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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complete_genomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complete_genomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Complete genomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complete_genomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"omics"_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"omics"_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>The "omics" revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"omics"_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genome_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Genome analysis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genome_analysis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genome analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genome_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shotgun_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shotgun_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Shotgun sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shotgun_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-throughput_sequencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-throughput_sequencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>High-throughput sequencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-throughput_sequencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assembly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assembly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Assembly</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assembly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assembly_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assembly_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Assembly approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assembly_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finishing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finishing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Finishing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finishing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Annotation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annotation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Annotation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annotation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sequencing_pipelines_and_databases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequencing_pipelines_and_databases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Sequencing pipelines and databases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequencing_pipelines_and_databases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research areas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Functional_genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Functional genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Structural genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigenomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigenomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Epigenomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metagenomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metagenomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Metagenomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metagenomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Model_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Model_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Model systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Model_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Viruses_and_bacteriophages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viruses_and_bacteriophages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Viruses and bacteriophages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viruses_and_bacteriophages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyanobacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyanobacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Cyanobacteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyanobacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genomic_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genomic_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Genomic medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genomic_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synthetic_biology_and_bioengineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synthetic_biology_and_bioengineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Synthetic biology and bioengineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synthetic_biology_and_bioengineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_and_conservation_genomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_and_conservation_genomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Population and conservation genomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_and_conservation_genomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Genomics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85" title="علم الجينوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الجينوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বংশাণুসমগ্র বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বংশাণুসমগ্র বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Bi-tho%C3%A2n-th%C3%A9-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Ûi-thoân-thé-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ûi-thoân-thé-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геномика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Геномика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геноміка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Геноміка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%B2mica" title="Genòmica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genòmica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoomika" title="Genoomika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Genoomika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Γονιδιωματική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γονιδιωματική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%B3mica" title="Genómica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genómica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomiko" title="Genomiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Genomiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ژنومیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژنومیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9nomique" title="Génomique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Génomique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9an%C3%B3ma%C3%ADocht" title="Géanómaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Géanómaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen%C3%B3mica" title="Xenómica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xenómica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EC%B2%B4%ED%95%99" title="유전체학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유전체학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Գենոմիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գենոմիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जीनोमिक्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीनोमिक्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erf%C3%B0amengjafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Erfðamengjafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Erfðamengjafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomica" title="Genomica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Genomica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="גנומיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גנומיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геномика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Геномика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геномика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Геномика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomik" title="Genomik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Genomik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomica" title="Genomica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Genomica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%83%8E%E3%83%9F%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9" title="ゲノミクス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゲノミクス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomikk" title="Genomikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Genomikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomike" title="Genomike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Genomike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جینومیک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جینومیک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%B3mica" title="Genómica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Genómica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomic%C4%83" title="Genomică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Genomică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геномика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геномика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Genomics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геномика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Геномика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Genomika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomiikka" title="Genomiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Genomiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomik" title="Genomik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Genomik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மரபணுத்தொகையியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மரபணுத்தொகையியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="จีโนมิกส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จีโนมิกส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomik" title="Genomik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Genomik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геноміка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геноміка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%E1%BB%87_gen_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Hệ gen học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hệ gen học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%9B%A0%E7%B5%84%E5%AD%B8" title="基因組學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="基因組學" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Discipline in genetics</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the scientific field. