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<span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_nation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_nation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Arab nation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_nation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactionary_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactionary_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Reactionary classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactionary_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Liberty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Socialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Role of Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Ba'athism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Ba'athism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Neo-Ba'athism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neo-Ba'athism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Neo-Ba'athism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Neo-Ba'athism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assadism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assadism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Assadism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assadism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraqi_Ba'athism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraqi_Ba'athism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Iraqi Ba'athism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Iraqi_Ba'athism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Iraqi Ba'athism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Iraqi_Ba'athism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saddamism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saddamism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Saddamism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saddamism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Controversy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allegations_of_fascism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allegations_of_fascism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Allegations of fascism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allegations_of_fascism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allegations_of_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allegations_of_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Allegations of racism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allegations_of_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بعثية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بعثية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="বাথ মতবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বাথ মতবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Баасізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Баасізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baasisme" title="Baasisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Baasisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athismus" title="Ba'athismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ba'athismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athisme" title="Ba'athisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ba'athisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baathismus" title="Baathismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Baathismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Μπααθισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπααθισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baazismo" title="Baazismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Baazismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AB%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="بعثیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بعثیسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baasisme" title="Baasisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Baasisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%ED%8A%B8%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="바트주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바트주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A1%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Բաասիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բաասիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="बाथवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बाथवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27thisme" title="Ba'thisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ba'thisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athismi" title="Ba'athismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ba'athismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27thismo" title="Ba'thismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ba'thismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ბაათიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბაათიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athisme" title="Ba'athisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ba'athisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%E2%80%99athisme" title="Ba’athisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ba’athisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baathisme" title="Baathisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Baathisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baasizm" title="Baasizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Baasizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baathismo" title="Baathismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Baathismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baasism" title="Baasism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Baasism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Баасизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Баасизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ba'athism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ba'athism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="بەعسیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بەعسیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baath" title="Baath – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Baath" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A9%E0%B9%8C" title="ลัทธิบะอษ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลัทธิบะอษ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baas%C3%A7%C4%B1l%C4%B1k" title="Baasçılık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Baasçılık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/400px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The flag of the Baath Party, based on the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">flag of the Arab Revolt</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies" title="List of political ideologies">Ideology</a></th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political position</a></th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:16em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle fn org country-name adr"><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Arab_world.svg/100px-Arab_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Arab_world.svg/150px-Arab_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Arab_world.svg/200px-Arab_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="130" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Political Issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Winter" title="Arab Winter">Arab Winter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria" title="Arab League monitors in Syria"> Syrian Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_and_humanitarian_efforts_in_the_Somali_Civil_War#Arab_League" title="Diplomatic and humanitarian efforts in the Somali Civil War"> Somali Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict#Arab_League" title="Western Sahara conflict"> Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League_and_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab League and the Arab–Israeli conflict"> Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Weapons of mass destruction</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Egypt and weapons of mass destruction"> Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction"> Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Libya and weapons of mass destruction"> Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction"> Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Arab_world" title="Geography of the Arab world">Geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Regions</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile"> Nile Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bab-el-Mandeb" title="Bab-el-Mandeb">Bab-el-Mandeb</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Deserts</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad-Dahna_Desert" title="Ad-Dahna Desert">ad-Dahna</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League"> Governance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League"> Founding Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Charter_on_Human_Rights" title="Arab Charter on Human Rights"> Human Rights Charter</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Secretary_General_of_the_Arab_League" title="Secretary General of the Arab League"> Secretary General</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"> (<a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Aboul_Gheit" title="Ahmed Aboul Gheit">Ahmed Aboul Gheit</a>) </span> </div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Institutions_of_the_Arab_League" title="Institutions of the Arab League"> Institutions</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Arab_League" title="Council of the Arab League"> Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League#Summits" title="Arab League"> Summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Parliament" title="Arab Parliament"> Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism"> Unity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Arab leaders</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salman_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Salman of Saudi Arabia"> King Salman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_II_of_Jordan" title="Abdullah II of Jordan"> King Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi" title="Abdel Fattah el-Sisi"> Fattah el-Sisi</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism"> Ideology</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ba'athism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Anti-Iranian sentiment</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Anti-Shi'ism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Antisemitism in the Arab world"> Antisemitism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union"> Attempts at political union</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)"> Union of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Hussein%27s_federation_plan" title="King Hussein's federation plan"> United Arab Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Organizational unions</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council"> Cooperation Council for the<br />Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Maghreb_Union" title="Arab Maghreb Union">Arab Maghreb Union</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Foreign relations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Multilateral</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#African_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#ASEAN" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Arab League–European Union relations"> European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Latin_America" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Bilateral</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Brazil" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Arab_relations" title="Sino-Arab relations"> China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Eritrean_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab–Eritrean relations"> Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#France" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#India" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Eritrea" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93Iran_relations" title="Arab League–Iran relations"> Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Israel" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab–Pakistan relations"> Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Turkey" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93American_relations" title="Arab–American relations"> United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Uzbekistan" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Venezuela" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Arab_League" title="Military of the Arab League"> Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Arab_League#List_of_Arab_League_member_states_by_military_expenditure" title="Military of the Arab League"> Expenditure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Joint defence</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Defence_Council_(Arab_League)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Defence Council (Arab League)"> Joint Defence Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Command" title="United Arab Command">United Arab Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Shield_Force" title="Peninsula Shield Force"> Peninsula Shield</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Organization_for_Industrialization" title="Arab Organization for Industrialization"> Arab Organization for<br />Industrialization (AOI)</a></div></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Arab_League" title="Economy of the Arab League"> Economy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Council_(Arab_League)" title="Economic and Social Council (Arab League)"> Economic and Social Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Arab_Economic_Unity" title="Council of Arab Economic Unity"> Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Monetary_Fund" title="Arab Monetary Fund">Arab Monetary Fund</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Fund_for_Economic_and_Social_Development" title="Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development"> Arab Fund for Economic and<br />Social Development (AFESD)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean" title="Union for the Mediterranean">Union for the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Arab_Economic_Unity#Greater_Arab_Free_Trade_Area" title="Council of Arab Economic Unity"> Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Chambers_of_Commerce,_Industry_and_Agriculture_for_Arab_Countries" title="General Union of Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture for Arab Countries"> Chambers of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Customs_Union" title="Arab Customs Union">Arab Customs Union</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/International_Confederation_of_Arab_Trade_Unions" title="International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions"> International Confederation of<br />Arab Trade Unions (ICATU)</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Trade_Unions_and_Labor_Societies" title="Federation of Arab Trade Unions and Labor Societies"> Federation of Arab Trade Unions<br />and Labor Societies (FATULS)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualifying_industrial_zone" title="Qualifying industrial zone"> Qualifying Industrial Zone (QIZ)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Transportation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Air_Carriers%27_Organization" title="Arab Air Carriers' Organization"> Aviation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Railways</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlin%E2%80%93Baghdad_railway" title="Berlin–Baghdad railway"> Berlin–Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejaz_railway" title="Hejaz railway"> Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ONCF" title="ONCF">ONCF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Railways" title="Palestine Railways"> Palestine</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Bridges</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al_Ittihad_Bridge" title="Al Ittihad Bridge"> Dubai Smile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar%E2%80%93Bahrain_Causeway" title="Qatar–Bahrain Causeway">Qatar–Bahrain Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Fahd_Causeway" title="King Fahd Causeway">King Fahd Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Rashid_bin_Saeed_Crossing" title="Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing">Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi%E2%80%93Egypt_Causeway" title="Saudi–Egypt Causeway">Saudi–Egypt Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Horns" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge of the Horns">Bridge of the Horns</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture"> Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Media</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization" title="Arab Satellite Communications Organization"> Arab-SAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilesat" title="Nilesat"> Nile-SAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Media_Group" title="Arab Media Group">Arab Media Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Television_Network" title="Arabian Television Network">Arabian Television Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_International_Media_Services" title="Arab International Media Services">Arab International Media Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Arabiya" title="Al Arabiya">Al Arabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network" title="Al Jazeera Media Network"> Al Jazeera</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="Arab Capital of Culture">Arab Capital of Culture</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="2007 Arab Capital of Culture"> Algiers (2007)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="2008 Arab Capital of Culture"> Jerusalem (2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="2009 Arab Capital of Culture"> Damascus (2009)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="2010 Arab Capital of Culture"> Doha (2010)</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic"> Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine"> Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art"> Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature"> Literature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Mu%27allaqat" title="Mu'allaqat">Mu'allaqat</a></i>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_culture#Dress" title="Arab culture"> Dress</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Sport_policies_of_the_Arab_League" title="Sport policies of the Arab League"> Sport</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Arab_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Arab Games">Pan Arab Games</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/UAFA_Arab_Champions_League" class="mw-redirect" title="UAFA Arab Champions League"> Arab Champions League</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Arab_Cup_Winners%27_Cup" title="Arab Cup Winners' Cup"> Cup Winners' Cup</a>)</div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Gulf_Cup" title="Arabian Gulf Cup">Arabian Gulf Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIFA_Arab_Cup" title="FIFA Arab Cup"> Arab Cup</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world" title="Demographics of the Arab world"> Demographics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Middle_East" title="Religion in the Middle East"> Religion</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims"> Muslims</a> (majority)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians"> Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Jews" title="Arab Jews"> Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabaks" title="Shabaks">Shabaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism in Arab states"> Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world#Arab_world_populations" title="Demographics of the Arab world"> Ethnicities</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalis">Somalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world#Arab_world_populations" title="Demographics of the Arab world"> other</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a></b></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Lifestyles</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world#Language" title="Demographics of the Arab world">Language</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> (majority)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afar_language" title="Afar language">Afar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27athism" title="Category:Ba'athism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom: 0; font-size: 175%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ba'athism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of the Ba'ath Party"><img alt="Flag of the Ba'ath Party" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Major_groups" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Organisations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1940–1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1940–1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1947–1966</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Baath Party (pro-Iraqi)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1968–2003</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Baath Party (pro-Syrian)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1966–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahib_al-Ghanim" title="Wahib al-Ghanim">Wahib al-Ghanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;;font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">The Genius of Arabic in Its Tongue</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">UN sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification" title="De-Ba'athification">De-Ba'athification</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria" title="Modern history of Syria">Baathist Syria</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Committee_to_Help_Iraq" title="Syrian Committee to Help Iraq">Syrian Committee to Help Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963</a> / <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 coup d'états</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_intervention_in_the_Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Syrian intervention in the Lebanese Civil War">Intervention in Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">Syrian occupation of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assadist-Saddamist_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Assadist-Saddamist conflict">Assadist-Saddamist conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Regional_branches" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Regional organisations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none;text-align:center;"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Algeria</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_of_Algeria" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Algeria">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Algeria" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Bahrain</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Democratic_Assembly" title="Nationalist Democratic Assembly">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Bahrain" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Egypt</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Egypt_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Egypt" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Iraq</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Iraq" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Jordan</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Jordanian Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Progressive_Party" title="Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Kuwait</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)#Kuwait" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">pro-Iraq</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Lebanon</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Arab_Lebanon_Vanguard_Party" title="Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Libya</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Libyan Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">pro-Iraq</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Mauritania</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Vanguard_Party" title="National Vanguard Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Socialist Democratic Unionist Party">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Palestine</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/As-Sa%27iqa" title="As-Sa'iqa">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Sudan</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Region_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Region of Sudan">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Organization_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Syria</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)#Syria" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Tunisia</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Tunisian Ba'ath Movement">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Tunisia" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Yemen</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Splinter-groups" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Splinter groups</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Revolutionary_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1960–1962/63</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Lebanon" title="Socialist Lebanon">Socialist Lebanon</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1965–1970</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolutionary_Workers_Party" title="Arab Revolutionary Workers Party">Arab Revolutionary Workers Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1966–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Arab_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party">Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1970–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Sudanese Ba'ath Party">Sudanese Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">2002–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Template:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ba'athism</b>, also spelled <b>Baathism</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> which promotes the creation and development of a <a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">unified Arab state</a> through the leadership of a <a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">vanguard party</a> over a <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">socialist revolutionary</a> government. The ideology is officially based on the theories of the <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syrian</a> intellectuals <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> (per the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party</a>), <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a> (per the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Syrian-led Ba'ath Party</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>. Ba'athist leaders of the modern era include the former <a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">president of Iraq</a> <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, former <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">president of Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>, and his son, the current president of Syria, <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>. </p><p>The Ba'athist ideology advocates the "<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">enlightenment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>" as well as the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">renaissance</a> of <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">their culture</a>, values and society. It also advocates the creation of <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party states</a> and rejects <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">political pluralism</a> in an unspecified length of time—the Ba'ath party theoretically uses an unspecified amount of time to develop an "enlightened" Arabic society. Ba'athism is based on the principles of <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arabism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ba'athism advocates <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a> economic policies such as state ownership of natural resources, <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a>, distribution of lands to peasants, and <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economies</a>. Although inspired by Western socialist thinkers, early Ba'athist theoreticians rejected the <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class-struggle</a> concept, arguing that it hampers Arab unity. Ba'athists contend that socialism is the only way to develop modern Arab society and unite it.