?GUID=urn:lsid:faunaeur.org:taxname:12358">12358</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea (new)</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fauna-eu.org/cdm_dataportal/taxon/378e39b1-3c3d-4216-b8c9-68c8f4ff88a4">378e39b1-3c3d-4216-b8c9-68c8f4ff88a4</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/1729">1729</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/52380">52380</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=109190">109190</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=33385">33385</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/89517896-9e03-4eb2-a051-e8c30989a35e">89517896-9e03-4eb2-a051-e8c30989a35e</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=181510">181510</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">PPE: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bladmineerders.nl/parasites/animalia/arthropoda/insecta/hemiptera/sternorrhyncha/aphidoidea/">aphidoidea</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" 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