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Genomics_(journal)" title="Genomics (journal)">Genomics (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Genome biology" redirects here. For the journal with the same name, see <a href="/wiki/Genome_Biology" title="Genome Biology">Genome Biology</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17em;border:2px solid light-dark(#90db90,#024c02)"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genomics</a> (<span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:light-dark(#e7f4e7,#243124);color:inherit;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:light-dark(#90db90,#024c02) !important;color:inherit;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Genomics</b> is an interdisciplinary field of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a>. A genome is an organism's complete set of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_1953_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_1953-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Satzinger_2008_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Satzinger_2008-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cremer_2006_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cremer_2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This claim has too many footnotes for reading to be smooth. (November 2024)">excessive citations</span></a></i>]</sup> In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, which refers to the study of <i>individual</i> genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of <i>all</i> of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_2004_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO_2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genes may direct the production of <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a> with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves the sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Klug_2012_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klug_2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Culver_2002_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Culver_2002-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a> to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Kadakkuzha_2013_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kadakkuzha_2013-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The field also includes studies of intragenomic (within the genome) phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">epistasis</a> (effect of one gene on another), <a href="/wiki/Pleiotropy" title="Pleiotropy">pleiotropy</a> (one gene affecting more than one trait), <a href="/wiki/Heterosis" title="Heterosis">heterosis</a> (hybrid vigour), and other interactions between <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">loci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> within the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the Greek ΓΕΝ<sup id="cite_ref-Liddell_2013_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liddell_2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>gen</i>, "gene" (gamma, epsilon, nu, epsilon) meaning "become, create, creation, birth", and subsequent variants: genealogy, genesis, genetics, genic, genomere, genotype, genus etc. While the word <i>genome</i> (from the <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> <i>Genom</i>, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Hans_Winkler" title="Hans Winkler">Hans Winkler</a>) was in use in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> as early as 1926,<sup id="cite_ref-OED_Genome_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED_Genome-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the term <i>genomics</i> was coined by Tom Roderick, a <a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">geneticist</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Laboratory" title="Jackson Laboratory">Jackson Laboratory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bar_Harbor,_Maine" title="Bar Harbor, Maine">Bar Harbor, Maine</a>), over beers with Jim Womack, Tom Shows and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._O%27Brien" title="Stephen J. O'Brien">Stephen O’Brien</a> at a meeting held in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> on the mapping of the human genome in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-Yadav_2007_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yadav_2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First as the name for a <a href="/wiki/Genomics_(journal)" title="Genomics (journal)">new journal</a> and then as a whole new science discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Brien_2022_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Brien_2022-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_sequencing_efforts">Early sequencing efforts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early sequencing efforts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>'s confirmation of the helical structure of DNA, <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James D. Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>'s publication of the structure of DNA in 1953 and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Sanger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Sanger">Fred Sanger</a>'s publication of the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a> sequence of insulin in 1955, nucleic acid sequencing became a major target of early <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biologists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ankeny_2003_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ankeny_2003-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1964, <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> and colleagues published the first nucleic acid sequence ever determined, the <a href="/wiki/Ribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribonucleic acid">ribonucleotide</a> sequence of <a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">alanine</a> <a href="/wiki/TRNA" class="mw-redirect" title="TRNA">transfer RNA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Holley_1965a_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holley_1965a-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holley_1965b_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holley_1965b-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extending this work, <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Nirenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshall Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Leder" title="Philip Leder">Philip Leder</a> revealed the triplet nature of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a> and were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 <a href="/wiki/Codons" class="mw-redirect" title="Codons">codons</a> in their experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Nuremberg_1965_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nuremberg_1965-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1972, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Fiers" title="Walter Fiers">Walter Fiers</a> and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Ghent" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Ghent">University of Ghent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage_MS2" title="Bacteriophage MS2">Bacteriophage MS2</a> coat protein.<sup id="cite_ref-Min_1972_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Min_1972-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fiers' group expanded on their MS2 coat protein work, determining the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA (whose genome encodes just four genes in 3569 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> [bp]) and <a href="/wiki/SV40" title="SV40">Simian virus 40</a> in 1976 and 1978, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Fiers_1976_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fiers_1976-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fiers_1978_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fiers_1978-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNA-sequencing_technology_developed">DNA-sequencing technology developed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: DNA-sequencing technology developed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:258px;max-width:258px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frederick_Sanger2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Frederick_Sanger2.jpg/125px-Frederick_Sanger2.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Frederick_Sanger2.jpg/188px-Frederick_Sanger2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Frederick_Sanger2.jpg/250px-Frederick_Sanger2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="1196" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Frederick Sanger</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WalterGilbert2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/WalterGilbert2.jpg/125px-WalterGilbert2.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/WalterGilbert2.jpg/188px-WalterGilbert2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/WalterGilbert2.jpg/250px-WalterGilbert2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Walter Gilbert</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> shared half of the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for Independently developing methods for the sequencing of DNA.</div></div></div></div> <p>In addition to his seminal work on the amino acid sequence of insulin, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> and his colleagues played a key role in the development of DNA sequencing techniques that enabled the establishment of comprehensive genome sequencing projects.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1975, he and Alan Coulson published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the <i>Plus and Minus technique</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tamarin_2004_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tamarin_2004-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sanger_1980_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger_1980-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3' termini. These could be fractionated by <a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">electrophoresis</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Polyacrylamide" title="Polyacrylamide">polyacrylamide</a> gel (called polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, in 1977 his group was able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> <a href="/wiki/Phi_X_174" title="Phi X 174">φX174</a>, completing the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanger_1977_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger_1977-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The refinement of the <i>Plus and Minus</i> method resulted in the chain-termination, or <a href="/wiki/Sanger_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanger method">Sanger method</a> (see <a href="#Shotgun_sequencing">below</a>), which formed the basis of the techniques of DNA sequencing, genome mapping, data storage, and bioinformatic analysis most widely used in the following quarter-century of research.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaiser_2003_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaiser_2003-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sanger_1977a_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger_1977a-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allan_Maxam" title="Allan Maxam">Allan Maxam</a> of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> independently developed the <a href="/wiki/Maxam-Gilbert_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxam-Gilbert sequencing">Maxam-Gilbert</a> method (also known as the <i>chemical method</i>) of DNA sequencing, involving the preferential cleavage of DNA at known bases, a less efficient method.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert_1977_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert_1977-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Darden_2010_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darden_2010-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For their groundbreaking work in the sequencing of nucleic acids, Gilbert and Sanger shared half the 1980 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in chemistry with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complete_genomes">Complete genomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Complete genomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The advent of these technologies resulted in a rapid intensification in the scope and speed of completion of <a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">genome sequencing projects</a>. The first complete genome sequence of a <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_organelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic organelle">eukaryotic organelle</a>, the human <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrion</a> (16,568 bp, about 16.6 kb [kilobase]), was reported in 1981,<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_1981_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson_1981-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a> genomes followed in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-Shinozaki_1986_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shinozaki_1986-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ohyama_1986_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohyama_1986-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1992, the first eukaryotic <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>, chromosome III of brewer's yeast <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> (315 kb) was sequenced.