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two Ba'athist states which have existed (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>) prevented criticism of their ideology through <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> means of governance. Ba'athist Syria has been labelled "<a href="#Neo-Ba'athism">neo-Ba'athist</a>" because the form of Ba'athism developed by the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Syrian Ba'ath party</a> is quite distinct from the Ba'athism which Aflaq and Bitar wrote about. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #d33; border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Socialism" title="Category:Socialism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Red_flag_(politics)" title="Red flag (politics)"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Red_flag_waving.svg/75px-Red_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Red_flag_waving.svg/113px-Red_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Red_flag_waving.svg/150px-Red_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em; border-top:1px solid #d33; border-bottom:0px solid;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_socialism" title="Outline of socialism">Outline</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #d33; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Development</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_calculation_debate" title="Socialist calculation debate">Socialist calculation debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist economics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #d33; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_in_kind" title="Calculation in kind">Calculation in kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_equal_liberty#Equal_liberty" title="Law of equal liberty">Equal liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Equal opportunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_of_producers" title="Free association of producers">Free association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Freed market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy" title="Industrial democracy">Industrial democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Input%E2%80%93output_model" title="Input–output model">Input–output model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor-time_calculation" title="Labor-time calculation">Labour-time calculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_voucher" title="Labour voucher">Labour voucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_balance_planning" title="Material balance planning">Material balance planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_peer-to-peer_processes#P2P_economic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Social peer-to-peer processes">Peer‑to‑peer economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_for_use" title="Production for use">Production for use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_spontaneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary spontaneity">Spontaneism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dividend" title="Social dividend">Social dividend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_one_country" title="Socialism in one country">Socialism in one country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">Socialist mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/To_each_according_to_his_contribution" title="To each according to his contribution">To each according to his contribution</a>/<a href="/wiki/From_each_according_to_his_ability,_to_each_according_to_his_needs" title="From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs">needs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">Vanguardism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #d33; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Models</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy#Relationship_with_socialism" title="Planned economy">Socialist planned economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy#Decentralized_planning" title="Planned economy">Decentralized planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclusive Democracy">Inclusive Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Cybersyn" title="Project Cybersyn">Project Cybersyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Soviet-type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lange_model" title="Lange model">Lange model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">Socialist market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist-oriented_market_economy" title="Socialist-oriented market economy">Socialist-oriented market</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory economics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #d33; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_socialism" title="Types of socialism">Variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_of_the_21st_century" title="Socialism of the 21st century">21st-century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_socialism" title="Agrarian socialism">Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_socialism" title="Authoritarian socialism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanquism" title="Blanquism">Blanquism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_socialism" title="Christian socialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_road_to_socialism" title="Democratic road to socialism">Democratic road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-utopianism" title="Cyber-utopianism">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary socialism">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourierism" title="Fourierism">Fourierism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhian_socialism" title="Gandhian socialism">Gandhian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_socialism" title="Guild socialism">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire#Socialism" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marhaenism" title="Marhaenism">Marhaenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_socialism" title="Municipal socialism">Municipal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owenism" title="Owenism">Owenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular socialism">Popular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_socialism" title="Religious socialism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_socialism" title="Ricardian socialism">Ricardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon#Ideas" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewer_socialism" title="Sewer socialism">Sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_World_socialism" title="Third World socialism">Third World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_socialism" title="Yellow socialism">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #d33; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Buonarroti" title="Philippe Buonarroti">Buonarroti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Saint-Just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cabet" title="Étienne Cabet">Cabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Leroux" title="Pierre Leroux">Leroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Sue" title="Eugène Sue">Sue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Blanqui" title="Louis Auguste Blanqui">Blanqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Greeley" title="Horace Greeley">Greeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Herzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kingsley" title="Charles Kingsley">Kingsley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Lavrov" title="Pyotr Lavrov">Lavrov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle" title="Ferdinand Lassalle">Lassalle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Saltykov-Shchedrin" title="Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin">Saltykov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Chernyshevsky" title="Nikolay Chernyshevsky">Chernyshevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Tolstoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Michel" title="Louise Michel">Michel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones" title="Mother Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bellamy" title="Edward Bellamy">Bellamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferrer" title="Francisco Ferrer">Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxim_Gorky" title="Maxim Gorky">Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Landauer" title="Gustav Landauer">Landauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_Pannekoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonie Pannekoek">Pannekoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Pankhurst" title="Sylvia Pankhurst">Pankhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volin" title="Volin">Volin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Korsch" title="Karl Korsch">Korsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Vanzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Bordiga" title="Amadeo Bordiga">Bordiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Serge" title="Victor Serge">Serge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Sacco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._L._R._James" title="C. L. R. James">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federica_Montseny" title="Federica Montseny">Montseny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takis_Fotopoulos" title="Takis Fotopoulos">Fotopoulos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. Wolff">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Ali" title="Tariq Ali">Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_%C3%96calan" title="Abdullah Öcalan">Öcalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hedges" title="Chris Hedges">Hedges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanis_Varoufakis" title="Yanis Varoufakis">Varoufakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohei_Saito" title="Kohei Saito">Saito</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #d33; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gracchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracchi">Gracchi Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Roux" title="Jacques Roux">Roux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">Babeuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Blanc" title="Louis Blanc">Blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Xiuquan" title="Hong Xiuquan">Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Bebel" title="August Bebel">Bebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Errico_Malatesta" title="Errico Malatesta">Malatesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constance_Markievicz" title="Constance Markievicz">Markievicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Liebknecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Blum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Martov" title="Julius Martov">Martov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Kerensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Spiridonova" title="Maria Spiridonova">Spiridonova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Makhno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Tito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Nagy" title="Imre Nagy">Nagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buenaventura_Durruti" title="Buenaventura Durruti">Durruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einar_Gerhardsen" title="Einar Gerhardsen">Gerhardsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tage_Erlander" title="Tage Erlander">Erlander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Douglas" title="Tommy Douglas">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Senghor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Allende" title="Salvador Allende">Allende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_van_der_Lubbe" title="Marinus van der Lubbe">van der Lubbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Kreisky" title="Bruno Kreisky">Kreisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">Mitterrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Manley" title="Michael Manley">Manley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olof_Palme" title="Olof Palme">Palme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">Lula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Corbyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sankara" title="Thomas Sankara">Sankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Chávez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Galloway" title="George Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcomandante_Marcos" title="Subcomandante Marcos">Marcos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_S%C3%A1nchez" title="Pedro Sánchez">Sánchez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_philosopher_Zaki_al-Arsuzi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/The_philosopher_Zaki_al-Arsuzi.jpg/220px-The_philosopher_Zaki_al-Arsuzi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/The_philosopher_Zaki_al-Arsuzi.jpg/330px-The_philosopher_Zaki_al-Arsuzi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/The_philosopher_Zaki_al-Arsuzi.jpg/440px-The_philosopher_Zaki_al-Arsuzi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki Arsuzi</a>, politician who influenced Ba'athist thought and, after the <a href="/wiki/Baath_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Baath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> splintered, became the chief ideologist of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Baath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Baath Party – Syria Region">Syrian-dominated Ba'ath Party</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ba'athism originated in the political thought of Syrian philosophers <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki Arsuzi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are considered the founders of the ideology, despite forming different organizations. In the 1940s, Bitar and Aflaq co-founded the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a>, while Arsuzi founded the <a href="/wiki/Arab_National_Party_(historical)" title="Arab National Party (historical)">Arab National Party</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The closest they ever came to being members of the same organization was in 1939, when, together with Michel Quzman, Shakir al-As and Ilyas Qandalaft, they briefly tried to establish a party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The party likely failed due to personal animosity between Arsuzi and Aflaq.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arsuzi formed the Arab Ba'ath in 1940 and his views influenced Aflaq, who alongside the more junior Bitar founded the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ihya Movement</a> in 1940, later renamed the Arab Ba'ath Movement in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA135_135–138]_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA135_135–138]-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Aflaq was influenced by him, Arsuzi initially did not cooperate with Aflaq's movement. Arsuzi suspected that the existence of the Arab Ihya Movement, which occasionally titled itself "Arab Ba'ath" during 1941, was part of an imperialist plot to prevent his influence over the Arabs by creating a movement of the same name.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arsuzi was an Arab from <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun" title="İskenderun">Alexandretta</a> who had been associated with <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a> politics during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>. He was inspired by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a> movements, and the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration#Industrial_growth" title="Meiji Restoration">Japanese economic "miracle"</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144]_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His views were influenced by a number of prominent European philosophical and political figures, among them <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Oswald Spengler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144–145]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144–145]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arsuzi left the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nationalist_Action" title="League of Nationalist Action">League of Nationalist Action</a> (LNA) in 1939 after its popular leader died and the party fell into disarray, founding the short-lived Arab National Party. It dissolved later that year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA134_134]_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA134_134]-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 29 November 1940, Arsuzi founded the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA135_135–138]_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA135_135–138]-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A significant conflict and turning point in the development of Ba'athism occurred when Arsuzi's and Aflaq's movements sparred over the <a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">1941 Iraqi coup d'etat</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali Al-Gaylani</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a>. Aflaq's movement supported Gaylani's government and the Iraqi government's war against the British and organized volunteers to go to Iraq and fight for the Iraqi government. However, Arsuzi opposed Gaylani's government, considering the coup to be poorly planned and a failure. Because of this, Arsuzi's party lost members and support that transferred to Aflaq's movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arsuzi's direct influence in Arab politics collapsed after <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy French</a> authorities expelled him from Syria in 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq's Arab Ba'ath Movement's next major political action was its support of <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>'s war of independence from France in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA132_132–133]_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA132_132–133]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, the movement did not solidify for years until it held its first party congress in 1947 and formally merged with Arsuzi's Arab Ba'ath Party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA133_133]_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA133_133]-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although socialist values existed in the two Ba'ath movements from their inception, they weren't emphasized until the party merged with <a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Hawrani" title="Akram al-Hawrani">Akram Al-Hawrani</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement" title="Arab Socialist Movement">Arab Socialist Movement</a> in 1953. </p><p>Taking advantage of the chaotic years of the 1950s and 1960s, the <a href="/wiki/Military_Committee_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Committee (Syria)">Military Committee of the Syrian Ba'ath party</a>, led by its civilian leadership, launched a <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">coup in 1963</a> that established a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> in Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1966, the military wing of the Syrian Ba'ath initiated <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">another coup</a> which overthrew the Old Guard led by Aflaq and Bitar, resulting in a schism within the <a href="/wiki/Baath_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Baath Party">Ba'athist movement</a>: one <a href="/wiki/Baath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Syrian-dominated</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Baath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraqi-dominated</a>. Scholar Ofra Bengio claims that as a consequence of the split, Arsuzi took Aflaq's place as the official father of Ba'athist thought in the pro-Syrian Ba'ath movement, while in the pro-Iraqi Ba'ath movement Aflaq was still considered the <i>de jure</i> father of Ba'athist thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailssaddamswordpolit0000bengpage218_218]_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailssaddamswordpolit0000bengpage218_218]-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Iraqi Ba'ath wing granted asylum to Aflaq after seizing power through the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi coup d'état of 1968">coup of 1968</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Al-Assad_family" title="Al-Assad family">Al-Assad family</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> emerged dominant in the Syrian and Iraqi Ba'ath parties, respectively, eventually building <a href="/wiki/Personalist_dictatorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalist dictatorship">personalist dictatorships</a> in the two countries. Hostilities between the two Ba'ath movements lasted until the death of <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> in 2000, after which his successor <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a> pursued reconciliation with Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout their reigns, the two Ba'athist <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracies</a> built <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police states</a> that enforced <a href="/wiki/Mass_surveillance" title="Mass surveillance">mass surveillance</a> and ideological indoctrination and subordinated all <a href="/wiki/Student_organisations" class="mw-redirect" title="Student organisations">student organisations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society institutions</a> to the party and the state. Both regimes pursued <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> of ethnic minorities and legitimized their <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian state">authoritarian rule</a> by implanting conspiratorial <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">anti-Zionist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">anti-Western sentiments</a> upon the citizens. </p><p>In Iraq, Saddam Hussein was toppled in 2003 during the <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="United States invasion of Iraq">United States invasion</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi Ba'ath party</a> was subsequently banned under the new <a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="De-Ba'athification Policy">De-Ba'athification policy</a>. In Syria, a <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">deadly civil war</a> began after Bashar al-Assad's brutal crackdown of the <a href="/wiki/2011_Syrian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Syrian Revolution">2011 Syrian revolution</a>, which continues to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> is today considered the founder of the Ba'athist movement, or at least its most notable contributor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other notable ideologues include <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki Arsuzi</a>, who influenced Aflaq, and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>, who worked directly with Aflaq. From the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Baath_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Baath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a> until the mid-1950s in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and the early 1960s in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, the ideology of the <a href="/wiki/Baath_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Baath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> was largely synonymous with that of Aflaq's. For more than 2 decades, Michel Aflaq's 1940 essay compilation, titled, "<i>Fi Sabil al-Ba’ath</i>" (trans: "The Road to Renaissance") was the primary ideological book of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Aflaq's views on <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> are considered by some, such as historian Paul Salem of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Institute" title="Middle East Institute">Middle East Institute</a>, as romantic and poetic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq's ideology was developed in the context of <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonisation</a> and other events in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> during his life. It recast conservative Arab nationalist thought to reflect strong revolutionary and progressive themes. For example, Aflaq insisted on the overthrow of the old ruling classes and supported the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Secular_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular society">secular society</a> by separating <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> from the state. Not all these ideas were his, but it was Aflaq who succeeded in turning these beliefs into a transnational movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The core basis of Ba'athism is <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> with Arab characteristics which is separate from the international socialist movement and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arab</a> ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3yflKU0MWoUCpgPA97_97]_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3yflKU0MWoUCpgPA97_97]-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ba'athism as developed by Aflaq and Bitar is a unique <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing</a>, Arab-centric ideology. It claims to represent the "Arab spirit against <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>" and "Arab history against dead <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reaction</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin197522_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevlin197522-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It holds ideological similarity and a favourable outlook to the <a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a> politics of Indian leader <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>, Egyptian leader <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>, and Yugoslavian leader <a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a> and historically opposed affiliation with either the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA120_120]_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA120_120]-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts">Concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_nation">Arab nation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Arab nation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg/220px-Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg/330px-Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg/440px-Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>, the founder of Ba'athist thought who, after the Ba'ath Party splintered, became the chief ideologist for the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Baath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Baath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi-dominated Ba'ath Party</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> supported the <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a>'s view that language was the principal defining and unifying factor of the "Arab nation" because language led to the unity of thought, norms and ideals. History was another unifying feature for them, as it was the "fertile ground in which our consciousness took shape".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The centre of Aflaq's Ba'athist thought was the feature <i>baʽth</i> (literally meaning "<a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">renaissance</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This renaissance, according to Aflaq, could only be reached by uniting the Arab nation, and it would transform the Arab world politically, economically, intellectually, and morally. This "future renaissance" would be a "rebirth", while the first Arab renaissance had been the seventh-century emergence of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, according to Aflaq. The new renaissance would bring another Arab message, summed up in the Ba'ath party's slogan, "One Nation, Bearing an Eternal Message".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq thought that the Arab nation could only reach this renaissance through a revolutionary process towards the goals of "unity, liberty, and socialism".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Aflaq's view, a nation could only "progress" or "decline",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Arab states of his time were consistently declining because of their "illnesses"—"<a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">sectarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">regionalism</a>, intellectual <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionism</a>". These problems, Aflaq believed, could only be resolved through a revolutionary process, and a revolution could only succeed if the revolutionaries were pure and devoted nearly religiously to the task. Aflaq supported the <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninist</a> view of the need for a <a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">vanguard party</a> following a successful revolution, which was not an "inevitable outcome".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Ba'athist ideology, the vanguard was the Ba'ath party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq believed that the youth were the key for a successful revolution. The youth were open to change and enlightenment because they still had not been indoctrinated with other views. According to Aflaq, a major problem was the disillusionment of the Arab youth. Disillusionment led to <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and individualism was not a healthy sign in an <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">underdeveloped country</a>, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>, where it was seen as a healthy sign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA63_63–64]_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA63_63–64]-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The party's main task before the revolution was to spread enlightened ideas to the people and to challenge reactionary and conservative elements in society. According to Aflaq, a Ba'ath party would ensure a policy of proselytization to keep the uneducated masses out of the party until the party leadership was imbued with the thoughts of enlightenment. However, the party was also a political organisation, and, as Aflaq notes, politics was "a means [... and] is the most serious of matters at this present stage".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA64_64–65]_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA64_64–65]-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ba'athism was similar to Leninist thought in that a vanguard party would rule for an unspecified length to construct a "new society".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq supported the idea of a committed activist revolutionary party based on the Leninist model,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in practice was based on <a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">democratic centralism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlamires2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnvD2rZSVau4CpgPA83_83]_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlamires2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnvD2rZSVau4CpgPA83_83]-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhareebDougherty2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRIB5qT9sGnwCpgPA44_44]_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhareebDougherty2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRIB5qT9sGnwCpgPA44_44]-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinnebusch2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWqvloHdKcRMCpgPA60_60]_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinnebusch2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWqvloHdKcRMCpgPA60_60]-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The revolutionary party would seize political power and from there on transform society for the greater good. While the revolutionary party was numerically a minority, it was an all-powerful institution which had the right to initiate a policy, even if the majority of the population were against it. As with the Leninist model, the Ba'ath party would dictate what was right and what was wrong, since the general population were still influenced by the old value and moral system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactionary_classes">Reactionary classes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reactionary classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Aflaq, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> (1916–1918) against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> failed to unify the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> because it was led by a <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> class. He believed the ruling class, who supported the monarchy as the leaders of the Arab Revolt did, were synonymous with a reactionary class. In Ba'athist ideology, the ruling class is replaced by a revolutionary progressive class. Aflaq was bitterly opposed to any kind of monarchy and described the Arab Revolt as "the illusions of kings and feudal lords who understood unity as the gathering of backwardness to backwardness, exploitation to exploitation and numbers to numbers like sheep".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Aflaq, it was the reactionary class's view of Arab unity which had left the Arab Revolt "struggling for unity without blood and nerve".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He saw the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">German unification</a> as proof of this, putting him at odds with some Arab nationalists who were <a href="/wiki/Germanophile" title="Germanophile">Germanophiles</a>. In Aflaq's view, <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a>'s unification of Germany established the most repressive nation the world had ever seen, a development which could largely be blamed on the existing monarchy and the reactionary class. To copy the German example, he thought, would be disastrous and would lead to the enslavement of the Arab people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only way to combat the reactionary classes lay in "progressive" revolution, Aflaq claimed, central to which is the struggle for unity. This struggle could not be separated from the social revolution, for to separate these two would be to weaken the movement. The reactionary classes, who are content with the <i>status quo</i>, would oppose the "progressive" revolution. Even if the revolution succeeded in one "region" (country), that region would be unable to develop because of the resource constraints, small populations and anti-revolution forces held by other Arab leaders. For a revolution to succeed, the Arab world would have to evolve into an "organic whole" (literally become one). In short, Aflaq though that Arab unity would be both the cause of the progressive revolution and its effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66]_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major obstacle to the success of the revolution in Aflaq's mind was the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>. He believed that the Arab League strengthened both regional interests and the reactionary classes, thus weakening the chance of establishing an Arab nation. Because the majority of Arab states were under the rule of the reactionary classes, Aflaq revised his ideology to meet reality. Instead of creating an Arab nation through an Arab-wide progressive revolution, the main task would be of progressive revolutionaries spreading the revolution from one Arab country to the next. Once successfully transformed, the created progressive revolutionary countries would then one by one unite until the Arab world had evolved into a single Arab nation. The revolution would not succeed if the progressive revolutionary governments did not contribute to spreading the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66]_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberty">Liberty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Liberty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 25%;"><p>Liberty is not a luxury in the life of the nation but its basis and its essence and its meaning.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aflaq in a speech dated to 1959<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Fundamentally, Aflaq had an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> perspective on <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>. In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democratic</a> concept of liberty, in Aflaq's vision, liberty would be ensured by a Ba'ath party which was not elected by the populace because the party had the common good at heart. Historian Paul Salem considered the weakness of such a system "quite obvious".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67–68]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67–68]-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq saw liberty as one of the defining features of Ba'athism. Articulation of thoughts and the interaction between individuals were a way of building a new society. According to Aflaq, it was liberty which created new values and thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq believed that living under <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, or a religious or non-enlightened dictatorship weakened liberty as ideas came from above, not from below through human interaction. One of the Ba'ath party's main priorities, according to Aflaq, was to disseminate new ideas and thoughts and to give individuals the liberty they needed to pursue ideas. To do this, the party would interpose itself between the Arab people and both their foreign imperialist oppressors and those forms of tyranny that arise within Arab society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the notion of liberty was an important ideal to Aflaq, he favored the Leninist model of a continuous revolutionary struggle and he did not develop concepts for a society in which liberty was protected by a set of institutions and rules. His vision of a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> ruled by the Ba'ath party, which disseminated information to the public, was in many ways contrary to his view on individual interactions. The Ba'ath party through its preeminence would establish "liberty". According to Aflaq, liberty could not just come from nowhere as it needed an enlightened progressive group to create a truly free society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socialism">Socialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Socialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1023981488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;"><p>We did not adopt socialism out of books, abstractions, humanism, or pity, but rather out of need ... for the Arab working class is the mover of history in this period.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aflaq's view on the necessity of socialism<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a> is an important pillar of the Ba'athist programme. Although influenced by Western socialists and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> parties, the Ba'ath party founders constructed a socialist vision which they believed to be more adaptable to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">Arab historical</a> context. Articles 26–37 of the 1947 <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> Charter outlines the key principles of Ba'athist socialism.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of them are: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>" </p><ul><li>Article 26: The Arab Ba'ath Party is socialist, believing that the economic wealth of the homeland belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>.</li> <li>Article 27: The present distribution of wealth in the Arab homeland is unjust. It will therefore be reviewed and distributed among the citizens in a just manner...</li> <li>Article 29: Public utility institutions, major natural resources, the principal <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a> and transport are the property of the nation and will be administered by the state directly. Companies and foreign concessions will be abolished.</li> <li>Article 30: Agricultural property will be fixed in proportion to the owner's ability to exploit it fully without exploiting the effort of others, under the supervision of the state and in accordance with its general economic programme.</li> <li>Article 31: Small industrial property will be fixed proportionately to the economic standards enjoyed by other citizens in the state.</li> <li>Article 32: Workers will participate in the management of the factory and will be granted, in addition to their wages which will be fixed by the state, a share of the profits of the factory in a proportion to be fixed by the state...</li> <li>Article 35: <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">Usury</a> between citizens will be forbidden and a <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">single government bank</a> will be founded which will issue the currency..</li> <li>Article 36: The state will directly supervise internal and foreign trade in order to abolish exploitation between consumer and producer, and in order to protect trade and national production from foreign competition."<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Constitution of Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (1947), <sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></li></ul></blockquote> <p>Michel Aflaq was a deep admirer of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> tenets, and he considered the Marxist concept of the importance of material economic conditions in life to be one of modern humanity's greatest discoveries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he disagreed with the Marxist view that <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a> was the only truth, as Aflaq believed that Marxism had forgotten human spirituality. While believing that the concept would work for small and weak societies, he thought that the concept of dialectical materialism as the only truth in Arab development was wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a people as spiritual as the Arabs, the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> was just a group, albeit the most important group, in a much larger movement to free the Arab nation. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, Aflaq was uncertain what place the working class had in history. In contrast to Marx, Aflaq also believed in <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> and believed that in the Arab world, all classes, not just the working class, were working against <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">capitalist domination of the foreign powers</a>. What was a struggle between various classes in the West was in the Arab world a fight for political and economic independence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Aflaq, socialism was a necessary means to accomplish the goal of initiating an Arabic "<a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">renaissance</a>" period, in other words, a period of modernisation. While unity brought the Arab world together and liberty provided the Arab people with freedom, socialism was the cornerstone which made unity and liberty possible as no socialism meant no revolution. In Aflaq's view, a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional democracy">constitutional democratic system</a> would not succeed in a country such as <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> that was dominated by a "pseudo-feudalist" economic system in which the repression of the peasant nullified the people's political liberty. Liberty meant little to nothing to the general poverty-stricken populace of Syria, and Aflaq saw socialism as the solution to their plight.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69]_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69]-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Aflaq, the ultimate goal of socialism was not to answer the question of how much <a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">state control</a> was necessary or economic equality, but instead socialism was "a means to satisfy the animal needs of man so he can be free to pursue his duties as a human being". In other words, socialism was a system which freed the population from enslavement and created independent individuals. However, economic equality was a major tenet in Ba'athist ideology, as the elimination of inequality would "eliminate all privilege, exploitation, and domination by one group over another". In short, if liberty was to succeed, the Arab people needed socialism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69]_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69]-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq labeled this form of socialism <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a> to signify that it existed in harmony with and was in some ways subordinate to <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>. According to Aflaq, who was a <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">teaching and reforms of Muhammad</a> had given socialism an authentic Arab expression. Socialism was viewed by Aflaq as justice, and the reforms of Muhammad were both just and wise. According to Aflaq, modern Ba'athists would initiate another way of just and radical forms just as Muhammad had done in the seventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_Islam">Role of Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Role of Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1023981488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;"><p>Europe is as fearful of Islam today as she has been in the past. She now knows that the strength of Islam (which in the past expressed that of the Arabs) has been reborn and has appeared in a new form: Arab nationalism.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>From one of Aflaq's works dating back to 1943 about Islam's character<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuthven2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid92lQfWj6_VICpgPA319_319]_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuthven2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid92lQfWj6_VICpgPA319_319]-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Though a Christian, Aflaq viewed the creation of Islam as proof of "Arab genius" and a testament of Arab culture, values, and thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9idnMTt38BECpgPA187_187]_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9idnMTt38BECpgPA187_187]-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Aflaq, the essence of Islam was its revolutionary qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannahGardner1969[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzsoUAAAAIAAJpgPA297_297]_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannahGardner1969[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzsoUAAAAIAAJpgPA297_297]-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq called on all Arabs, both Muslims and non-Muslims alike, to admire the role Islam had played in creating an Arab character, but his view on Islam was purely spiritual and Aflaq emphasized that it "should not be imposed" on state and society. Time and again, Aflaq emphasized that the Ba'ath party was against <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>, but also against <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">fundamentalism</a>, as the fundamentalists represented a "shallow, false faith".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Ba'athist ideology, all religions were equal. Despite his anti-atheist stance, Aflaq was a strong supporter of <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> government and stated a Ba'athist state would replace religion with a state "based on a foundation, Arab nationalism, and a moral; freedom".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">riots against the Iraqi Ba'ath government in the late-1970s</a>, Aflaq warned <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> of making any concessions to the rioters, exclaiming that the Ba'ath Party "is with [religious] faith, but is not a religious party, nor should it be one".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA34_34]_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA34_34]-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his vice presidency, at the time of the Shia riots, Saddam discussed the need to convince large segments of the population to convert to the <a href="/wiki/Party_line_(politics)" title="Party line (politics)">party line</a>'s stance on religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199736_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199736-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Aflaq died in 1989, an official announcement by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Baath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Baath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi Regional Command</a> stated that Aflaq had converted to Islam before his death, but an unnamed Western diplomat in Iraq told William Harris<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Who is this person? (June 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that Aflaq's family was not aware that he had undergone any religious conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to, during, and after the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> of 1990–91, the government became progressively more Islamic, and by the beginning of the 1990s, Saddam proclaimed the Ba'ath party to be the party "of Arabism and Islam".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39–40]_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39–40]-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neo-Ba'athism"><span id="Neo-Ba.27athism"></span>Neo-Ba'athism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neo-Ba'athism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:35em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"Much like <a href="/wiki/Vaclav_Havel" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaclav Havel">Vaclav Havel</a>'s description in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Power_of_the_Powerless" title="The Power of the Powerless">The Power of the Powerless</a></i> of life under a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian regime">totalitarian regime</a> which 'demands conformity, uniformity and discipline' ... <a href="/wiki/Assad_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad regime">Syrian regime</a> narrated a reality all of its own – far removed from reality itself – derived from its own <a href="/wiki/Neo-Ba%27athism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Ba'athism">ideology</a>, creating 'a world of appearances' that perpetuated its power and dominance over its people. Constructing a reality that was 'permeated with hypocrisy and lies' where ... 'the repression of culture is called its development' ... its people were forced to ‘<i>live within a lie</i>’ ... It was not important whether or not a person truly believed these lies; ultimately, it was whether they acted as <i>though</i> they did." </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—Tamara Al-Om, British-Syrian political scientist<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israeli</a> historian Avraham Ben-Tzur labeled the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party</a> which took power in the <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a> as the "Neo-Ba'ath", claiming they had gone beyond their <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arab</a> ideological basis by stressing the preeminence of the military apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ideological transformation was continued after the <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a>, led by radical leftist officers including <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>, which moved the party further into a <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarist</a> "neo-Ba'ath" organization that became independent of the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="National Command of the Ba'ath Party">National Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">unified Ba'ath party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180,_181_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180,_181-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following its violent seizure of power, which resulted in the deaths of approximately 400 people,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the neo-Ba'athist <a href="/wiki/Military_Committee_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Committee (Syria)">military committee</a> purged the classical Ba'athist leaders of the old guard, including <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din Bitar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The coup led a permanent schism between the Syrian and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi regional branches</a> of the Ba'ath Party, and many Syrian Ba'athist leaders defected to Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the original Ba'ath ideology, pan-Arabism was the means to reach the end of both economic and social transformation. As an early party document states, "<a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">[s]ocialism</a> is the true goal of Arab unity... Arab unity is the obligatory basis for constructing a socialist society".