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_1992_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver_1992-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i> (1.8 Mb [megabase]) in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleischmann_1995_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleischmann_1995-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year a consortium of researchers from laboratories across <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> announced the completion of the first complete genome sequence of a eukaryote, <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">S. cerevisiae</a></i> (12.1 Mb), and since then genomes have continued being sequenced at an exponentially growing pace.<sup id="cite_ref-Goffeau_1996_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goffeau_1996-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of October 2011<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, the complete sequences are available for: 2,719 <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, 1,115 <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, and 36 <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, of which about half are <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Viruses_2011_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Viruses_2011-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Entrez_2011_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Entrez_2011-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Number_of_prokaryotic_genomes_and_sequencing_costs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""Hockey stick" graph showing the exponential growth of public sequence databases." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Number_of_prokaryotic_genomes_and_sequencing_costs.svg/300px-Number_of_prokaryotic_genomes_and_sequencing_costs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Number_of_prokaryotic_genomes_and_sequencing_costs.svg/450px-Number_of_prokaryotic_genomes_and_sequencing_costs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Number_of_prokaryotic_genomes_and_sequencing_costs.svg/600px-Number_of_prokaryotic_genomes_and_sequencing_costs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>The number of genome projects has increased as technological improvements continue to lower the cost of sequencing. <b>(A)</b> Exponential growth of genome sequence databases since 1995. <b>(B)</b> The cost in US Dollars (USD) to sequence one million bases. <b>(C)</b> The cost in USD to sequence a 3,000 Mb (human-sized) genome on a log-transformed scale.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the microorganisms whose genomes have been completely sequenced are problematic <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i>, which has resulted in a pronounced bias in their phylogenetic distribution compared to the breadth of microbial diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-Zimmer_2009a_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zimmer_2009a-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geba_2009_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geba_2009-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models. Yeast (<i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>) has long been an important <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic cell">eukaryotic cell</a>, while the fruit fly <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i> has been a very important tool (notably in early pre-molecular <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>). The worm <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></i> is an often used simple model for <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a>. The zebrafish <i><a href="/wiki/Brachydanio_rerio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachydanio rerio">Brachydanio rerio</a></i> is used for many developmental studies on the molecular level, and the plant <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i> is a model organism for flowering plants. The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_pufferfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese pufferfish">Japanese pufferfish</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Takifugu_rubripes" title="Takifugu rubripes">Takifugu rubripes</a></i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Dichotomyctere_nigroviridis" title="Dichotomyctere nigroviridis">spotted green pufferfish</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Tetraodon_nigroviridis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraodon nigroviridis">Tetraodon nigroviridis</a></i>) are interesting because of their small and compact genomes, which contain very little <a href="/wiki/Noncoding_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Noncoding DNA">noncoding DNA</a> compared to most species.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_2004_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_2004-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yue_2001_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yue_2001-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mammals dog (<i><a href="/wiki/Canis_familiaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Canis familiaris">Canis familiaris</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-nhgriDog2004_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nhgriDog2004-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> brown rat (<i><a href="/wiki/Rattus_norvegicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rattus norvegicus">Rattus norvegicus</a></i>), mouse (<i><a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">Mus musculus</a></i>), and chimpanzee (<i><a href="/wiki/Pan_troglodytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan troglodytes">Pan troglodytes</a></i>) are all important model animals in medical research.<sup id="cite_ref-Darden_2010_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darden_2010-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A rough draft of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> was completed by the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> in early 2001, creating much fanfare.<sup id="cite_ref-McElheny_2010_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McElheny_2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This project, completed in 2003, sequenced the entire genome for one specific person, and by 2007 this sequence was declared "finished" (less than one error in 20,000 bases and all chromosomes assembled).<sup id="cite_ref-McElheny_2010_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McElheny_2010-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years since then, the genomes of many other individuals have been sequenced, partly under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/1000_Genomes_Project" title="1000 Genomes Project">1000 Genomes Project</a>, which announced the sequencing of 1,092 genomes in October 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-1000genomes2012_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1000genomes2012-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Completion of this project was made possible by the development of dramatically more efficient sequencing technologies and required the commitment of significant <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> resources from a large international collaboration.<sup id="cite_ref-Neilsen_2012_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neilsen_2012-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continued analysis of human genomic data has profound political and social repercussions for human societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes_2008_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes_2008-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_"omics"_revolution"><span id="The_.22omics.22_revolution"></span>The "omics" revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The "omics" revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metabolomics_schema.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Metabolomics_schema.png/220px-Metabolomics_schema.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Metabolomics_schema.png/330px-Metabolomics_schema.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Metabolomics_schema.png/440px-Metabolomics_schema.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>General schema showing the relationships of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcriptome" title="Transcriptome">transcriptome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proteome" title="Proteome">proteome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metabolome" title="Metabolome">metabolome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lipidome" title="Lipidome">lipidome</a>)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_proteome_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Human proteome project">Human proteome project</a></div> <p>The English-language <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> <b>omics</b> informally refers to a field of study in biology ending in <i>-omics</i>, such as genomics, <a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">metabolomics</a>. The related suffix <b>-ome</b> is used to address the objects of study of such fields, such as the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proteome" title="Proteome">proteome</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Metabolome" title="Metabolome">metabolome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lipidome" title="Lipidome">lipidome</a>) respectively. The suffix <i>-ome</i> as used in molecular biology refers to a <i>totality</i> of some sort; similarly <b>omics</b> has come to refer generally to the study of large, comprehensive biological data sets. While the growth in the use of the term has led some scientists (<a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Eisen" title="Jonathan Eisen">Jonathan Eisen</a>, among others<sup id="cite_ref-Eisen_2012_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisen_2012-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) to claim that it has been oversold,<sup id="cite_ref-wsj_2012_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wsj_2012-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it reflects the change in orientation towards the quantitative analysis of complete or near-complete assortment of all the constituents of a system.<sup id="cite_ref-Scudellari_2011_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scudellari_2011-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the study of <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbioses</a>, for example, researchers which were once limited to the study of a single gene product can now simultaneously compare the total complement of several types of biological molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-Chaston_2012_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaston_2012-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCutcheon_2011_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCutcheon_2011-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genome_analysis">Genome analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genome analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">Genome project</a></div> <p>After an organism has been selected, genome projects involve three components: the sequencing of DNA, the assembly of that sequence to create a representation of the original chromosome, and the annotation and analysis of that representation.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genome_sequencing_project_flowchart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Genome_sequencing_project_flowchart.svg/300px-Genome_sequencing_project_flowchart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Genome_sequencing_project_flowchart.svg/450px-Genome_sequencing_project_flowchart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Genome_sequencing_project_flowchart.svg/600px-Genome_sequencing_project_flowchart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Overview of a genome project. First, the genome must be selected, which involves several factors including cost and relevance. Second, the sequence is generated and assembled at a given sequencing center (such as <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Genomics_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Beijing Genomics Institute">BGI</a> or <a href="/wiki/DOE_Joint_Genome_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="DOE Joint Genome Institute">DOE JGI</a>). Third, the genome sequence is annotated at several levels: DNA, protein, gene pathways, or comparatively.