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the rise of the Syrian neo-Ba'athists, however, this focus shifted. As American scholar John F. Devlin writes, the "Ba'ath Party, which started with unity as its overwhelming top priority, which was prepared to work within a variety of Middle Eastern political systems, which wanted social justice in society, had pretty much disappeared by the early 1960s. In its place rose Ba'ath organisations which focused primarily on their own region, which advocated, and created where possible, <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_socialism" title="Authoritarian socialism">authoritarian centralised</a> governments, which rested heavily on military power and which were very close to other socialist movements and were less distinctively Ba'athist".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg/220px-Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg/330px-Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg/440px-Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1006" /></a><figcaption>Syrian neo-Ba'athist leader <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> (right) alongside <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> (centre), 1963</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Munif_al-Razzaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Munif al-Razzaz">Munif al-Razzaz</a>, the former Secretary General of the National Command of the unitary Ba'ath Party, agreed with the distinction of "neo-Ba'ath", writing that from 1961 onwards there existed two Ba'ath parties: "the military Ba'ath Party and the Ba'ath Party, and real power lay with the former".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Razzaz, the military Ba'ath (as paraphrased by Martin Seymour) "was and remains Ba'athist only in name; that it was and remains little more than a military clique with civilian hangers-on; and that from the initial founding of the Military Committee by disgruntled Syrian officers exiled in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> in 1959, the chain of events and the total corruption of Ba'athism proceeded with intolerable logic".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>, a member of the Ba'ath old guard, agreed, stating that the <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a> "marked the end of Ba'athist politics in Syria". Ba'ath party founder <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> shared the sentiment by stating, "I no longer recognise my party!"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158_58-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1992158-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coup left Salah Jadid in power, and under him, the Syrian government abandoned the traditional goal of pan-Arab unity and replaced it with a radical form of Western socialism. The <a href="/wiki/Far-left_politics" title="Far-left politics">far-left</a> shift was reflected strongly in the ideological propaganda of the new government, marked by widespread usage of terminology such as "<a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/People%27s_war" title="People's war">people's war</a>" (itself a <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoist</a> term, as the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> was proclaimed as a "people's war" against Israel).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalt198788_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalt198788-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party" title="Syrian Communist Party">Syrian Communist Party</a> played an important role in Jadid's government, with some <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a> holding ministerial posts,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaqueur196988_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaqueur196988-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Jadid established "fairly close relations" with the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaqueur1969178_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaqueur1969178-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government supported a more radical economic program including state ownership over industry and <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">foreign trade</a>, while at the same time trying to restructure agrarian relations and production.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2004201_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2004201-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Jadid's rule, neo-Ba'athist ideologues openly denounced religion as a source of what they considered the "backwardness" of the Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jadid regime was <a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">anti-religious</a> and imposed severe restrictions on religious freedom, banning religious preaching and persecuting the clergy.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neo-Ba'athists viewed the religious clerics as <a href="/wiki/Class_enemies" class="mw-redirect" title="Class enemies">class enemies</a> to be liquidated by the Ba'athist state.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The party disseminated the doctrine of the "<a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab Socialist</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Man_(utopian_concept)" title="New Man (utopian concept)">New Man</a>", which conceptualised the "new Arab man" as an atheist who campaigned for <a href="/wiki/Socialist_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist revolution">socialist revolution</a> and rejected <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, imperialism, <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, and every value of the old social order.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1968, Al-Bitar left the Ba'ath movement, claiming that "these parties had ceased to be what they set up to be, retaining only their names and acting as the organs of power and the instruments of regional and <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorial</a> governments".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood198889_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopwood198889-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to expectations, Aflaq remained with the Ba'ath movement and became the ideologue of the Iraqi-dominated Ba'ath movement. His ideological views remained more or less the same, but in Iraq he was sidelined politically.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood198889_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopwood198889-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In post-1966 Syria, the real centre of power had been vested in the neo-Ba'athist military committee. A tense power rivalry existed between Salah Jadid and Hafez al-Assad, with the former as the leader of civilian Ba'athists while the latter increased his control of the military-wing of the party and various army units.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rivalry culminated in the bloodless 1970 <a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Revolution</a>, a military coup that placed Assad in power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assadism">Assadism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Assadism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hafez_Assad_rifaat_Assad.jpg.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Hafez_Assad_rifaat_Assad.jpg.webp/220px-Hafez_Assad_rifaat_Assad.jpg.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Hafez_Assad_rifaat_Assad.jpg.webp/330px-Hafez_Assad_rifaat_Assad.jpg.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Hafez_Assad_rifaat_Assad.jpg.webp/440px-Hafez_Assad_rifaat_Assad.jpg.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="1120" data-file-height="629" /></a><figcaption>Ba'athist leader <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> alongside his brother <a href="/wiki/Rifaat_al-Assad" title="Rifaat al-Assad">Rifaat al-Assad</a> at a military ceremony in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, 1984</figcaption></figure> <p>Assadism (<i>Assadiyah</i>) is a neo-Ba'athist ideology based on the policies of Hafez al-Assad after his seizure of power in the 1970 coup, described in official Ba'athist history as the <a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement</a>. It enshrines the <a href="/wiki/Al-Assad_family" title="Al-Assad family">Assad family</a>'s leadership role in Syrian politics and constructed the Assad regime in a highly <a href="/wiki/Personalist_dictator" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalist dictator">personalist</a> fashion, creating a government based upon and revolving around its leader. Under this socio-political system, the Ba'ath party portrays the wisdom of Assad as "beyond the comprehension of the average citizen".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoranyDessouki2010423_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoranyDessouki2010423-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through this apparatus, also known as the "<i>Ba'atho-Assadist system</i>", the Ba'ath party instrumentalizes its control over Syria's political, social, economic, cultural, educational and religious spheres to enforce its neo-Ba'athist ideology in the wider society and preserve the Assad family's grip on power. The goal of General Assad was to consolidate the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist state</a> with the Ba'ath party as its vanguard by establishing a "coup-proof" system that eliminated factional rivalries. As soon as he seized power, the armed forces, <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a>, security forces, and bureaucracy were purged, subjugating them to party command by installing Ba'athist elites loyal to Assad.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The neo-Ba'athist, Assadist system has controlled Syrian politics since the 1970 coup. It is largely built upon <a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">nepotism</a> and ethnic favoritism. For example, Hafez al-Assad began the ethnoreligious <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawitization</a> of the party and the military, and he also built a government based on loyalty to the leader's family.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoranyDessouki2010423–424_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoranyDessouki2010423–424-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Atassi" title="Jamal al-Atassi">Jamal al-Atassi</a>, co-founder of <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a>'s early <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Party_(al-Arsuzi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Ba'ath Party (al-Arsuzi)">Arab Ba'ath Party</a> and later Syrian dissident, stated that "Assadism is a false <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. It's the domination of a minority, and I'm not talking just of the Alawites, who control the society's nervous system. I include also the army and the <i><a href="/wiki/General_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">mukhabarat</a></i>. [...] And despite its <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> slogans, the state is run by a class who has made a fortune without contributing—a <i>nouvelle <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> parasitaire</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEViorst1995146_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEViorst1995146-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Assadism is less an ideology than a <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a>, but it is the closest thing the Syrian government has to an all-encompassing belief system, since both Ba'athist and Arab nationalist beliefs of old have been watered down to not hurt the government's <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> credentials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerthes1997189_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerthes1997189-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State propaganda characterises Assadism as a neo-Ba'athist current that evolved Ba'athist ideology with the needs of the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iraqi_Ba'athism"><span id="Iraqi_Ba.27athism"></span>Iraqi Ba'athism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Iraqi Ba'athism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saddamism">Saddamism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Saddamism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg/300px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg/450px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> (right) talking with <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> (left) in 1988.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a> is a political ideology based on the politics related to and pursued by <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198262_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198262-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been referred to by Iraqi politicians as Saddamist Ba'athism (<i>Al-Baʽthiya Al-Saddamiyya</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-MarashiSalama2008108_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-MarashiSalama2008108-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is officially described as a distinct variation of Ba'athism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It espouses <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>-centred <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> that calls upon Arab countries to adopt Saddamist Iraqi political discourse and to reject "the <a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserite</a> discourse" that it claims collapsed after 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is <a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">militarist</a> and views political disputes and conflicts in a military manner as "battles" requiring "fighting", "mobilization", "battlefields", "bastions", and "trenches".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198265_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198265-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saddamism was officially supported by Saddam's government and promoted by the Iraqi daily newspaper <i>Babil</i> owned by Saddam's son <a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday Hussein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Saddam and his ideologists sought to fuse a <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-historical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-historical">pseudo-historical</a> connection between ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> civilization in Iraq with <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> by claiming that the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians were the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>. Thus, Saddam and his supporters claimed that there is no conflict between <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> heritage and Arab nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198264_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198264-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:20em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"Saddamism ... is a phenomenon rooted in violence, in the manipulation of the tools and means of violence to achieve expressly political ends. Saddamism is not plain thuggery, as many people wrongly think; this is no <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Duvalier" title="François Duvalier">Papa Doc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Idi_Amin" title="Idi Amin">Idi Amin</a> on the rampage. Saddamism is too political for that."—<a href="/wiki/Kanan_Makiya" title="Kanan Makiya">Kanan Makiya</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duri,_Hussein,_Aysami_and_Ramadhan_during_Aflaq_funeral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Duri%2C_Hussein%2C_Aysami_and_Ramadhan_during_Aflaq_funeral.jpg/275px-Duri%2C_Hussein%2C_Aysami_and_Ramadhan_during_Aflaq_funeral.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Duri%2C_Hussein%2C_Aysami_and_Ramadhan_during_Aflaq_funeral.jpg/413px-Duri%2C_Hussein%2C_Aysami_and_Ramadhan_during_Aflaq_funeral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Duri%2C_Hussein%2C_Aysami_and_Ramadhan_during_Aflaq_funeral.jpg/550px-Duri%2C_Hussein%2C_Aysami_and_Ramadhan_during_Aflaq_funeral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="876" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>(from left to right: <a href="/wiki/Taha_Yasin_Ramadan" class="mw-redirect" title="Taha Yasin Ramadan">Taha Yasin Ramadan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat at-Duri</a>). Iraqi and Syrian Ba'athist leaders (of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">pro-Iraqi Ba'ath Party</a>) during the funeral of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> in 1989.</figcaption></figure> <p>Saddam's government was critical of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and opposed the orthodox Marxist concepts of <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class conflict</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a>, as well as opposing <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a>'s claim that non-Marxist–Leninist parties are inherently <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois</a> in nature. Rather, the party claimed that it was a popular revolutionary movement, so the people rejected <i><a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petit bourgeois</a></i> politics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198270–71_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198270–71-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saddam claimed that the Arab nation did not have the class structure which existed in other nations and that class divisions were more along national lines between Arabs and non-Arabs rather than within the Arab community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198271_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198271-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he spoke fondly of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> and commended Lenin for giving Russian socialism a uniquely Russian specificity that Marx alone was incapable of doing. He also expressed admiration for other communist leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Hồ Chí Minh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito" title="Josip Broz Tito">Josip Broz Tito</a> due to their spirit of asserting national independence rather than their communism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198270_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198270-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"The Ba’athist triumph gifted <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> decades of tyranny, termed ‘security and stability’ (<i>al-amn wa al-istiqrar</i>). Both countries endured clan-based autocracies wielding ideological absolutism, malignancy of a different order from the standard republican and monarchical authoritarianism of the late twentieth-century <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>. Strongmen swiftly emerged in the Ba’athist milieu to establish family firms... Subordination of the party, however, went together with rigorous deployment of the party apparatus and ideology to regiment society."— Prof. William Harris, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Otago" title="University of Otago">University of Otago</a><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allegations_of_fascism">Allegations of fascism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Allegations of fascism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cyprian Blamires, a historian of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, claims that "Ba'athism may have been a <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle Eastern</a> variant of fascism, even though Aflaq and other Ba'athist leaders criticized particular fascist ideas and practices".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlamires200684_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlamires200684-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to him, the Ba'ath movement shared several characteristics with the <a href="/wiki/Fascism_in_Europe" title="Fascism in Europe">European fascist</a> movements, such as "the attempt to synthesize radical, illiberal <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> and non-Marxist <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, a romantic, mythopoetic, and elitist 'revolutionary' vision, the desire to create a 'new man' and restore past greatness, a centralised <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian party</a> divided into '<a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">right-wing</a>' and '<a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing</a>' factions and so forth; several close associates later admitted that Aflaq had been directly inspired by certain fascist and <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> theorists".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlamires200684_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlamires200684-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have argued against Aflaq's fascist credentials, based on the fact that he was an active member of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian%E2%80%93Lebanese_Communist_Party" title="Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party">Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party</a>, he participated in the activities of the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a> during his stay in France,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAli2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsclashoffundament00alitpage110_110]_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsclashoffundament00alitpage110_110]-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that he was influenced by some of the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Sami_al-Jundi" title="Sami al-Jundi">Sami al-Jundi</a>, one of the co-founders of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Party_(al-Arsuzi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Ba'ath Party (al-Arsuzi)">Arab Ba'ath Party</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki Arsuzi</a>, the party's emblem was the tiger because it would "excite the imagination of the youth, in the tradition of Nazism and Fascism, but taking into consideration the fact that the Arab is in his nature distant from <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> symbols [like the <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastika</a>]".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaʻoz2005141_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaʻoz2005141-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arsuzi's Ba'ath Party believed in the virtues of "one leader" and Arsuzi himself personally believed in the <a href="/wiki/Racial_superiority" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial superiority">racial superiority</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>. The party's members read Nazi literature, such as <i><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_the_Nineteenth_Century" title="The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century">The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century</a></i>; they were one of the first groups to plan the translation of <i><a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a></i> into <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>; and they also actively searched for a copy of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_the_Twentieth_Century" title="The Myth of the Twentieth Century">The Myth of the Twentieth Century</a></i>—according to Moshe Ma'oz, the only copy of it was in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and it was owned by Aflaq.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaʻoz2005141_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaʻoz2005141-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arsuzi did not support the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a> and refused <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>'s advances for party-to-party relations,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA137_137–138]_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA137_137–138]-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but he was also influenced by the racial theories of <a href="/wiki/Racialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Racialist">racialist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Houston Stewart Chamberlain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA137_pp._137–138]_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA137_pp._137–138]-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arsuzi claimed that historically, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a> had reinforced the nobility and purity of the Arabs, which had both degenerated because Islam had been adopted by other peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA137_pp._137–138]_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA137_pp._137–138]-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was associated with the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nationalist_Action" title="League of Nationalist Action">League of Nationalist Action</a>, a political party which existed in Syria from 1932 to 1939 and was strongly influenced by fascism and Nazism, as evidenced by its paramilitary "Ironshirts".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA132_132–138]_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA132_132–138]-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a British journalist who interviewed <a href="/wiki/Barzan_Ibrahim_al-Tikriti" title="Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti">Barzan Ibrahim Tikriti</a>, the head of the Iraqi intelligence services, Saddam Hussein drew inspiration on how to rule Iraq from <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, and he had once asked Barzan to procure copies of their works, not for <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> purposes, but "as an example of the successful organisation of an entire society by the state for the achievement of national goals".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoughlin2005121_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoughlin2005121-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Journalist <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Tepperman" title="Jonathan Tepperman">Jonathan Teperman</a> interviewed Syrian president <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a> in 2015 and described him to be as delusional as "Hitler in his bunker when the Russians were an hour outside <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>" for advocating unrealistic objectives and being remorseless about his crimes, despite losing most of his Syrian territories.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center" title="Simon Wiesenthal Center">Simon Wiesenthal Center</a> reported that <a href="/wiki/Nazi_war_criminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi war criminal">Nazi war-criminal</a> <a href="/wiki/Alois_Brunner" title="Alois Brunner">Alois Brunner</a>, the right-hand man of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichman</a> and a key participant in the <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>, had died in Syria in 2010 under the asylum of Bashar al-Assad. Under the alias "Dr. Georg Fischer", Brunner assisted Syrian rulers Bashar al-Assad and his father <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez</a> for over 30 years, serving as an instructor on <a href="/wiki/Torture_chamber" title="Torture chamber">torture techniques</a>, combating internal dissent, and purging <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria's Jewish community</a>. While the <a href="/wiki/Assad_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad regime">Assad regime</a> regularly reject accusations of sheltering Brunner to this day, it had long denied permission to probe his whereabouts.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bashar al-Assad's Ba'athist regime received support from Western <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">neo-Nazi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">far-right</a> extremists, who became aware of him during the <a href="/wiki/European_refugee_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European refugee crisis">European refugee crisis</a> that was mostly brought on by the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian Civil War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Assad's bombings of Syrian cities were praised in the far-right's <a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobic</a> propaganda, which portrayed Muslims as a civilizational enemy to the West.<sup id="cite_ref-Assad_far_right_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Assad_far_right-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several Western far-right groups also view Bashar al-Assad as an authoritarian, <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_anti-semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing anti-semitism">anti-semitic</a> bulwark against <a href="/wiki/Globalist_(epithet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalist (epithet)">globalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>. Several pro-Assadist slogans were chanted in the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">neo-Nazi</a> <a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a> held in <a href="/wiki/Charlottesville,_Virginia" title="Charlottesville, Virginia">Charlottesville</a> in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Assad_far_right_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Assad_far_right-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neo-nazi militants from the Greek <a href="/wiki/Strasserism" title="Strasserism">Strasserist</a> group Black Lily joined the Syrian civil war to fight alongside the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Arab Army">Syrian Arab Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allegations_of_racism">Allegations of racism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Allegations of racism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Ba'ath regimes have been accused of promoting an aggressive Arab <a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">ultranationalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/National_Vanguard_Party" title="National Vanguard Party">National Vanguard Party</a>, which has ties to the <a href="/wiki/Baath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraqi Ba'ath party</a>, was accused of being racist by the <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritanian</a> government and certain political groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeddon200652_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeddon200652-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Baath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Baath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi Regional Branch</a> could either approve or disapprove of marriages between party members, and in a party document, party branches were ordered "to thoroughly check the Arabic origin of not only the prospective wife but also her family, and no approval should be given to members who plan to marry [someone] of non-Arab origin".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201243_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESassoon201243-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">war with Iran</a>, the party began to confront members who were of non-Arab, especially Iranian origin. One memo which was directly sent from the party Secretariat to Saddam read, "the party suffers from the existence of members who are not originally Arabs as this might constitute a danger to the party in the future".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201244_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESassoon201244-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Secretariat recommended that people who were of Iranian origin not be allowed to become party members. In his reply to the document, Saddam wrote, "1) [I] Agree with the opinion of the Party Secretariat; 2) To be discussed in the [Regional] Command meeting".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201244_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESassoon201244-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of those who were denied membership, and all of those whose memberships were revoked, were loyal Ba'athists. For instance, one Ba'athist of Iranian origin whose membership was revoked had been a member of the party since 1958, had also participated in the <a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a>, and had even been imprisoned by the authorities in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a> because he supported the Ba'athist cause. Later, the authorities began to specifically look for people of Iraqi origin, and any contact which they had with Iran and/or Iranians functioned as a good enough reason to deny them party membership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201244_110-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESassoon201244-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">البعثية</span> <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Baʿthīyah</i></span></i> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[albaʕˈθijja]</a></span>, from <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بعث</span></span> <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">baʿth</i></span></i><sup id="cite_ref-auto_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[baʕθ]</a></span>, meaning "renaissance" or "resurrection"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources: <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFElba2017" class="citation news cs1">Elba, Mariam (8 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005175942/https://theintercept.com/2017/09/08/syria-why-white-nationalists-love-bashar-al-assad-charlottesville/">"Mariam Elba"</a>. <i>The Intercept</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad">the original</a> on 27 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Arab&rft.atitle=Why+Nazis+from+Charlottesville+to+Europe+love+Bashar+al-Assad&rft.date=2017-08-17&rft.aulast=Snell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newarab.com%2Fopinion%2Fwhy-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyoub2022" class="citation news cs1">Ayoub, Joey (3 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221220215405/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/10/3/how-the-european-far-right-coopted-an-arabic-letter">"How the European far right coopted an Arabic letter"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad">the original</a> on 16 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Beast&rft.atitle=The+European+Far-Right%27s+Sick+Love+Affair+With+Bashar+al-Assad&rft.date=2018-03-28&rft.aulast=Huetlin&rft.aufirst=Josephine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Fthe-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKer-Lindsay2023" class="citation news cs1">Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602100607/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/">"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?"</a>. <i>World Politics Review</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/">the original</a> on 2 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Politics+Review&rft.atitle=Is+Syria+No+Longer+a+Pariah+State%3F&rft.date=2023-04-27&rft.aulast=Ker-Lindsay&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldpoliticsreview.com%2Fsyria-pariah-state%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKer-Lindsay2023" class="citation news cs1">Ker-Lindsay, James (27 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602100607/https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/">"Is Syria No Longer a Pariah State?"</a>. <i>World Politics Review</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/syria-pariah-state/">the original</a> on 2 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Politics+Review&rft.atitle=Is+Syria+No+Longer+a+Pariah+State%3F&rft.date=2023-04-27&rft.aulast=Ker-Lindsay&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldpoliticsreview.com%2Fsyria-pariah-state%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=93,ll=h259,ls=h5,la=h307,sg=h149,ha=h57,br=h124,pr=h26,aan=h73,mgf=h108,vi=h76,kz=h150,mr=h80,mn=h94,uqw=h174,umr=h122,ums=h91,umj=h75,ulq=h387,uqa=h55,uqq=h31,bdw=h103,amr=h66,asb=h65,auh=h201,dhq=h57,mht=h50,msb=h28,tla=h30,amj=h63,ens=h1,mis=h142">"Mawrid Reader"</a>. <i>ejtaal.net</i>. p. 80<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ejtaal.net&rft.atitle=Mawrid+Reader&rft.pages=80&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fejtaal.net%2Faa%2F%23hw4%3D93%2Cll%3Dh259%2Cls%3Dh5%2Cla%3Dh307%2Csg%3Dh149%2Cha%3Dh57%2Cbr%3Dh124%2Cpr%3Dh26%2Caan%3Dh73%2Cmgf%3Dh108%2Cvi%3Dh76%2Ckz%3Dh150%2Cmr%3Dh80%2Cmn%3Dh94%2Cuqw%3Dh174%2Cumr%3Dh122%2Cums%3Dh91%2Cumj%3Dh75%2Culq%3Dh387%2Cuqa%3Dh55%2Cuqq%3Dh31%2Cbdw%3Dh103%2Camr%3Dh66%2Casb%3Dh65%2Cauh%3Dh201%2Cdhq%3Dh57%2Cmht%3Dh50%2Cmsb%3Dh28%2Ctla%3Dh30%2Camj%3Dh63%2Cens%3Dh1%2Cmis%3Dh142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">"Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. 364–365. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bashar%27s+Syria%3A+The+Regime+and+its+Strategic+Worldview&rft.pages=364-365&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.herzliyaconference.org%2F_Uploads%2F2590Bashars.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">"Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. 364, 365. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2013</span>. <q>In practice, the economic doctrine of the Ba'th eschewed private enterprise and called for a state directed economy, much like the USSR. According to the basic documents of the party: the national wealth is the property of the state; the traditional distribution (i.e. the holding of most arable land by absentee landowners who leaded the land out to the peasants) is unjust and therefore it must be corrected; farming land should be allocated according to the capability to husband it; factories will be cooperative; trade will be controlled by the state.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bashar%27s+Syria%3A+The+Regime+and+its+Strategic+Worldview&rft.pages=364%2C+365&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.herzliyaconference.org%2F_Uploads%2F2590Bashars.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin19758_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDevlin1975">Devlin 1975</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA135_135–138]-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA135_135–138]_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA135_135–138]_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA135">135–138</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA139">139</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144]-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144]_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChoueiri2000">Choueiri 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4xiI0Q-fHzEC&pg=PA144">144</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144–145]-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChoueiri2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4xiI0Q-fHzECpgPA144_144–145]_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChoueiri2000">Choueiri 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4xiI0Q-fHzEC&pg=PA144">144–145</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA134_134]-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA134_134]_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA134">134</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA132_132–133]-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA132_132–133]_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA132">132–133</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA133_133]-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA133_133]_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA133">133</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2018" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William (2018). "1: The War Zone Takes Shape: 2011-2014". <i>Quicksilver War: Syria, Iraq and the Spiral of Conflict</i>. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 17, 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190874872" title="Special:BookSources/9780190874872"><bdi>9780190874872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+The+War+Zone+Takes+Shape%3A+2011-2014&rft.btitle=Quicksilver+War%3A+Syria%2C+Iraq+and+the+Spiral+of+Conflict&rft.place=198+Madison+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10016%2C+USA&rft.pages=17%2C+18&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780190874872&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailssaddamswordpolit0000bengpage218_218]-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailssaddamswordpolit0000bengpage218_218]_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBengio1998">Bengio 1998</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saddamswordpolit0000beng/page/218">218</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2018" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William (2018). "1: The War Zone Takes Shape: 2011-2014". <i>Quicksilver War: Syria, Iraq and the Spiral of Conflict</i>. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA: Oxford University Press. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190874872" title="Special:BookSources/9780190874872"><bdi>9780190874872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+The+War+Zone+Takes+Shape%3A+2011-2014&rft.btitle=Quicksilver+War%3A+Syria%2C+Iraq+and+the+Spiral+of+Conflict&rft.place=198+Madison+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10016%2C+USA&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780190874872&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2018" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William (2018). "1: The War Zone Takes Shape: 2011-2014". <i>Quicksilver War: Syria, Iraq and the Spiral of Conflict</i>. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 18–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190874872" title="Special:BookSources/9780190874872"><bdi>9780190874872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+The+War+Zone+Takes+Shape%3A+2011-2014&rft.btitle=Quicksilver+War%3A+Syria%2C+Iraq+and+the+Spiral+of+Conflict&rft.place=198+Madison+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10016%2C+USA&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780190874872&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2018" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William (2018). "1: The War Zone Takes Shape: 2011-2014". <i>Quicksilver War: Syria, Iraq and the Spiral of Conflict</i>. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 18–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190874872" title="Special:BookSources/9780190874872"><bdi>9780190874872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1%3A+The+War+Zone+Takes+Shape%3A+2011-2014&rft.btitle=Quicksilver+War%3A+Syria%2C+Iraq+and+the+Spiral+of+Conflict&rft.place=198+Madison+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10016%2C+USA&rft.pages=18-20&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780190874872&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA60_60]_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA60">60</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021035254/https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/michel-aflaq">"Michel Aflaq"</a>. <i>harvard.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/michel-aflaq">the original</a> on 21 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=harvard.edu&rft.atitle=Michel+Aflaq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frpl.hds.harvard.edu%2Ffaq%2Fmichel-aflaq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3yflKU0MWoUCpgPA97_97]-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3yflKU0MWoUCpgPA97_97]_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2007">Jones 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3yflKU0MWoUC&pg=PA97">97</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDevlin197522-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDevlin197522_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDevlin1975">Devlin 1975</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA120_120]-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA120_120]_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGinat2010">Ginat 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rlxqHiFdFjwC&pg=PA120">120</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61–62]_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA61">61–62</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA61">61</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA62">62</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA63_63–64]-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA63_63–64]_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA63">63–64</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA64_64–65]-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA64_64–65]_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA64">64–65</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65]_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA65">65</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_31-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA67">67</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlamires2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnvD2rZSVau4CpgPA83_83]-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlamires2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnvD2rZSVau4CpgPA83_83]_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlamires2006">Blamires 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&pg=PA83">83</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGhareebDougherty2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRIB5qT9sGnwCpgPA44_44]-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGhareebDougherty2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRIB5qT9sGnwCpgPA44_44]_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGhareebDougherty2004">Ghareeb & Dougherty 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RIB5qT9sGnwC&pg=PA44">44</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinnebusch2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWqvloHdKcRMCpgPA60_60]-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinnebusch2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidWqvloHdKcRMCpgPA60_60]_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHinnebusch2002">Hinnebusch 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqvloHdKcRMC&pg=PA60">60</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA65_65–66]_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA65">65–66</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66]-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66]_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66]_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA66">66</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67–68]-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67–68]_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA67">67–68</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA66">66–67</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA68">68</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._Wilber,_P._JamesonGottheil1982" class="citation book cs1">K. Wilber, P. Jameson, Charles, Kenneth; Gottheil, Fred (1982). "Iraqi and Syrian Socialism: An Economic Appraisal". <i>Socialist Models of Development</i>. Oxford 0X3 OBW, England: Pergamon Press. pp. 825–827. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-027921-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-027921-X"><bdi>0-08-027921-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iraqi+and+Syrian+Socialism%3A+An+Economic+Appraisal&rft.btitle=Socialist+Models+of+Development&rft.place=Oxford+0X3+OBW%2C+England&rft.pages=825-827&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-08-027921-X&rft.aulast=K.+Wilber%2C+P.+Jameson&rft.aufirst=Charles%2C+Kenneth&rft.au=Gottheil%2C+Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._Wilber,_P._JamesonGottheil1982" class="citation book cs1">K. Wilber, P. Jameson, Charles, Kenneth; Gottheil, Fred (1982). "Iraqi and Syrian Socialism: An Economic Appraisal". <i>Socialist Models of Development</i>. 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location">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69]-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69]_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69]_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA69">69</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA69">69–70</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuthven2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid92lQfWj6_VICpgPA319_319]-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuthven2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid92lQfWj6_VICpgPA319_319]_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuthven2006">Ruthven 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=92lQfWj6_VIC&pg=PA319">319</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackey2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9idnMTt38BECpgPA187_187]-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMackey2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9idnMTt38BECpgPA187_187]_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMackey2003">Mackey 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9idnMTt38BEC&pg=PA187">187</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannahGardner1969[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzsoUAAAAIAAJpgPA297_297]-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannahGardner1969[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzsoUAAAAIAAJpgPA297_297]_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannahGardner1969">Hannah & Gardner 1969</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA297">297</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3kqgioYJisC&pg=PA33">33</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA34_34]-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA34_34]_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3kqgioYJisC&pg=PA34">34</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199736-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199736_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3kqgioYJisC&pg=PA39">39</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39–40]-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39–40]_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3kqgioYJisC&pg=PA39">39–40</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span 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"21: Syria's 'Arab Spring': Women and the Struggle to Live in Truth". <i>Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization</i>. Routledge. pp. 188, 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2"><bdi>978-0-415-52391-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=21%3A+Syria%27s+%E2%80%98Arab+Spring%E2%80%99%3A+Women+and+the+Struggle+to+Live+in+Truth&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+the+Arab+Spring%3A+Rethinking+Democratization&rft.pages=188%2C+189&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-415-52391-2&rft.aulast=Al-Om&rft.aufirst=Tamara&rft.au=Fares%2C+Obaida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBen-Tzur1968">Ben-Tzur 1968</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180,_181-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180,_181_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBen-Tzur1968">Ben-Tzur 1968</a>, pp. 180, 181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullenbach,_Mark" class="citation web cs1">Mullenbach, Mark (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/middle-eastnorth-africapersian-gulf-region/syria-1946-present/">"Syria (1946–present)"</a>. <i>The Dynamic Analysis of Dispute Management Project</i>. University of Central Arkansas<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Dynamic+Analysis+of+Dispute+Management+Project&rft.atitle=Syria+%281946%E2%80%93present%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fuca.edu%2Fpoliticalscience%2Fdadm-project%2Fmiddle-eastnorth-africapersian-gulf-region%2Fsyria-1946-present%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBen-Tzur1968180_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBen-Tzur1968">Ben-Tzur 1968</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2007" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Barry (2007). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bashar%27s+Syria%3A+The+Regime+and+its+Strategic+Worldview&rft.pages=364-365&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.herzliyaconference.org%2F_Uploads%2F2590Bashars.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2007" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Barry (2007). "2: The World's Most Unstable Country, 1946-1970". <i>The Truth About Syria</i>. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8273-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8273-5"><bdi>978-1-4039-8273-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+The+World%27s+Most+Unstable+Country%2C+1946-1970&rft.btitle=The+Truth+About+Syria&rft.place=175+Fifth+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10010&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-8273-5&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeydemann,_LeendersPierret2013" class="citation book cs1">Heydemann, Leenders, Steven, Reinoud; Pierret, Thomas (2013). "4: The State Management of religion in Syria". <i>Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation and regime resilience in Syria and Iran</i>. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. pp. 86–89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8301-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8301-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-8301-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+The+State+Management+of+religion+in+Syria&rft.btitle=Middle+East+Authoritarianisms%3A+Governance%2C+Contestation+and+regime+resilience+in+Syria+and+Iran&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California%2C+USA&rft.pages=86-89&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-8301-9&rft.aulast=Heydemann%2C+Leenders&rft.aufirst=Steven%2C+Reinoud&rft.au=Pierret%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2007" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Barry (2007). "2: The World's Most Unstable Country, 1946-1970". <i>The Truth About Syria</i>. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8273-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8273-5"><bdi>978-1-4039-8273-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+The+World%27s+Most+Unstable+Country%2C+1946-1970&rft.btitle=The+Truth+About+Syria&rft.place=175+Fifth+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10010&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-8273-5&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">"Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. 364–365. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bashar%27s+Syria%3A+The+Regime+and+its+Strategic+Worldview&rft.pages=364-365&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.herzliyaconference.org%2F_Uploads%2F2590Bashars.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeydemann,_LeendersPierret2013" class="citation book cs1">Heydemann, Leenders, Steven, Reinoud; Pierret, Thomas (2013). "4: The State management of Religion in Syria". <i>Middle East Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation and regime resilience in Syria and Iran</i>. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8301-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8301-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-8301-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+The+State+management+of+Religion+in+Syria&rft.btitle=Middle+East+Authoritarianisms%3A+Governance%2C+Contestation+and+regime+resilience+in+Syria+and+Iran&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California%2C+USA&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-8301-9&rft.aulast=Heydemann%2C+Leenders&rft.aufirst=Steven%2C+Reinoud&rft.au=Pierret%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopwood198889-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood198889_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood198889_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopwood1988">Hopwood 1988</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatatu1999" class="citation book cs1">Batatu, Hanna (1999). <i>Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics</i>. 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Bellamy, McLoghlin, Alex, Stephen (2020). "1. Fateful Choices: Political Leadership and the Paths to and from Mass Atrocities". <i>Genocide Perspectives VI: The Process and the Personal Cost of Genocide</i>. University of Technology Sydney, Broadway NSW 2007, Australia: UTS ePRESS. pp. 15–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9775200-3-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9775200-3-9"><bdi>978-0-9775200-3-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+Fateful+Choices%3A+Political+Leadership+and+the+Paths+to+and+from+Mass+Atrocities&rft.btitle=Genocide+Perspectives+VI%3A+The+Process+and+the+Personal+Cost+of+Genocide&rft.place=University+of+Technology+Sydney%2C+Broadway+NSW+2007%2C+Australia&rft.pages=15-17&rft.pub=UTS+ePRESS&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-9775200-3-9&rft.aulast=Marczak%2C+Shields&rft.aufirst=Nikki%2C+Kirril&rft.au=J.+Bellamy%2C+McLoghlin%2C+Alex%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatatu1999" class="citation book cs1">Batatu, Hanna (1999). <i>Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics</i>. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Princeton University Press. pp. 254, 326–327. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00254-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00254-1"><bdi>0-691-00254-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria%27s+Peasantry%2C+the+Descendants+of+Its+Lesser+Rural+Notables%2C+and+Their+Politics&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex%2C+UK&rft.pages=254%2C+326-327&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-691-00254-1&rft.aulast=Batatu&rft.aufirst=Hanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoranyDessouki2010423–424-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoranyDessouki2010423–424_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoranyDessouki2010">Korany & Dessouki 2010</a>, pp. 423–424.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEViorst1995146-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEViorst1995146_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFViorst1995">Viorst 1995</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPerthes1997189-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPerthes1997189_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerthes1997">Perthes 1997</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Dam2011" class="citation book cs1">Van Dam, Nikolaos (2011). "10: Conclusions". <i>The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society Under Asad and the Ba'th Party</i> (4th ed.). London: I. B Tauris. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-760-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84885-760-5"><bdi>978-1-84885-760-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10%3A+Conclusions&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Power+in+Syria%3A+Politics+and+Society+Under+Asad+and+the+Ba%27th+Party&rft.place=London&rft.pages=144&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=I.+B+Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84885-760-5&rft.aulast=Van+Dam&rft.aufirst=Nikolaos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998208_78-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBengio1998">Bengio 1998</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198262-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198262_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiblock1982">Niblock 1982</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-MarashiSalama2008108-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-MarashiSalama2008108_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-MarashiSalama2008">al-Marashi & Salama 2008</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198265-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198265_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiblock1982">Niblock 1982</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198264-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198264_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiblock1982">Niblock 1982</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakiya1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kanan_Makiya" title="Kanan Makiya">Makiya, Kanan</a> (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki"><i>Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq, Updated Edition</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki/page/274">274</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520921245" title="Special:BookSources/9780520921245"><bdi>9780520921245</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republic+of+Fear%3A+The+Politics+of+Modern+Iraq%2C+Updated+Edition&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780520921245&rft.aulast=Makiya&rft.aufirst=Kanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frepublicoffearpo00maki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198270–71-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198270–71_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiblock1982">Niblock 1982</a>, pp. 70–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198271-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198271_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiblock1982">Niblock 1982</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENiblock198270-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENiblock198270_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNiblock1982">Niblock 1982</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2018" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William (2018). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/02/world/middleeast/alois-brunner-nazi-syria.html">the original</a> on 3 December 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Long-Sought+Fugitive+Died+Four+Years+Ago+in+Syria%2C+Nazi+Hunter+Says&rft.date=2014-11-30&rft.aulast=Rudoren&rft.aufirst=Jodi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F12%2F02%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Falois-brunner-nazi-syria.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler2014" class="citation news cs1">Chandler, Adam (2 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141202042628/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/12/eichmanns-best-man-lived-and-died-in-syria/383296/">"Eichmann's Best Man Lived and Died in Syria"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/12/eichmanns-best-man-lived-and-died-in-syria/383296/">the original</a> on 2 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Eichmann%27s+Best+Man+Lived+and+Died+in+Syria&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Finternational%2Farchive%2F2014%2F12%2Feichmanns-best-man-lived-and-died-in-syria%2F383296%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141201152556/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30275358">"Nazi war criminal Alois Brunner 'died in Syria'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 1 December 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30275358">the original</a> on 1 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Nazi+war+criminal+Alois+Brunner+%27died+in+Syria%27&rft.date=2014-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-30275358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuetlin2018" class="citation news cs1">Huetlin, Josephine (28 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221116203833/https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad">"The European Far-Right's Sick Love Affair With Bashar al-Assad"</a>. <i>The Daily Beast</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad">the original</a> on 16 November 2022. <q>German far-right and neo-Nazi politicians are taking trips to Syria, claiming it's now safe for refugees to return and praising murderous dictator Bashar al-Assad... neo-Nazis in Greece have bragged that they were training to go and fight alongside Assad's troops.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Beast&rft.atitle=The+European+Far-Right%27s+Sick+Love+Affair+With+Bashar+al-Assad&rft.date=2018-03-28&rft.aulast=Huetlin&rft.aufirst=Josephine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Fthe-european-far-rights-sick-love-affair-with-bashar-al-assad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Assad_far_right-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Assad_far_right_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Assad_far_right_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald2014" class="citation news cs1">MacDonald, Alex (2 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801045342/https://www.middleeasteye.net/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad">"Europe's far-right activists continue to throw their weight behind Syria's Assad"</a>. Middle East Eye. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/europes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad">the original</a> on 1 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2014</span>. <q>far-right support for Assad hinges on a number of factors: "Anti-imperialist/anti-globalism sentiment with a strong focus on national states..Islamophobia.. Anti-Semitism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Europe%27s+far-right+activists+continue+to+throw+their+weight+behind+Syria%27s+Assad&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft.aulast=MacDonald&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeasteye.net%2Fin-depth%2Ffeatures%2Feuropes-far-right-activists-continue-throw-their-weight-behind-syrias-assad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnell2017" class="citation news cs1">Snell, James (17 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221227143504/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad">"Why Nazis from Charlottesville to Europe love Bashar al-Assad"</a>. <i>New Arab</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newarab.com/opinion/why-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad">the original</a> on 27 December 2022. <q>Nazis like Assad because he has killed, and is killing, a lot of Muslims. This is essential to their view of the world. Anyone who sets out to murder Muslims and Arabs can be considered a friend. In this sense the far-right love affair with Assad can be considered almost tactical, a means to an end. The far-right seems to genuinely believe part of Assad's rhetoric....In this fanciful telling, Assad is manning the gates of civilisation, holding out against unspecified barbarians... Sunni Muslims are, in Duke's mind, "demonic forces". That he conflates Syrians protesting for freedom and an end to dictatorship with jihadists is almost incidental. The far-right and Assad share hatreds.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Arab&rft.atitle=Why+Nazis+from+Charlottesville+to+Europe+love+Bashar+al-Assad&rft.date=2017-08-17&rft.aulast=Snell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newarab.com%2Fopinion%2Fwhy-nazis-love-bashar-al-assad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhelan2013" class="citation news cs1">Whelan, Brian (1 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220202014828/https://www.vice.com/da/article/8gd9ev/are-greek-neo-nazis-fighting-for-assad-in-syria1">"Are Greek Neo-Nazis Fighting for Assad in Syria?"</a>. Vice News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/da/article/8gd9ev/are-greek-neo-nazis-fighting-for-assad-in-syria1">the original</a> on 2 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Are+Greek+Neo-Nazis+Fighting+for+Assad+in+Syria%3F&rft.date=2013-10-01&rft.aulast=Whelan&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fda%2Farticle%2F8gd9ev%2Fare-greek-neo-nazis-fighting-for-assad-in-syria1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.alarabiya.net/views/news/middle-east/2013/09/21/The-ultra-nationalist-Arab-identity-">"The ultra-nationalist Arab identity"</a>. <i>Al Arabiya English</i>. 21 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Arabiya+English&rft.atitle=The+ultra-nationalist+Arab+identity&rft.date=2013-09-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.alarabiya.net%2Fviews%2Fnews%2Fmiddle-east%2F2013%2F09%2F21%2FThe-ultra-nationalist-Arab-identity-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1242687">"Baath Party"</a>. <i>NPR</i>. 22 March 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Baath+Party&rft.date=2003-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D1242687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeddon200652-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeddon200652_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeddon2006">Seddon 2006</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESassoon201243-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201243_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSassoon2012">Sassoon 2012</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESassoon201244-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201244_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201244_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESassoon201244_110-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSassoon2012">Sassoon 2012</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2003" class="citation book cs1">Ali, Tariq (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/clashoffundament00alit"><i>The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads and Modernity</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Verso_Books" title="Verso Books">Verso</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1859844571" title="Special:BookSources/978-1859844571"><bdi>978-1859844571</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Clash+of+Fundamentalisms%3A+Crusades%2C+Jihads+and+Modernity&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1859844571&rft.au=Ali%2C+Tariq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fclashoffundament00alit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBengio1998" class="citation book cs1">Bengio, Ofra (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saddamswordpolit0000beng"><i>Saddam's Word: Political Discourse in Iraq</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195151855" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195151855"><bdi>978-0195151855</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam%27s+Word%3A+Political+Discourse+in+Iraq&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0195151855&rft.au=Bengio%2C+Ofra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsaddamswordpolit0000beng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Tzur1968" class="citation journal cs1">Ben-Tzur, Avraham (1968). "The Neo-Ba'th Party of Syria". <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 161–181. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200946800300310">10.1177/002200946800300310</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159345006">159345006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=The+Neo-Ba%27th+Party+of+Syria&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=161-181&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200946800300310&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159345006%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ben-Tzur&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlamires2006" class="citation book cs1">Blamires, Cyprian (2006). <i>World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781576079409" title="Special:BookSources/9781576079409"><bdi>9781576079409</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Fascism%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781576079409&rft.au=Blamires%2C+Cyprian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoueiri2000" class="citation book cs1">Choueiri, Youssef (2000). <i>Arab nationalism: a History: Nation and State in the Arab World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631217299" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631217299"><bdi>978-0631217299</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+nationalism%3A+a+History%3A+Nation+and+State+in+the+Arab+World&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0631217299&rft.au=Choueiri%2C+Youssef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommins2004" class="citation book cs1">Commins, David Dean (2004). <i>Historical Dictionary of Syria</i> (2nd ed.). Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810849341" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810849341"><bdi>978-0810849341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Syria&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0810849341&rft.au=Commins%2C+David+Dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoughlin2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Con_Coughlin" title="Con Coughlin">Coughlin, Con</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc"><i>Saddam: His Rise and Fall</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harper_Perennial" title="Harper Perennial">Harper Perennial</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0060505431" title="Special:BookSources/978-0060505431"><bdi>978-0060505431</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam%3A+His+Rise+and+Fall&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0060505431&rft.au=Coughlin%2C+Con&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsaddam00conc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis1971" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Michel (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peoplepoliticsin00mich"><i>People and Politics in the Middle East</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0878555000" title="Special:BookSources/978-0878555000"><bdi>978-0878555000</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+and+Politics+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0878555000&rft.au=Curtis%2C+Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeoplepoliticsin00mich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevlin1975" class="citation book cs1">Devlin, John F. (1975). <i>The Ba'th Party: A History from its origins to 1966</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution#Publications" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0817965617" title="Special:BookSources/978-0817965617"><bdi>978-0817965617</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ba%27th+Party%3A+A+History+from+its+origins+to+1966&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hoover+Institution+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0817965617&rft.au=Devlin%2C+John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhareebDougherty2004" class="citation book cs1">Ghareeb, Edmund; Dougherty, Beth (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000ghar"><i>Historical Dictionary of Iraq</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield#Imprints" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Scarecrow Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810843301" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810843301"><bdi>978-0810843301</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Iraq&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0810843301&rft.au=Ghareeb%2C+Edmund&rft.au=Dougherty%2C+Beth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoricaldictio0000ghar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGinat2010" class="citation book cs1">Ginat, Rami (2010). <i>Syria and the Doctrine of Arab Neutralism: From Independence to Dependence</i> (2 ed.). Sussex Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845193966" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845193966"><bdi>978-1845193966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+and+the+Doctrine+of+Arab+Neutralism%3A+From+Independence+to+Dependence&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1845193966&rft.au=Ginat%2C+Rami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannahGardner1969" class="citation book cs1">Hannah, Sami; Gardner, George (1969). <i>Arab Socialism: A Documentary Survey</i>. Brill Archive. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0007DTQ2S">B0007DTQ2S</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Socialism%3A+A+Documentary+Survey&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0007DTQ2S%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.au=Hannah%2C+Sami&rft.au=Gardner%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1997" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William (1997). <i>Challenges to Democracy in the Middle East</i>. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-149-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-149-0"><bdi>978-1-55876-149-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Challenges+to+Democracy+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-149-0&rft.au=Harris%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnebusch2002" class="citation book cs1">Hinnebusch, Raymond (2002). <i>Syria: Revolution from Above</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415267793" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415267793"><bdi>978-0415267793</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria%3A+Revolution+from+Above&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0415267793&rft.au=Hinnebusch%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopwood1988" class="citation book cs1">Hopwood, Derek (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/syria19451986pol0000hopw"><i>Syria 1945–1986: Politics and Society</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445046-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445046-7"><bdi>978-0-04-445046-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+1945%E2%80%931986%3A+Politics+and+Society&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-04-445046-7&rft.au=Hopwood%2C+Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsyria19451986pol0000hopw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoranyDessouki2010" class="citation book cs1">Korany, Baghat; Dessouki, Ali (2010). <i>The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Globalization</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_University_in_Cairo_Press" title="American University in Cairo Press">American University in Cairo Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-360-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-360-9"><bdi>978-977-416-360-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foreign+Policies+of+Arab+States%3A+The+Challenge+of+Globalization&rft.pub=American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-977-416-360-9&rft.au=Korany%2C+Baghat&rft.au=Dessouki%2C+Ali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaqueur1969" class="citation book cs1">Laqueur, Walter (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/struggleformiddl0000laqu"><i>The Struggle for the Middle East: The Soviet Union and the Middle East, 1958-68</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780710066367" title="Special:BookSources/9780710066367"><bdi>9780710066367</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Soviet+Union+and+the+Middle+East%2C+1958-68&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780710066367&rft.au=Laqueur%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstruggleformiddl0000laqu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2007" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Jeremy (2007). <i>Negotiating Change: The New Politics of the Middle East</i>. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845112707" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845112707"><bdi>978-1845112707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negotiating+Change%3A+The+New+Politics+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1845112707&rft.au=Jones%2C+Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaʻoz2005" class="citation book cs1">Maʻoz, Moshe (2005). <i>Arab-Jewish Relations: From Conflict to Resolution?: Essays in Honour of Moshe Maʻoz</i>. Sussex Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781903900680" title="Special:BookSources/9781903900680"><bdi>9781903900680</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab-Jewish+Relations%3A+From+Conflict+to+Resolution%3F%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Moshe+Ma%CA%BBoz&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781903900680&rft.au=Ma%CA%BBoz%2C+Moshe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-MarashiSalama2008" class="citation book cs1">al-Marashi, Ibrahim; Salama, Sammy (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iraqsarmedforces0000alma"><i>Iraq's Armed Forces: an Analytical History</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-40078-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-40078-7"><bdi>978-0-415-40078-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq%27s+Armed+Forces%3A+an+Analytical+History&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-40078-7&rft.au=al-Marashi%2C+Ibrahim&rft.au=Salama%2C+Sammy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firaqsarmedforces0000alma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiblock1982" class="citation book cs1">Niblock, Tim (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iraqcontemporary00nibl"><i>Iraq, the contemporary state</i></a></span>. Croom Helm, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1810-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1810-3"><bdi>978-0-7099-1810-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq%2C+the+contemporary+state&rft.pub=Croom+Helm%2C+Ltd&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-1810-3&rft.au=Niblock%2C+Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firaqcontemporary00nibl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerthes1997" class="citation book cs1">Perthes, Volker (1997). <i>The Political Economy of Syria under Asad</i>. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B.Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1860641923" title="Special:BookSources/978-1860641923"><bdi>978-1860641923</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Syria+under+Asad&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1860641923&rft.au=Perthes%2C+Volker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes1992" class="citation book cs1">Pipes, Daniel (1992). <i>Greater Syria: The History of an Ambition</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195060225" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195060225"><bdi>978-0195060225</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greater+Syria%3A+The+History+of+an+Ambition&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0195060225&rft.au=Pipes%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackey2003" class="citation book cs1">Mackey, Sandra (2003). <i>The Reckoning: Iraq and the Legacy of Saddam Hussein</i>. W. W. Norton and Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32428-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32428-0"><bdi>978-0-393-32428-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reckoning%3A+Iraq+and+the+Legacy+of+Saddam+Hussein&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+and+Co.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-393-32428-0&rft.au=Mackey%2C+Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuthven2006" class="citation book cs1">Ruthven, Malise (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islaminworld0000ruth"><i>Islam in the World</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195138412" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195138412"><bdi>978-0195138412</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+the+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0195138412&rft.au=Ruthven%2C+Malise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislaminworld0000ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalem1994" class="citation book cs1">Salem, Paul (1994). <i>Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2628-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2628-2"><bdi>978-0-8156-2628-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bitter+Legacy%3A+Ideology+and+Politics+in+the+Arab+World&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-2628-2&rft.au=Salem%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassoon2012" class="citation book cs1">Sassoon, Joseph (2012). <i>Saddam Hussein's Ba'th Party: Inside an Authoritarian Regime</i> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521149150" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521149150"><bdi>978-0521149150</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%27s+Ba%27th+Party%3A+Inside+an+Authoritarian+Regime&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0521149150&rft.au=Sassoon%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeddon2006" class="citation book cs1">Seddon, David (2006). <i>A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85743-212-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85743-212-6"><bdi>1-85743-212-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+and+Economic+Dictionary+of+Africa&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-85743-212-6&rft.au=Seddon%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViorst1995" class="citation book cs1">Viorst, Milton (1995). <i>Sandcastles: The Arabs in Search of the Modern World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0224033237" title="Special:BookSources/978-0224033237"><bdi>978-0224033237</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sandcastles%3A+The+Arabs+in+Search+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0224033237&rft.au=Viorst%2C+Milton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalt1987" class="citation book cs1">Walt, Stephen (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofallianc00walt"><i>The Origins of Alliances</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801494185" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801494185"><bdi>978-0801494185</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Alliances&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0801494185&rft.au=Walt%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofallianc00walt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABa%27athism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba%27athism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927045730/http://www.baath-party.org/eng/constitution.htm">The Constitution of the Arab Socialist Baath Party</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_Socialist_Ba&#039;ath_Party" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Template:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Template talk:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_Socialist_Ba&#039;ath_Party" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;;background:#017B48;color:white;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraqi-dominated faction</span></a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syrian-dominated faction</span></a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="History of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">History</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Predecessors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement" title="Arab Socialist Movement">Arab Socialist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Committee_to_Help_Iraq" title="Syrian Committee to Help Iraq">Syrian Committee to Help Iraq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Pre-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_the_Revolutionary_Command" title="National Council for the Revolutionary Command">National Council for the Revolutionary Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ar-Rashid_revolt" title="Ar-Rashid revolt">Ar-Rashid revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Hama_riot" title="1964 Hama riot">1964 Hama riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Post-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Command_Council_(Iraq)" title="Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)">Revolutionary Command Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Revolutionary_Command_Council_under_Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="List of members of the Revolutionary Command Council under Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Members</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Belt">Arab Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Arabization_campaigns_in_northern_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq">Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assadist%E2%80%93Saddamist_conflict" title="Assadist–Saddamist conflict">Assadist–Saddamist conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_Campaign" title="Faith Campaign">Faith Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_conflict" title="Iraqi conflict">Iraqi conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification" title="De-Ba'athification">De-Ba'athification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_archives" title="Ba'ath Party archives">Ba'ath Party archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Leadership" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Leadership</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">General Secretaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Pre-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraqi-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Al-Mukhtar" title="Salah Al-Mukhtar">Salah Al-Mukhtar</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syrian-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar <small><i>(de facto)</i></small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Regional Secretaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraq</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Younis_al-Ahmed" title="Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed">Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Jordan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Homsi" title="Akram al-Homsi">Akram al-Homsi</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assem_Qanso" title="Assem Qanso">Assem Qanso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Majid_al-Rafei" title="Abd al-Majid al-Rafei">Abd al-Majid al-Rafei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Palestine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isam_al-Qadi" title="Isam al-Qadi">Isam al-Qadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakad_Salem" title="Rakad Salem">Rakad Salem</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hammud_al-Shufi" title="Hammud al-Shufi">Hammud al-Shufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Members of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Members</span></a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="National Command of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">National Command</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadiya_Khalaf_Abbas" title="Hadiya Khalaf Abbas">Hadiya Khalaf Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Ayyoub" title="Ali Abdullah Ayyoub">Ali Abdullah Ayyoub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Farah" title="Elias Farah">Elias Farah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakem_Al-Fayez" title="Hakem Al-Fayez">Hakem Al-Fayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahib_al-Ghanim" title="Wahib al-Ghanim">Wahib al-Ghanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Hawrani" title="Akram al-Hawrani">Akram al-Hawrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuheir_Mohsen" title="Zuheir Mohsen">Zuheir Mohsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaled_Yashruti" title="Khaled Yashruti">Khaled Yashruti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Members of the Regional Commands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraq</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humam_Abd_al-Khaliq_Abd_al-Ghafur" title="Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur">Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanim_Abdul-Jalil" title="Ghanim Abdul-Jalil">Ghanim Abdul-Jalil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saad_Abdul-Majid" title="Saad Abdul-Majid">Saad Abdul-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_Mustafa_Abdullah" title="Jamal Mustafa Abdullah">Jamal Mustafa Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Younis_al-Ahmed" title="Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed">Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Omar_al-Ali" title="Salah Omar al-Ali">Salah Omar al-Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huda_Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash">Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Salih Mahdi Ammash">Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Al-Awadi" title="Hussein Al-Awadi">Hussein Al-Awadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adil_Abdullah_Mahdi_Al-Douri" title="Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri">Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadoun_Ghaidan" title="Saadoun Ghaidan">Saadoun Ghaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadil_Mahmud_Gharib" title="Fadil Mahmud Gharib">Fadil Mahmud Gharib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latif_Nassif_Jassim" title="Latif Nassif Jassim">Latif Nassif Jassim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Taan_Kazim" title="Rashid Taan Kazim">Rashid Taan Kazim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Khayr_Allah" title="Adnan Khayr Allah">Adnan Khayr Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid">Ali Hassan al-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhyi_Abdul-Hussein_Mashhadi" title="Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi">Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aziz_Saleh_Al-Numan" title="Aziz Saleh Al-Numan">Aziz Saleh Al-Numan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Hamoud_Al-Obaidi" title="Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi">Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fawzi_Mutlaq_al-Rawi" title="Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi">Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Rifai" title="Rashid al-Rifai">Rashid al-Rifai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Al-Baqi_Abd_Karim_Al-Sadun" title="Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun">Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zimam_al-Sadun" title="Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun">Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Khaliq_al-Samarra%27i" title="Abd al-Khaliq al-Samarra'i">Abd al-Khaliq al-Samarra'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Sallum_al-Samarra%27i" title="Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i">Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayef_Shindakh_Thamer" title="Nayef Shindakh Thamer">Nayef Shindakh Thamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamis_Sirhan" title="Khamis Sirhan">Khamis Sirhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardan_al-Tikriti" title="Hardan al-Tikriti">Hardan al-Tikriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_Abdallah_al-Ubaydi" title="Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi">Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahir_Yahya" title="Tahir Yahya">Tahir Yahya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musa_Shuaib" title="Musa Shuaib">Musa Shuaib</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/Central_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syria</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadiya_Khalaf_Abbas" title="Hadiya Khalaf Abbas">Hadiya Khalaf Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Arnous" title="Hussein Arnous">Hussein Arnous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maher_al-Assad" title="Maher al-Assad">Maher al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifaat_al-Assad" title="Rifaat al-Assad">Rifaat al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Ayyoub" title="Ali Abdullah Ayyoub">Ali Abdullah Ayyoub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Saeed_Bekheitan" title="Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan">Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhsen_Bilal" title="Muhsen Bilal">Muhsen Bilal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi_Dakhlallah" title="Mahdi Dakhlallah">Mahdi Dakhlallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Diyab" title="Ahmad Diyab">Ahmad Diyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Duba" title="Ali Duba">Ali Duba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fahd_Jassem_al-Freij" title="Fahd Jassem al-Freij">Fahd Jassem al-Freij</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_Habash" title="Marwan Habash">Marwan Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Hadid" title="Ibrahim al-Hadid">Ibrahim al-Hadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_al-Halabi" title="Muhammad Ali al-Halabi">Muhammad Ali al-Halabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wael_Nader_al-Halqi" title="Wael Nader al-Halqi">Wael Nader al-Halqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Badr_Hassan" title="Adnan Badr Hassan">Adnan Badr Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Hatum" title="Salim Hatum">Salim Hatum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilal_Hilal" title="Hilal Hilal">Hilal Hilal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_al-Hussein" title="Mohammad al-Hussein">Mohammad al-Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_Ikhtiyar" title="Hisham Ikhtiyar">Hisham Ikhtiyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul-Karim_al-Jundi" title="Abdul-Karim al-Jundi">Abdul-Karim al-Jundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sami_al-Jundi" title="Sami al-Jundi">Sami al-Jundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rauf_al-Kasm" title="Abdul Rauf al-Kasm">Abdul Rauf al-Kasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam" title="Abdul Halim Khaddam">Abdul Halim Khaddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_Khamis" title="Imad Khamis">Imad Khamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Khatib" title="Ahmad al-Khatib">Ahmad al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Khleifawi" title="Abdul Rahman Khleifawi">Abdul Rahman Khleifawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Jihad_al-Laham" title="Mohammad Jihad al-Laham">Mohammad Jihad al-Laham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Makhous" title="Ibrahim Makhous">Ibrahim Makhous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhair_Masharqa" title="Zuhair Masharqa">Zuhair Masharqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Mero" title="Muhammad Mustafa Mero">Muhammad Mustafa Mero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Naji_al-Otari" title="Muhammad Naji al-Otari">Muhammad Naji al-Otari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_Qaddura" title="Abdul Qadir Qaddura">Abdul Qadir Qaddura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammouda_Sabbagh" title="Hammouda Sabbagh">Hammouda Sabbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farouk_al-Sharaa" title="Farouk al-Sharaa">Farouk al-Sharaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikmat_al-Shihabi" title="Hikmat al-Shihabi">Hikmat al-Shihabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammud_al-Shufi" title="Hammud al-Shufi">Hammud al-Shufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Tlass" title="Mustafa Tlass">Mustafa Tlass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Turkmani" title="Hasan Turkmani">Hasan Turkmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Umran" title="Muhammad Umran">Muhammad Umran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Yasin" title="Salim Yasin">Salim Yasin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Zuayyin" title="Yusuf Zuayyin">Yusuf Zuayyin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:">Yemen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ali_Ahmad_Nasser_al-Dhahab" title="Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab">Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Heads of state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraq</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syria</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Khatib" title="Ahmad al-Khatib">Ahmad al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam" title="Abdul Halim Khaddam">Abdul Halim Khaddam <small><i>(interim)</i></small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Heads of government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraq</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Husayn_Khudayir_as-Samarrai" title="Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai">Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Syria" title="List of prime ministers of Syria"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syria</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Zuayyin" title="Yusuf Zuayyin">Yusuf Zuayyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Khleifawi" title="Abdul Rahman Khleifawi">Abdul Rahman Khleifawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_al-Ayyubi" title="Mahmoud al-Ayyubi">Mahmoud al-Ayyubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_al-Halabi" title="Muhammad Ali al-Halabi">Muhammad Ali al-Halabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rauf_al-Kasm" title="Abdul Rauf al-Kasm">Abdul Rauf al-Kasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Al-Zoubi" title="Mahmoud Al-Zoubi">Mahmoud Al-Zoubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Mero" title="Muhammad Mustafa Mero">Muhammad Mustafa Mero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Naji_al-Otari" title="Muhammad Naji al-Otari">Muhammad Naji al-Otari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adel_Safar" title="Adel Safar">Adel Safar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riyad_Farid_Hijab" title="Riyad Farid Hijab">Riyad Farid Hijab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Ibrahim_Ghalawanji" title="Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji">Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wael_Nader_al-Halqi" title="Wael Nader al-Halqi">Wael Nader al-Halqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_Khamis" title="Imad Khamis">Imad Khamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Arnous" title="Hussein Arnous">Hussein Arnous</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div>* = incumbent</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Organization" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organization_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Organization of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Organization</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27athist_regional_branches" title="Category:Ba'athist regional branches"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Regional branches</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraqi-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_of_Algeria" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Democratic_Assembly" title="Nationalist Democratic Assembly">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Egypt_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Jordanian Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Arab_Lebanon_Vanguard_Party" title="Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Libyan Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Vanguard_Party" title="National Vanguard Party">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Region_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Region of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Tunisian Ba'ath Movement">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syrian-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Progressive_Party" title="Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Socialist Democratic Unionist Party">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Sa%27iqa" title="As-Sa'iqa">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Vanguard_Party_(South_Yemen)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Vanguard Party (South Yemen)">South Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Organization_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Central Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="History of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Bureau_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">National Security Bureau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Newspapers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ba%27ath" title="Al-Ba'ath">Al-Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawt_al-Jamahir" title="Sawt al-Jamahir">Sawt al-Jamahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Thawra_(newspaper)" title="Al-Thawra (newspaper)">Al-Thawra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Popular fronts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Iraq)" title="National Progressive Front (Iraq)">National Progressive Front (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front (Syria)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Wings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Paramilitary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Brigades" title="Ba'ath Brigades">Ba'ath Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fedayeen_Saddam" title="Fedayeen Saddam">Fedayeen Saddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Battalions_(Iraq)" title="National Defense Battalions (Iraq)">National Defense Battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Army_(Iraq)" title="Popular Army (Iraq)">Popular Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Youth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Youth_Union" title="Revolutionary Youth Union">Revolutionary Youth Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Associated_organizations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organizations_associated_with_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Organizations associated with the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Associated organizations</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Armed groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Abud_Network" title="Al-Abud Network">Al-Abud Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Iraqi_Army" title="Free Iraqi Army">Free Iraqi Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeish_Muhammad" title="Jeish Muhammad">Jeish Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionists" title="Rejectionists">Rejectionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_Party" title="Snake Party">Snake Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27ath_Party_breakaway_groups" title="Category:Ba'ath Party breakaway groups"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Breakaway groups</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolutionary_Workers_Party" title="Arab Revolutionary Workers Party">Arab Revolutionary Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement" title="Arab Socialist Movement">Arab Socialist Movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement_(Damascus_branch)" title="Arab Socialist Movement (Damascus branch)">Damascus branch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Revolutionary_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Toilers%27_Movement" title="Arabic Toilers' Movement">Arabic Toilers' Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Arab_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party">Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arab_Front" title="Palestinian Arab Front">Palestinian Arab Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Lebanon" title="Socialist Lebanon">Socialist Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Sudanese Ba'ath Party">Sudanese Ba'ath Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Political alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Palestinian_Forces" title="Alliance of Palestinian Forces">Alliance of Palestinian Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forces_of_Freedom_and_Change" title="Forces of Freedom and Change">Forces of Freedom and Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_8_Alliance" title="March 8 Alliance">March 8 Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Consensus_Forces" title="National Consensus Forces">National Consensus Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Alliance_(Sudan)" title="National Democratic Alliance (Sudan)">National Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_and_Islamic_Forces" title="Palestinian National and Islamic Forces">Palestinian National and Islamic Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahd_Bloc" title="Ahd Bloc">Ahd Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_of_Patriotic_and_National_Parties" title="Front of Patriotic and National Parties">Front of Patriotic and National Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Resistance_Front" title="Lebanese National Resistance Front">Lebanese National Resistance Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_for_the_Liberation_of_Syria" title="National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria">National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Front_(Iraq)" title="National Union Front (Iraq)">National Union Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Alliance" title="Palestinian National Alliance">Palestinian National Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Salvation_Front" title="Palestinian National Salvation Front">Palestinian National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Democratic_Union_Party" title="Arab Democratic Union Party">Arab Democratic Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Unionist_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Unionist Party">Democratic Socialist Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Revolutionary_Party" title="Kurdistan Revolutionary Party">Kurdistan Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_National_Movement" title="Libyan National Movement">Libyan National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Covenant_Party" title="National Covenant Party">National