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequencing">Sequencing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/DNA_Sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA Sequencing">DNA Sequencing</a></div> <p>Historically, sequencing was done in <i>sequencing centers</i>, centralized facilities (ranging from large independent institutions such as <a href="/wiki/Joint_Genome_Institute" title="Joint Genome Institute">Joint Genome Institute</a> which sequence dozens of terabases a year, to local molecular biology core facilities) which contain research laboratories with the costly instrumentation and technical support necessary. As sequencing technology continues to improve, however, a new generation of effective fast turnaround benchtop sequencers has come within reach of the average academic laboratory.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker_2012_Blog_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker_2012_Blog-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Quail_2012_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quail_2012-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the whole, genome sequencing approaches fall into two broad categories, <i>shotgun</i> and <i>high-throughput</i> (or <i>next-generation</i>) sequencing.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shotgun_sequencing">Shotgun sequencing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Shotgun sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ABI_PRISM_3100_Genetic_Analyzer_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/ABI_PRISM_3100_Genetic_Analyzer_3.jpg/220px-ABI_PRISM_3100_Genetic_Analyzer_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/ABI_PRISM_3100_Genetic_Analyzer_3.jpg/330px-ABI_PRISM_3100_Genetic_Analyzer_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/ABI_PRISM_3100_Genetic_Analyzer_3.jpg/440px-ABI_PRISM_3100_Genetic_Analyzer_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption>An ABI PRISM 3100 Genetic Analyzer. Such capillary sequencers automated early large-scale genome sequencing efforts.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">Shotgun sequencing</a></div> <p>Shotgun sequencing is a sequencing method designed for analysis of DNA sequences longer than 1000 base pairs, up to and including entire chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Staden_1979_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staden_1979-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is named by analogy with the rapidly expanding, quasi-random firing pattern of a <a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">shotgun</a>. Since gel electrophoresis sequencing can only be used for fairly short sequences (100 to 1000 base pairs), longer DNA sequences must be broken into random small segments which are then sequenced to obtain <i>reads</i>. Multiple overlapping reads for the target DNA are obtained by performing several rounds of this fragmentation and sequencing. Computer programs then use the overlapping ends of different reads to assemble them into a continuous sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-Staden_1979_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staden_1979-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_1981a_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson_1981a-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shotgun sequencing is a random sampling process, requiring over-sampling to ensure a given <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> is represented in the reconstructed sequence; the average number of reads by which a genome is over-sampled is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing#Coverage" title="Shotgun sequencing">coverage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pop_2008_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pop_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For much of its history, the technology underlying shotgun sequencing was the classical chain-termination method or '<a href="/wiki/Sanger_sequencing" title="Sanger sequencing">Sanger method</a>', which is based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating <a href="/wiki/Dideoxynucleotide" title="Dideoxynucleotide">dideoxynucleotides</a> by <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerase</a> during <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanger_1977_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger_1977-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sanger_1975_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanger_1975-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, shotgun sequencing has been supplanted by <a href="/wiki/Dna_sequencing#Next-generation_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Dna sequencing">high-throughput sequencing</a> methods, especially for large-scale, automated <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> analyses. However, the Sanger method remains in wide use, primarily for smaller-scale projects and for obtaining especially long contiguous DNA sequence reads (>500 nucleotides).<sup id="cite_ref-Mavro_2012_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mavro_2012-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chain-termination methods require a single-stranded DNA template, a DNA <a href="/wiki/Primer_(molecular_biology)" title="Primer (molecular biology)">primer</a>, a <a href="/wiki/DNA_polymerase" title="DNA polymerase">DNA polymerase</a>, normal deoxynucleosidetriphosphates (dNTPs), and modified nucleotides (dideoxyNTPs) that terminate DNA strand elongation. These chain-terminating nucleotides lack a 3'-<a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">OH</a> group required for the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Phosphodiester_bond" title="Phosphodiester bond">phosphodiester bond</a> between two nucleotides, causing DNA polymerase to cease extension of DNA when a ddNTP is incorporated. The ddNTPs may be radioactively or <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescently</a> labelled for detection in <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencer" title="DNA sequencer">DNA sequencers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, these machines can sequence up to 96 DNA samples in a single batch (run) in up to 48 runs a day.<sup id="cite_ref-illumina2012_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-illumina2012-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High-throughput_sequencing">High-throughput sequencing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: High-throughput sequencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Illumina_dye_sequencing" title="Illumina dye sequencing">Illumina dye sequencing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ion_semiconductor_sequencing" title="Ion semiconductor sequencing">Ion semiconductor sequencing</a></div> <p>The high demand for low-cost sequencing has driven the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies that <a href="/wiki/Multiplex_(assay)" title="Multiplex (assay)">parallelize</a> the sequencing process, producing thousands or millions of sequences at once.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall_2007_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall_2007-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Church_2005_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Church_2005-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-throughput sequencing is intended to lower the cost of DNA sequencing beyond what is possible with standard dye-terminator methods. In ultra-high-throughput sequencing, as many as 500,000 sequencing-by-synthesis operations may be run in parallel.<sup id="cite_ref-tenBosch2008_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tenBosch2008-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tucker_2009_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tucker_2009-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illumina_Genome_Analyzer_II_System.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Illumina_Genome_Analyzer_II_System.jpg/250px-Illumina_Genome_Analyzer_II_System.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Illumina_Genome_Analyzer_II_System.jpg/330px-Illumina_Genome_Analyzer_II_System.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Illumina_Genome_Analyzer_II_System.jpg/500px-Illumina_Genome_Analyzer_II_System.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>Illumina Genome Analyzer II System. Illumina technologies have set the standard for high-throughput massively parallel sequencing.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker_2012_Blog_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker_2012_Blog-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Illumina dye sequencing method is based on reversible dye-terminators and was developed in 1996 at the Geneva Biomedical Research Institute, by <a href="/wiki/Pascal_Mayer" title="Pascal Mayer">Pascal Mayer</a> and Laurent Farinelli.<sup id="cite_ref-DNA_colony_patents_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DNA_colony_patents-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this method, DNA molecules and primers are first attached on a slide and amplified with <a href="/wiki/Polymerase" title="Polymerase">polymerase</a> so that local clonal colonies, initially coined "DNA colonies", are formed. To determine the sequence, four types of reversible terminator bases (RT-bases) are added and non-incorporated nucleotides are washed away. Unlike pyrosequencing, the DNA chains are extended one nucleotide at a time and image acquisition can be performed at a delayed moment, allowing for very large arrays of DNA colonies to be captured by sequential images taken from a single camera. Decoupling the enzymatic reaction and the image capture allows for optimal throughput and theoretically unlimited sequencing capacity; with an optimal configuration, the ultimate throughput of the instrument depends only on the <a href="/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter" title="Analog-to-digital converter">A/D conversion</a> rate of the camera. The camera takes images of the <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_labeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent labeling">fluorescently labeled</a> nucleotides, then the dye along with the terminal 3' blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing the next cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-Mardis_2008_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mardis_2008-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An alternative approach, ion semiconductor sequencing, is based on standard DNA replication chemistry. This technology measures the release of a hydrogen ion each time a base is incorporated. A microwell containing template DNA is flooded with a single <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a>, if the nucleotide is complementary to the template strand it will be incorporated and a hydrogen ion will be released. This release triggers an <a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a> ion sensor. If a <a href="/wiki/Homopolymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Homopolymer">homopolymer</a> is present in the template sequence multiple nucleotides will be incorporated in a single flood cycle, and the detected electrical signal will be proportionally higher.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_2011_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies_2011-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assembly">Assembly</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Assembly"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sequence_assembly" title="Sequence assembly">Sequence assembly</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PET_contig_scaffold.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/PET_contig_scaffold.png/300px-PET_contig_scaffold.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/PET_contig_scaffold.png 1.5x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="196" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Overlapping reads form contigs; contigs and gaps of known length form scaffolds.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mapping_Reads.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Mapping_Reads.png/330px-Mapping_Reads.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Mapping_Reads.png/500px-Mapping_Reads.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Mapping_Reads.png/960px-Mapping_Reads.png 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="927" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Paired end reads of next generation sequencing data mapped to a reference genome.</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Multiple, fragmented sequence reads must be assembled together on the basis of their overlapping areas.</div></div></div></div> <p>Sequence assembly refers to <a href="/wiki/Sequence_alignment" title="Sequence alignment">aligning</a> and merging fragments of a much longer <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequence in order to reconstruct the original sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is needed as current <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> technology cannot read whole genomes as a continuous sequence, but rather reads small pieces of between 20 and 1000 bases, depending on the technology used. Third generation sequencing technologies such as PacBio or Oxford Nanopore routinely generate sequencing reads 10-100 kb in length; however, they have a high error rate at approximately 1 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-PacBio_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PacBio-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nanoporetech_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nanoporetech-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically the short fragments, called reads, result from <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">shotgun sequencing</a> <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomic</a> DNA, or <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">gene transcripts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Expressed_sequence_tag" title="Expressed sequence tag">ESTs</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assembly_approaches">Assembly approaches</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Assembly approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Assembly can be broadly categorized into two approaches: <i>de novo</i> assembly, for genomes which are not similar to any sequenced in the past, and comparative assembly, which uses the existing sequence of a closely related organism as a reference during assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-Pop_2008_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pop_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relative to comparative assembly, <i>de novo</i> assembly is computationally difficult (<a href="/wiki/NP-hard" class="mw-redirect" title="NP-hard">NP-hard</a>), making it less favourable for short-read NGS technologies. Within the <i>de novo</i> assembly paradigm there are two primary strategies for assembly, Eulerian path strategies, and overlap-layout-consensus (OLC) strategies. OLC strategies ultimately try to create a Hamiltonian path through an overlap graph which is an NP-hard problem. Eulerian path strategies are computationally more tractable because they try to find a Eulerian path through a deBruijn graph.<sup id="cite_ref-Pop_2008_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pop_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Finishing">Finishing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Finishing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Finished genomes are defined as having a single contiguous sequence with no ambiguities representing each <a href="/wiki/Replicon_(genetics)" title="Replicon (genetics)">replicon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chain_2009_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chain_2009-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Annotation">Annotation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Annotation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genome_annotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome annotation">Genome annotation</a></div> <p>The DNA sequence assembly alone is of little value without additional analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genome annotation is the process of attaching biological information to <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">sequences</a>, and consists of three main steps:<sup id="cite_ref-Stein_2001_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein_2001-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>identifying portions of the genome that do not code for proteins</li> <li>identifying elements on the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>, a process called <a href="/wiki/Gene_prediction" title="Gene prediction">gene prediction</a>, and</li> <li>attaching biological information to these elements.</li></ol> <p>Automatic annotation tools try to perform these steps <i><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i>, as opposed to manual annotation (a.k.a. curation) which involves human expertise and potential experimental verification.<sup id="cite_ref-Brent_2008_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brent_2008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideally, these approaches co-exist and complement each other in the same annotation <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_(computing)" title="Pipeline (computing)">pipeline</a> (also see <a href="#Sequencing_pipelines">below</a>). </p><p>Traditionally, the basic level of annotation is using <a href="/wiki/BLAST_(biotechnology)" title="BLAST (biotechnology)">BLAST</a> for finding similarities, and then annotating genomes based on homologues.<sup id="cite_ref-Pevsner_2009_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pevsner_2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, additional information is added to the annotation platform. The additional information allows manual annotators to deconvolute discrepancies between genes that are given the same annotation. Some databases use genome context information, similarity scores, experimental data, and integrations of other resources to provide genome annotations through their Subsystems approach. Other databases (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a>) rely on both curated data sources as well as a range of software tools in their automated genome annotation pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-Ensmbl_2013_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ensmbl_2013-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Structural annotation</i> consists of the identification of genomic elements, primarily <a href="/wiki/Open_reading_frame" title="Open reading frame">ORFs</a> and their localisation, or gene structure. <i>Functional annotation</i> consists of attaching biological information to genomic elements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequencing_pipelines_and_databases">Sequencing pipelines and databases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sequencing pipelines and databases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The need for reproducibility and efficient management of the large amount of data associated with genome projects mean that <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">computational pipelines</a> have important applications in genomics.<sup id="cite_ref-Bioinf_Methods_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bioinf_Methods-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_areas">Research areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Research areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_genomics">Functional genomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Functional genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">Functional genomics</a></div> <p>Functional genomics is a field of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data produced by genomic projects (such as <a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">genome sequencing projects</a>) to describe <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>) functions and interactions. Functional genomics focuses on the dynamic aspects such as gene <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a>, <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction" title="Protein–protein interaction">protein–protein interactions</a>, as opposed to the static aspects of the genomic information such as <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a> or structures. Functional genomics attempts to answer questions about the function of DNA at the levels of genes, RNA transcripts, and protein products. A key characteristic of functional genomics studies is their genome-wide approach to these questions, generally involving high-throughput methods rather than a more traditional "gene-by-gene" approach. </p><p>A major branch of genomics is still concerned with <a href="/wiki/Sequencing" title="Sequencing">sequencing</a> the genomes of various organisms, but the knowledge of full genomes has created the possibility for the field of <a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">functional genomics</a>, mainly concerned with patterns of <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> during various conditions. The most important tools here are <a href="/wiki/Microarray" title="Microarray">microarrays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_genomics">Structural genomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Structural genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_genomics" title="Structural genomics">Structural genomics</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Argonne%27s_Midwest_Center_for_Structural_Genomics_deposits_1,000th_protein_structure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Argonne%27s_Midwest_Center_for_Structural_Genomics_deposits_1%2C000th_protein_structure.jpg/330px-Argonne%27s_Midwest_Center_for_Structural_Genomics_deposits_1%2C000th_protein_structure.