Covenant Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Unity_Party_(Iraq)" title="Popular Unity Party (Iraq)">Popular Unity Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawab_(Mauritania)" title="Sawab (Mauritania)">Sawab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Unionists" title="Social Democratic Unionists">Social Democratic Unionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unionist_Party_(Syria)" title="Socialist Unionist Party (Syria)">Socialist Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party" title="Syrian Communist Party">Syrian Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_(Bakdash)" title="Syrian Communist Party (Bakdash)">Bakdash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_(Unified)" title="Syrian Communist Party (Unified)">Unified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party_in_Lebanon" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon">in Lebanon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Other organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Federation_of_Trade_Unions_(Syria)" title="General Federation of Trade Unions (Syria)">General Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Peasants" title="General Union of Peasants">General Union of Peasants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Syrian_Women" title="General Union of Syrian Women">General Union of Syrian Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Miscellaneous" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Miscellaneous</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">Vanguardism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Symbolism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ardulfurataini" title="Ardulfurataini">Arḍ ul-Furātayn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_nationalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_nationalism" title="Template talk:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_nationalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunal_conflict_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine">Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Great Syrian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">1941 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict">Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalists" title="Category:Arab nationalists">Personalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jassem_Alwan" title="Jassem Alwan">Jassem Alwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Atassi" title="Jamal al-Atassi">Jamal al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Darwaza" title="Izzat Darwaza">Izzat Darwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most%C3%A9fa_Merarda" title="Mostéfa Merarda">Mostéfa Merarda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Pachachi" title="Adnan Pachachi">Adnan Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdeen_Sabahi" title="Hamdeen Sabahi">Hamdeen Sabahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_nationalist_parties" title="List of Arab nationalist parties">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">Al-Fatat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun" title="Al-Mourabitoun">Al-Mourabitoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army" title="Arab Liberation Army">Arab Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Action_Party" title="Arab Socialist Action Party">Arab Socialist Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Egypt)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)">Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Iraq)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)">Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Libya)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Libya)">Arab Socialist Union (Libya)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula_People%27s_Union" title="Arabian Peninsula People's Union">Arabian Peninsula People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Party_(Mandatory_Palestine)" title="Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)">Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Legion" title="Islamic Legion">Islamic Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front (Algeria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics (1972)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Arab_Awakening" title="The Arab Awakening">The Arab Awakening</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalist_symbols" title="Category:Arab nationalist symbols">Symbolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic">Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Federation" title="Flag of the Arab Federation">Flag of the Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">Flag of the Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawk_of_Quraish" title="Hawk of Quraish">Hawk of Quraish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Mauritania" title="Greater Mauritania">Greater Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Yemen" title="Greater Yemen">Greater Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_nationalism" title="Sahrawi nationalism">Sahrawi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalism" title="Category:Arab nationalism">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Socialism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Socialism" title="Template:Socialism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Socialism" title="Template talk:Socialism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Socialism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">History</a> - <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_socialism" title="Outline of socialism">Outline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_socialism" title="Types of socialism">Schools of<br />thought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_of_the_21st_century" title="Socialism of the 21st century">21st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_socialism" title="Agrarian socialism">Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_socialism" title="Guild socialism">Guild</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourierism" title="Fourierism">Fourierism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icarians" title="Icarians">Icarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owenism" title="Owenism">Owenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Simonianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Simonianism">Saint-Simonianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hal_Draper" title="Hal Draper">from below</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Free-market</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire#Socialism" title="Laissez-faire">Left-wing laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_market_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing market anarchism">Left-wing market</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrectionary_anarchism" title="Insurrectionary anarchism">Insurrectionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magonism" title="Magonism">Magonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neozapatismo" title="Neozapatismo">Neozapatismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platformism" title="Platformism">Platformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Syndicalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Marxism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian Marxism">Libertarian Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_communism" title="Left communism">Left communism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council communism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg#Thought" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_spontaneity#Mao-Spontex" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary spontaneity">Mao-Spontex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Pablo" title="Michel Pablo">Pabloism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_International_Posadist" title="Fourth International Posadist">Posadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Trotskyism" title="Orthodox Trotskyism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_camp" title="Third camp">Third camp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_socialism" title="Authoritarian socialism">Authoritarian</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_socialism#Socialism_from_above" title="Authoritarian socialism">from above</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barracks_communism" title="Barracks communism">Barracks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergey_Nechayev" title="Sergey Nechayev">Nechayevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanquism" title="Blanquism">Blanquism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolshevism" title="Bolshevism">Bolshevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu#Ceaușescu's_policies" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Ceaușism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husakism" title="Husakism">Husakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Kadarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchevism" class="mw-redirect" title="Khrushchevism">Khrushchevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping_Theory" title="Deng Xiaoping Theory">Dengism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism_(Third_Worldism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maoism (Third Worldism)">Maoism–Third Worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Thought" title="Gonzalo Thought">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Gonzalo Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism%E2%80%93Prachanda_Path" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Prachanda Path">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism–Prachanda Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping_Thought" title="Xi Jinping Thought">Xi Jinping Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bolshevism" title="National Bolshevism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Tkachev" title="Pyotr Tkachev">Tkachevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lassallism" title="Lassallism">Lassallism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_socialism" title="Religious socialism">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_socialism" title="Christian socialism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_communism" title="Christian communism">communism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Jewish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Caribbean_leftism" title="Afro-Caribbean leftism">African-Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Principles_of_the_People" title="Three Principles of the People">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiangism" title="Chiangism">Chiangist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhian_socialism" title="Gandhian socialism">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marhaenism" title="Marhaenism">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_socialism" title="Melanesian socialism">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neozapatismo" title="Neozapatismo">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_one_country" title="Socialism in one country">In one country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_socialism" title="Real socialism">Real</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Socialism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lankan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_World_socialism" title="Third World socialism">Third World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key topics<br />and issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-revisionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-revisionism">Anti-revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_socialism" title="Criticism of socialism">Criticism of socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">Dictatorship of the proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_equal_liberty#Equal_liberty" title="Law of equal liberty">Equal liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Equality of opportunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_of_outcome" title="Equality of outcome">Equality of outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anarchism" title="History of anarchism">History of anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communism" title="History of communism">History of communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">History of socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_social_democracy" title="History of social democracy">History of social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impossibilism" title="Impossibilism">Impossibilism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">Mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanosocialism" title="Nanosocialism">Nanosocialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">Planned economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Socialisation of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">Socialist market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">Socialist state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Trade union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">Workers' council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist economics">Anarchist economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Basic income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_in_kind" title="Calculation in kind">Calculation in kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy#Decentralized_planning" title="Planned economy">Decentralized planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Equal opportunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_of_producers" title="Free association of producers">Free association of producers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy" title="Industrial democracy">Industrial democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor-time_calculation" title="Labor-time calculation">Labor-time calculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_voucher" title="Labour voucher">Labour voucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Organizational self-management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_for_use" title="Production for use">Production for use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">Public ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dividend" title="Social dividend">Social dividend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">Socialist mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Socialists" title="Category:Socialists">People</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th <abbr title="century">c.</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th <abbr title="century">c.</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">Gracchus Babeuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_d%27Hupay" title="Victor d'Hupay">Victor d'Hupay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Gabriel Bonnot de Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Sylvain Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Étienne-Gabriel Morelly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th <abbr title="century">c.</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pearl_Andrews" title="Stephen Pearl Andrews">Stephen Pearl Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Goodwyn_Barmby" title="John Goodwyn Barmby">John Goodwyn Barmby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Barone" title="Enrico Barone">Enrico Barone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Bebel" title="August Bebel">August Bebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bellamy" title="Edward Bellamy">Edward Bellamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Eduard Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Blanc" title="Louis Blanc">Louis Blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Blanqui" title="Louis Auguste Blanqui">Louis Auguste Blanqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Buchez" title="Philippe Buchez">Philippe Buchez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_B%C3%BCchner" title="Georg Büchner">Georg Büchner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Buonarroti" title="Philippe Buonarroti">Philippe Buonarroti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Largo_Caballero" title="Francisco Largo Caballero">Francisco Largo Caballero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cabet" title="Étienne Cabet">Étienne Cabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Edward Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Chernyshevsky" title="Nikolay Chernyshevsky">Nikolay Chernyshevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">James Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Prosper_Considerant" title="Victor Prosper Considerant">Victor Prosper Considerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_D%C3%A9mar" title="Claire Démar">Claire Démar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_D%C3%A9zamy" title="Théodore Dézamy">Théodore Dézamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy-Prosper_Enfantin" title="Barthélemy-Prosper Enfantin">Prosper Enfantin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Charles Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Emma Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Batchelder_Greene" title="William Batchelder Greene">William Batchelder Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hall_(economist)" title="Charles Hall (economist)">Charles Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Alexander Herzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hodgskin" title="Thomas Hodgskin">Thomas Hodgskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s" title="Jean Jaurès">Jean Jaurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones" title="Mother Jones">Mother Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Karl Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Paul Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle" title="Ferdinand Lassalle">Ferdinand Lassalle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Lavrov" title="Pyotr Lavrov">Pyotr Lavrov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Auguste_Ledru-Rollin" title="Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin">Alexandre Ledru-Rollin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Leroux" title="Pierre Leroux">Pierre Leroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Macfarlane" title="Helen Macfarlane">Helen Macfarlane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Errico_Malatesta" title="Errico Malatesta">Errico Malatesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Michel" title="Louise Michel">Louise Michel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Mikhaylovsky" title="Nikolay Mikhaylovsky">Nikolay Mikhaylovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_Pannekoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonie Pannekoek">Antonie Pannekoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pascoli" title="Giovanni Pascoli">Giovanni Pascoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Pecqueur" title="Constantin Pecqueur">Constantin Pecqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Georgi Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Emilio_Recabarren" title="Luis Emilio Recabarren">Luis Emilio Recabarren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Henri de Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Saltykov-Shchedrin" title="Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin">Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sand" title="George Sand">George Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Schulz" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz">Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Sue" title="Eugène Sue">Eugène Sue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Taylor" title="Fred M. Taylor">Fred M. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Thompson_(philosopher)" title="William Thompson (philosopher)">William Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Tkachev" title="Pyotr Tkachev">Pyotr Tkachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Benjamin Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Voilquin" title="Suzanne Voilquin">Suzanne Voilquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Josiah Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Weitling" title="Wilhelm Weitling">Wilhelm Weitling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th <abbr title="century">c.</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Ali" title="Tariq Ali">Tariq Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Allende" title="Salvador Allende">Salvador Allende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inejir%C5%8D_Asanuma" title="Inejirō Asanuma">Inejirō Asanuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San" title="Aung San">Aung San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Zemin" title="Jiang Zemin">Jiang Zemin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Barbusse" title="Henri Barbusse">Henri Barbusse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyoti_Basu" title="Jyoti Basu">Jyoti Basu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Tony Benn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Léon Blum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Lee_Boggs" title="Grace Lee Boggs">Grace Lee Boggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Murray Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristide_Briand" title="Aristide Briand">Aristide Briand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Nikolai Bukharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Castoriadis" title="Cornelius Castoriadis">Cornelius Castoriadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._N._Roy" title="M. N. Roy">M. N. Roy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._D._H._Cole" title="G. D. H. Cole">G. D. H. Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Jeremy Corbyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_D%C3%A9at" title="Marcel Déat">Marcel Déat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Eugene V. Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faiz_Ahmad_Faiz" title="Faiz Ahmad Faiz">Faiz Ahmad Faiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einar_Gerhardsen" title="Einar Gerhardsen">Einar Gerhardsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxim_Gorky" title="Maxim Gorky">Maxim Gorky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safdar_Hashmi" title="Safdar Hashmi">Safdar Hashmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolores_Ib%C3%A1rruri" title="Dolores Ibárruri">Dolores Ibárruri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Iglesias_Posse" title="Pablo Iglesias Posse">Pablo Iglesias Posse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayaprakash_Narayan" title="Jayaprakash Narayan">Jayaprakash Narayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Jacoby" title="Russell Jacoby">Russell Jacoby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Jong-il" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Jong-il">Kim Jong-il</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung" title="Kim Il Sung">Kim Il Sung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Kollontai" title="Alexandra Kollontai">Alexandra Kollontai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Larkin" title="James Larkin">James Larkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._M._S._Namboodiripad" title="E. M. S. Namboodiripad">E. M. S. Namboodiripad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Layton" title="Jack Layton">Jack Layton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Henri Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lefort" title="Claude Lefort">Claude Lefort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestor_Makhno" title="Nestor Makhno">Nestor Makhno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Carlos_Mari%C3%A1tegui" title="José Carlos Mariátegui">José Carlos Mariátegui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrien_Marquet" title="Adrien Marquet">Adrien Marquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Dun" title="Mao Dun">Mao Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salama_Moussa" title="Salama Moussa">Salama Moussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Nagy" title="Imre Nagy">Imre Nagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Niekisch" title="Ernst Niekisch">Ernst Niekisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ne_Win" title="Ne Win">Ne Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Pankhurst" title="Sylvia Pankhurst">Sylvia Pankhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Paterson" title="Fred Paterson">Fred Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Renaudel" title="Pierre Renaudel">Pierre Renaudel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._T._Ranadive" title="B. T. Ranadive">B. T. Ranadive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini" title="Gaetano Salvemini">Gaetano Salvemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Scargill" title="Arthur Scargill">Arthur Scargill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Léopold Sédar Senghor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._H._Tawney" title="R. H. Tawney">R. H. Tawney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Toller" title="Ernst Toller">Ernst Toller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Manohar_Lohia" title="Ram Manohar Lohia">Ram Manohar Lohia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Zetkin" title="Clara Zetkin">Clara Zetkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Howard Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Posadas" title="J. Posadas">J. Posadas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st <abbr title="century">c.</abbr></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Castillo" title="Pedro Castillo">Pedro Castillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Hugo Chávez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Crow" title="Bob Crow">Bob Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Jintao" title="Hu Jintao">Hu Jintao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemal_K%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7daro%C4%9Flu" title="Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu">Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Jong_Un" title="Kim Jong Un">Kim Jong Un</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lula_da_Silva" class="mw-redirect" title="Lula da Silva">Lula da Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evo_Morales" title="Evo Morales">Evo Morales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanis_Varoufakis" title="Yanis Varoufakis">Yanis Varoufakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaush" title="Vaush">Vaush</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Socialist_organizations" title="Category:Socialist organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:International_socialist_organizations" title="Category:International socialist organizations">International socialist organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Socialist_parties" title="Category:Socialist parties">Socialist parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_calculation_problem" title="Economic calculation problem">Economic calculation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxist philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Left" title="Old Left">Old Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Socialism_by_state" title="Template:Socialism by state">Socialism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_calculation_debate" title="Socialist calculation debate">Socialist calculation debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" 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