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Argonne%27s_Midwest_Center_for_Structural_Genomics_deposits_1%2C000th_protein_structure.jpg/500px-Argonne%27s_Midwest_Center_for_Structural_Genomics_deposits_1%2C000th_protein_structure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Argonne%27s_Midwest_Center_for_Structural_Genomics_deposits_1%2C000th_protein_structure.jpg/960px-Argonne%27s_Midwest_Center_for_Structural_Genomics_deposits_1%2C000th_protein_structure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="831" /></a><figcaption>An example of a protein structure determined by the Midwest Center for Structural Genomics</figcaption></figure> <p>Structural genomics seeks to describe the <a href="/wiki/Protein_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein Structure">3-dimensional structure</a> of every protein encoded by a given <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Marsden_2007_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marsden_2007-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brenner_2000_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brenner_2000-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This genome-based approach allows for a high-throughput method of structure determination by a combination of <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure_prediction" title="Protein structure prediction">experimental and modeling approaches</a>. The principal difference between structural genomics and <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure_prediction" title="Protein structure prediction">traditional structural prediction</a> is that structural genomics attempts to determine the structure of every protein encoded by the genome, rather than focusing on one particular protein. With full-genome sequences available, structure prediction can be done more quickly through a combination of experimental and modeling approaches, especially because the availability of large numbers of sequenced genomes and previously solved protein structures allow scientists to model protein structure on the structures of previously solved homologs. Structural genomics involves taking a large number of approaches to structure determination, including experimental methods using genomic sequences or modeling-based approaches based on sequence or <a href="/wiki/Homology_modeling" title="Homology modeling">structural homology</a> to a protein of known structure or based on chemical and physical principles for a protein with no homology to any known structure. As opposed to traditional <a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">structural biology</a>, the determination of a <a href="/wiki/Protein_structure" title="Protein structure">protein structure</a> through a structural genomics effort often (but not always) comes before anything is known regarding the protein function. This raises new challenges in <a href="/wiki/Structural_bioinformatics" title="Structural bioinformatics">structural bioinformatics</a>, i.e. determining protein function from its <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">3D</a> structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Brenner_2001_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brenner_2001-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenomics">Epigenomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Epigenomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epigenomics" title="Epigenomics">Epigenomics</a></div> <p>Epigenomics is the study of the complete set of <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic">epigenetic</a> modifications on the genetic material of a cell, known as the <a href="/wiki/Epigenome" title="Epigenome">epigenome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Francis_2011_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Francis_2011-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epigenetic modifications are reversible modifications on a cell's DNA or histones that affect gene expression without altering the DNA sequence (Russell 2010 p. 475). Two of the most characterized epigenetic modifications are <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics#DNA_methylation_and_chromatin_remodeling" title="Epigenetics">histone modification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epigenetic modifications play an important role in gene expression and regulation, and are involved in numerous cellular processes such as in <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics#Development" title="Epigenetics">differentiation/development</a><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics#Cancer" title="Epigenetics">tumorigenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Francis_2011_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Francis_2011-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of epigenetics on a global level has been made possible only recently through the adaptation of genomic high-throughput assays.<sup id="cite_ref-Laird_2010_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laird_2010-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Metagenomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png/170px-Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png/255px-Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png/340px-Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png 2x" data-file-width="1904" data-file-height="2634" /></a><figcaption>Environmental Shotgun Sequencing (ESS) is a key technique in metagenomics. (A) Sampling from habitat; (B) filtering particles, typically by size; (C) Lysis and DNA extraction; (D) cloning and library construction; (E) sequencing the clones; (F) sequence assembly into contigs and scaffolds.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a></div> <p>Metagenomics is the study of <i>metagenomes</i>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> material recovered directly from <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environmental</a> samples. The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics, ecogenomics or community genomics. While traditional <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a> and microbial <a href="/wiki/Genome_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome sequencing">genome sequencing</a> rely upon cultivated <a href="/wiki/Clone_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clone (genetics)">clonal</a> <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">cultures</a>, early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes (often the <a href="/wiki/16S_ribosomal_RNA" title="16S ribosomal RNA">16S rRNA</a> gene) to produce a <a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">profile of diversity</a> in a natural sample. Such work revealed that the vast majority of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">microbial biodiversity</a> had been missed by <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">cultivation-based</a> methods.<sup id="cite_ref-Hugenholz_1998_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hugenholz_1998-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent studies use "shotgun" <a href="/wiki/Chain_termination_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Chain termination method">Sanger sequencing</a> or massively parallel <a href="/wiki/Pyrosequencing" title="Pyrosequencing">pyrosequencing</a> to get largely unbiased samples of all genes from all the members of the sampled communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Eisen_2007_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eisen_2007-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of its power to reveal the previously hidden diversity of microscopic life, metagenomics offers a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world that has the potential to revolutionize understanding of the entire living world.<sup id="cite_ref-Marco_2010_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marco_2010-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marco_2011_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marco_2011-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Model_systems">Model systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Model systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Viruses_and_bacteriophages">Viruses and bacteriophages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Viruses and bacteriophages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophages</a> have played and continue to play a key role in bacterial <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>. Historically, they were used to define <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> structure and gene regulation. Also the first <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> to be sequenced was a <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a>. However, bacteriophage research did not lead the genomics revolution, which is clearly dominated by bacterial genomics. Only very recently has the study of bacteriophage genomes become prominent, thereby enabling researchers to understand the mechanisms underlying <a href="/wiki/Phage" class="mw-redirect" title="Phage">phage</a> evolution. Bacteriophage genome sequences can be obtained through direct sequencing of isolated bacteriophages, but can also be derived as part of microbial genomes. Analysis of bacterial genomes has shown that a substantial amount of microbial DNA consists of <a href="/wiki/Prophage" title="Prophage">prophage</a> sequences and prophage-like elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Canchaya_2003_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canchaya_2003-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A detailed database mining of these sequences offers insights into the role of prophages in shaping the bacterial genome: Overall, this method verified many known bacteriophage groups, making this a useful tool for predicting the relationships of prophages from bacterial genomes.<sup id="cite_ref-McGrath_2007_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrath_2007-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fouts_2005_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fouts_2005-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Cyanobacteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At present there are 24 <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> for which a total genome sequence is available. 15 of these cyanobacteria come from the marine environment. These are six <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> strains, seven marine <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> strains, <i><a href="/wiki/Trichodesmium_erythraeum" title="Trichodesmium erythraeum">Trichodesmium erythraeum</a></i> IMS101 and <i><a href="/wiki/Crocosphaera_watsonii" title="Crocosphaera watsonii">Crocosphaera watsonii</a></i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=WH8501&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="WH8501 (page does not exist)">WH8501</a>. Several studies have demonstrated how these sequences could be used very successfully to infer important ecological and physiological characteristics of marine cyanobacteria. However, there are many more genome projects currently in progress, amongst those there are further <i><a href="/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> and marine <i><a href="/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> isolates, <i><a href="/wiki/Acaryochloris" class="mw-redirect" title="Acaryochloris">Acaryochloris</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Prochloron" title="Prochloron">Prochloron</a></i>, the N<sub>2</sub>-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria <i><a href="/wiki/Nodularia" title="Nodularia">Nodularia</a> spumigena</i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lyngbya_aestuarii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lyngbya aestuarii (page does not exist)">Lyngbya aestuarii</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Lyngbya_majuscula" title="Lyngbya majuscula">Lyngbya majuscula</a></i>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a> infecting marine cyanobaceria. Thus, the growing body of genome information can also be tapped in a more general way to address global problems by applying a comparative approach. Some new and exciting examples of progress in this field are the identification of genes for regulatory RNAs, insights into the evolutionary origin of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, or estimation of the contribution of <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a> to the genomes that have been analyzed.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrero_2008_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrero_2008-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption>Schematic <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyogram</a> of a human, providing a simplified overview of the human genome. It is a graphical representation of the idealized human <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> karyotype, with annotated <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">bands and sub-bands</a>. It shows dark and white regions on <a href="/wiki/G_banding" title="G banding">G banding</a>. Each row is vertically aligned at <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">centromere</a> level. It shows 22 <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous</a> <a href="/wiki/Autosomal" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomal">autosomal</a> chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosomes</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">mitochondrial genome</a> (at bottom left). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Genomics has provided applications in many fields, including <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes_2008_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes_2008-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genomic_medicine">Genomic medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Genomic medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Next-generation genomic technologies allow clinicians and biomedical researchers to drastically increase the amount of genomic data collected on large study populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Feero_2011_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feero_2011-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When combined with new informatics approaches that integrate many kinds of data with genomic data in disease research, this allows researchers to better understand the genetic bases of drug response and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Feero_2011a_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feero_2011a-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lu_2014_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lu_2014-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early efforts to apply the genome to medicine included those by a Stanford team led by <a href="/wiki/Euan_Ashley" title="Euan Ashley">Euan Ashley</a> who developed the first tools for the medical interpretation of a human genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashley_2010_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashley_2010-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_2011_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey_2011-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_2014_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey_2014-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Genomes2People research program at <a href="/wiki/Brigham_and_Women%E2%80%99s_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigham and Women’s Hospital">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broad_Institute" title="Broad Institute">Broad Institute</a> and Harvard Medical School was established in 2012 to conduct empirical research in translating genomics into health. <a href="/wiki/Brigham_and_Women%27s_Hospital" title="Brigham and Women's Hospital">Brigham and Women's Hospital</a> opened a Preventive Genomics Clinic in August 2019, with <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Hospital" title="Massachusetts General Hospital">Massachusetts General Hospital</a> following a month later.<sup id="cite_ref-Robbins_2019_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robbins_2019-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dark_Daily_2020_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dark_Daily_2020-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>All of Us</i> research program aims to collect genome sequence data from 1 million participants to become a critical component of the precision medicine research platform<sup id="cite_ref-NIH_2018_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIH_2018-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i>UK Biobank</i> initiative has studied more than 500.000 individuals with deep genomic and phenotypic data.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthetic_biology_and_bioengineering">Synthetic biology and bioengineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Synthetic biology and bioengineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The growth of genomic knowledge has enabled increasingly sophisticated applications of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">synthetic biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Church_2012_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Church_2012-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010 researchers at the <a href="/wiki/J._Craig_Venter_Institute" title="J. Craig Venter Institute">J. Craig Venter Institute</a> announced the creation of a partially synthetic species of <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacterium</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasma_laboratorium" title="Mycoplasma laboratorium">Mycoplasma laboratorium</a></i>, derived from the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasma_genitalium" title="Mycoplasma genitalium">Mycoplasma genitalium</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker_2011_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker_2011-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_and_conservation_genomics">Population and conservation genomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Population and conservation genomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></b> has developed as a popular field of research, where genomic sequencing methods are used to conduct large-scale comparisons of DNA sequences among populations - beyond the limits of genetic markers such as short-range <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a> products or <a href="/wiki/Microsatellites" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsatellites">microsatellites</a> traditionally used in <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>. Population genomics studies <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>-wide effects to improve our understanding of <a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">microevolution</a> so that we may learn the <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetic</a> history and <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> of a population.<sup id="cite_ref-Luikart_2003_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luikart_2003-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Population genomic methods are used for many different fields including <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">fisheries management</a>. Similarly, <b><a href="/wiki/Landscape_genomics" title="Landscape genomics">landscape genomics</a></b> has developed from <a href="/wiki/Landscape_genetics" title="Landscape genetics">landscape genetics</a> to use genomic methods to identify relationships between patterns of environmental and genetic variation. </p><p>Conservationists can use the information gathered by genomic sequencing in order to better evaluate genetic factors key to species conservation, such as the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> of a population or whether an individual is heterozygous for a recessive inherited genetic disorder.<sup id="cite_ref-Frankham_2010_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frankham_2010-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using genomic data to evaluate the effects of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary process">evolutionary processes</a> and to detect patterns in variation throughout a given population, conservationists can formulate plans to aid a given species without as many variables left unknown as those unaddressed by standard <a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">genetic approaches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allendorf_2010_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allendorf_2010-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hi-C_(genomic_analysis_technique)" title="Hi-C (genomic analysis technique)">Hi-C (genomic analysis technique)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_genomics" title="Cognitive genomics">Cognitive genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_genomics" title="Computational genomics">Computational genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenomics" title="Epigenomics">Epigenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">Functional genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GeneCalling" title="GeneCalling">GeneCalling</a>, an mRNA profiling technology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics_of_domestication" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomics of domestication">Genomics of domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_in_fiction" title="Genetics in fiction">Genetics in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunomics" title="Immunomics">Immunomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenomics" title="Pathogenomics">Pathogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_genomics" title="Personal genomics">Personal genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">Transcriptomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomics" title="Venomics">Venomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogenomics">Psychogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Roderick" title="Thomas Roderick">Thomas Roderick</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Franklin_1953-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Franklin_1953_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFranklinGosling1953" class="citation journal cs1">Franklin RE, Gosling RG (April 1953). 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"The power and promise of population genomics: from genotyping to genome typing". <i>Nature Reviews. Genetics</i>. <b>4</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">981–</span>94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1226">10.1038/nrg1226</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14631358">14631358</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8516357">8516357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+power+and+promise+of+population+genomics%3A+from+genotyping+to+genome+typing&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E981-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8516357%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14631358&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg1226&rft.aulast=Luikart&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=England%2C+PR&rft.au=Tallmon%2C+D&rft.au=Jordan%2C+S&rft.au=Taberlet%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frankham_2010-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Frankham_2010_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrankham2010" class="citation journal cs1">Frankham R (1 September 2010). "Challenges and opportunities of genetic approaches to biological conservation". <i>Biological Conservation</i>. <b>143</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">1922–</span>1923. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010BCons.143.1919F">2010BCons.143.1919F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2010.05.011">10.1016/j.biocon.2010.05.011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Conservation&rft.atitle=Challenges+and+opportunities+of+genetic+approaches+to+biological+conservation&rft.volume=143&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1922-%3C%2Fspan%3E1923&rft.date=2010-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2010.05.011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010BCons.143.1919F&rft.aulast=Frankham&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allendorf_2010-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allendorf_2010_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllendorfHohenloheLuikart2010" class="citation journal cs1">Allendorf FW, Hohenlohe PA, Luikart G (October 2010). "Genomics and the future of conservation genetics". <i>Nature Reviews. Genetics</i>. <b>11</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">697–</span>709. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg2844">10.1038/nrg2844</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20847747">20847747</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10811958">10811958</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genomics+and+the+future+of+conservation+genetics&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E697-%3C%2Fspan%3E709&rft.date=2010-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10811958%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20847747&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg2844&rft.aulast=Allendorf&rft.aufirst=FW&rft.au=Hohenlohe%2C+PA&rft.au=Luikart%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLesk2017" class="citation book cs1">Lesk AM (2017). <i>Introduction to Genomics</i> (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 544. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-107085-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-107085-3"><bdi>978-0-19-107085-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0198754833">0198754833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Genomics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=544&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-107085-3&rft.aulast=Lesk&rft.aufirst=AM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStunnenbergHubner2014" class="citation journal cs1">Stunnenberg HG, Hubner NC (June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4021166">"Genomics meets proteomics: identifying the culprits in disease"</a>. <i>Human Genetics</i>. <b>133</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">689–</span>700. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-013-1376-2">10.1007/s00439-013-1376-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4021166">4021166</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24135908">24135908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genomics+meets+proteomics%3A+identifying+the+culprits+in+disease&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E689-%3C%2Fspan%3E700&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4021166%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24135908&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00439-013-1376-2&rft.aulast=Stunnenberg&rft.aufirst=HG&rft.au=Hubner%2C+NC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4021166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShibata2012" class="citation journal cs1">Shibata T (October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1440-1827.2012.02855.x">"Cancer genomics and pathology: all together now"</a>. <i>Pathology International</i>. <b>62</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">647–</span>659. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1440-1827.2012.02855.x">10.1111/j.1440-1827.2012.02855.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23005591">23005591</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27886018">27886018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pathology+International&rft.atitle=Cancer+genomics+and+pathology%3A+all+together+now&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E647-%3C%2Fspan%3E659&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27886018%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23005591&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1440-1827.2012.02855.x&rft.aulast=Shibata&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1440-1827.2012.02855.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoychowdhuryChinnaiyan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Roychowdhury S, Chinnaiyan AM (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4713245">"Translating cancer genomes and transcriptomes for precision oncology"</a>. <i>CA</i>. <b>66</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">75–</span>88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3322%2Fcaac.21329">10.3322/caac.21329</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4713245">4713245</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26528881">26528881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CA&rft.atitle=Translating+cancer+genomes+and+transcriptomes+for+precision+oncology&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E75-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4713245%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26528881&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3322%2Fcaac.21329&rft.aulast=Roychowdhury&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Chinnaiyan%2C+AM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4713245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGladyshevZhang2013" class="citation book cs1">Gladyshev VN, Zhang Y (2013). "Chapter 16 Comparative Genomics Analysis of the Metallomes". In Banci L (ed.). <i>Metallomics and the Cell</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-5561-10_16">10.1007/978-94-007-5561-10_16</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5560-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5560-4"><bdi>978-94-007-5560-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+16+Comparative+Genomics+Analysis+of+the+Metallomes&rft.btitle=Metallomics+and+the+Cell&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-5561-10_16&rft.isbn=978-94-007-5560-4&rft.aulast=Gladyshev&rft.aufirst=VN&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenomics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span> electronic-book <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5561-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-5561-1">978-94-007-5561-1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1559-0836">1559-0836</a> electronic-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1868-0402">1868-0402</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genomics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/genom/">Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090118194411/http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/genom">Archived</a> 2009-01-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcgenomics/">BMC Genomics</a>: A BMC journal on Genomics</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622838/description#description">Genomics journal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genomics.org">Genomics.org</a>: An openfree genomics portal.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genome.gov/">NHGRI</a>: US government's genome institute</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516145036/http://cmr.jcvi.org/">JCVI Comprehensive Microbial Resource</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201127192012/http://www.koreagenome.org/">KoreaGenome.org</a>: The first Korean Genome published and the sequence is available freely.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171228195616/http://www.genomicsnetwork.ac.uk/">GenomicsNetwork</a>: Looks at the development and use of the science and technologies of genomics.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091115214635/http://www.igs.umaryland.edu/research_topics.php">Institute for Genome Sciences</a>: Genomics research.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/health-sciences-and-technology/hst-512-genomic-medicine-spring-2004/">MIT OpenCourseWare HST.512 Genomic Medicine</a> A free, self-study course in genomic medicine. Resources include audio lectures and selected lecture notes.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/encode/#/threads/machine-learning-approaches-to-genomics">ENCODE threads explorer</a> Machine learning approaches to genomics. <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature (journal)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005093407/https://mapsengine.google.com/map/viewer?mid=zeHBUH4JmjxQ.kB0PwL4lW7VM">Global map of genomics laboratories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/scitable/ebooks/genomics-4">Genomics: Scitable by nature education</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thegeneboxacademy.com/">Learn All About Genetics Online</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style 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<li><a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncogenomics" title="Oncogenomics">Oncogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangenomics">Pangenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_genomics" title="Personal genomics">Personal genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociogenomics" title="Sociogenomics"><i>Socio</i>genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_genomics" title="Structural genomics">Structural genomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochip" title="Biochip">Biochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemogenomics" title="Chemogenomics">Chemogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Connectome_Project" title="Human Connectome Project">Human Connectome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenomics" title="Epigenomics">Epigenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Epigenome_Project" title="Human Epigenome Project">Human Epigenome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunomics" title="Immunomics">Immunomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidomics" title="Lipidomics">Lipidomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">Metabolomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrigenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrigenomics">Nutrigenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">Transcriptomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_proteome_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Human proteome project">Human proteome project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-map_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-map proteomics">Call-map proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure-based_drug_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure-based drug design">Structure-based drug design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expression_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression proteomics">Expression proteomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-D_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="2-D electrophoresis">2-D electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">Mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrospray_ionization" title="Electrospray ionization">Electrospray ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization-time_of_flight_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfluidic-based_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic-based tools">Microfluidic-based tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_affinity_tags" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope affinity tags">Isotope affinity tags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_conformation_capture" title="Chromosome conformation capture">Chromosome conformation capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> (JP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_omics_topics_in_biology" title="List of omics topics in biology">List</a> </b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Omics" title="Category:Omics">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genetics421" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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history of genetics">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_monitoring" title="Genetic monitoring">Genetic monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Jiankui_genome_editing_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="He Jiankui genome editing incident">He Jiankui genome editing incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_codes" title="List of genetic codes">List of genetic codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetics_research_organizations" title="List of genetics research organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a 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title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic 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biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genealogical_DNA_testing362" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link 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<li><a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test#Types_of_tests" title="Genealogical DNA test">Types of tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplogroup" title="Haplogroup">Haplogroup</a> / <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">Haplotype</a> / <a href="/wiki/Subclade" title="Subclade">Subclade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bennett_Greenspan" title="Bennett Greenspan">Bennett Greenspan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Wells" title="Spencer Wells">Spencer Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Wojcicki" title="Anne Wojcicki">Anne Wojcicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_of_Genetic_Genealogy" title="International Society of Genetic Genealogy">International Society of Genetic Genealogy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genographic_Project" title="Genographic Project">Genographic Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surname_DNA_project" title="Surname DNA project">Surname DNA project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/23andMe" title="23andMe">23andMe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AncestryDNA" class="mw-redirect" 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