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<ul id="toc-Orbital_parameters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distance_from_star_and_orbital_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distance_from_star_and_orbital_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Distance from star and orbital period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distance_from_star_and_orbital_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eccentricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eccentricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Eccentricity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eccentricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inclination_vs._spin–orbit_angle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inclination_vs._spin–orbit_angle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Inclination vs. spin–orbit angle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inclination_vs._spin–orbit_angle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Periastron_precession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periastron_precession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Periastron precession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periastron_precession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nodal_precession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nodal_precession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Nodal precession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nodal_precession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rotation_and_axial_tilt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rotation_and_axial_tilt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Rotation and axial tilt</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rotation_and_axial_tilt-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rotation and axial tilt subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rotation_and_axial_tilt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origin_of_spin_and_tilt_of_terrestrial_planets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_spin_and_tilt_of_terrestrial_planets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Origin of spin and tilt of terrestrial planets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_spin_and_tilt_of_terrestrial_planets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tidal_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tidal_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Tidal effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tidal_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_parameters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_parameters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Physical parameters</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_parameters-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Physical parameters subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_parameters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radius,_density,_and_bulk_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radius,_density,_and_bulk_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Radius, density, and bulk composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radius,_density,_and_bulk_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gas_giants,_puffy_planets,_and_super-Jupiters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gas_giants,_puffy_planets,_and_super-Jupiters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Gas giants, puffy planets, and super-Jupiters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gas_giants,_puffy_planets,_and_super-Jupiters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_giants_and_super-Neptunes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_giants_and_super-Neptunes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Ice giants and super-Neptunes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_giants_and_super-Neptunes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Super-Earths,_mini-Neptunes,_and_gas_dwarfs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Super-Earths,_mini-Neptunes,_and_gas_dwarfs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Super-Earths, mini-Neptunes, and gas dwarfs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Super-Earths,_mini-Neptunes,_and_gas_dwarfs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massive_solid_planets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massive_solid_planets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Massive solid planets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massive_solid_planets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Shape</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoplanetoloch%C3%ADa" title="Exoplanetolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Exoplanetolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoplanetologia" title="Exoplanetologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Exoplanetologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoplanetolog%C3%ADa" title="Exoplanetología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Exoplanetología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="سیاره‌شناسی فراخورشیدی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیاره‌شناسی فراخورشیدی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="बहिर्ग्रहशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बहिर्ग्रहशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksoplanetologi" title="Eksoplanetologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Eksoplanetologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C3%A2metros_orbitais_e_f%C3%ADsicos_de_exoplaneta" title="Parâmetros orbitais e físicos de exoplaneta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Parâmetros orbitais e físicos de exoplaneta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A-%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9E%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="බහිෂ්-සෞර ග්‍රහලෝකවේදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බහිෂ්-සෞර ග්‍රහලෝකවේදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96tegezegenlerin_y%C3%B6r%C3%BCngesel_ve_fiziksel_parametreleri" title="Ötegezegenlerin yörüngesel ve fiziksel parametreleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ötegezegenlerin yörüngesel ve fiziksel parametreleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">exoplanet</a> orbital and physical parameters. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orbital_parameters">Orbital parameters</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Orbital parameters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most known extrasolar planet candidates have been discovered using indirect methods and therefore only some of their physical and orbital parameters can be determined. For example, out of the six independent <a href="/wiki/Orbital_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital element">parameters</a> that define an orbit, the radial-velocity method can determine four: <a href="/wiki/Semi-major_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-major axis">semi-major axis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">eccentricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Longitude_of_periastron" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitude of periastron">longitude of periastron</a>, and time of periastron. Two parameters remain unknown: <a href="/wiki/Inclination" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclination">inclination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longitude_of_the_ascending_node" title="Longitude of the ascending node">longitude of the ascending node</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distance_from_star_and_orbital_period">Distance from star and orbital period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distance from star and orbital period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exoplanet_Period-Mass_Scatter.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Log-log scatterplot showing masses, orbital radii, and period of all extrasolar planets discovered through September 2014, with colors indicating method of detection" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Exoplanet_Period-Mass_Scatter.png/300px-Exoplanet_Period-Mass_Scatter.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Exoplanet_Period-Mass_Scatter.png/450px-Exoplanet_Period-Mass_Scatter.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Exoplanet_Period-Mass_Scatter.png/600px-Exoplanet_Period-Mass_Scatter.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Log-log scatterplot showing masses, orbital radii, and period of all extrasolar planets discovered through September 2014, with colors indicating method of detection: <table style="width: 100%; margin-bottom: 3px;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; width:27%;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid#004700;background-color:#00ab00; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Transit_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit method">transit</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid #0A000A;background-color:#550055; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Transit-timing_variation" title="Transit-timing variation">timing</a></div> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; width:38%;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid #000061;background-color:#0000ab; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Radial_velocity_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial velocity method">radial velocity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid #610000;background-color:#ab0000; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Direct_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct imaging">direct imaging</a></div> </td> <td valign="top"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="border: 1px solid #613000;background-color:#ab5500; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_microlensing" title="Gravitational microlensing">microlensing</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> For reference, Solar System planets are marked as gray circles. The horizontal axis plots the <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithm</a> of the semi-major axis, and the vertical axis plots the logarithm of the mass. </figcaption></figure> <p>There are exoplanets that are much closer to their parent star than any planet in the Solar System is to the Sun, and there are also exoplanets that are much further from their star. <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>, the closest planet to the Sun at 0.4 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical units</a> (AU), takes 88 days for an orbit, but the smallest known orbits of exoplanets have orbital periods of only a few hours, see <a href="/wiki/Ultra-short_period_planet" title="Ultra-short period planet">Ultra-short period planet</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kepler-11" title="Kepler-11">Kepler-11</a> system has five of its planets in smaller orbits than Mercury's. <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> is 30 AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit it, but there are exoplanets that are thousands of AU from their star and take tens of thousands of years to orbit, e.g. <a href="/wiki/GU_Piscium_b" title="GU Piscium b">GU Piscium b</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_extrasolar_planets#Radial_velocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Methods of detecting extrasolar planets">radial-velocity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transit_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit method">transit</a> methods are most sensitive to planets with small orbits. The earliest discoveries such as <a href="/wiki/51_Peg_b" class="mw-redirect" title="51 Peg b">51 Peg b</a> were <a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">gas giants</a> with orbits of a few days.<sup id="cite_ref-cumming08_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cumming08-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These "<a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">hot Jupiters</a>" likely formed further out and migrated inwards. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Direct_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct imaging">direct imaging</a> method is most sensitive to planets with large orbits, and has discovered some planets that have planet–star separations of hundreds of AU. However, protoplanetary disks are usually only around 100 AU in radius, and <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Giant_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">core accretion models</a> predict giant planet formation to be within 10 AU, where the planets can coalesce quickly enough before the disk <a href="/wiki/Photoevaporation" title="Photoevaporation">evaporates</a>. Very-long-period giant planets may have been <a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">rogue planets</a> that were <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_host_stars#Captured_planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Exoplanet host stars">captured</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-WideRecapture_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WideRecapture-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or formed close-in and gravitationally scattered outwards, or the planet and star could be a mass-imbalanced wide <a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">binary system</a> with the planet being the primary object of its own separate protoplanetary disk. <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Giant_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">Gravitational instability models</a> might produce planets at multi-hundred AU separations but this would require unusually large disks.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ddl2011_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ddl2011-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For planets with very wide orbits up to several hundred thousand AU it may be difficult to observationally determine whether the planet is gravitationally bound to the star. </p><p>Most planets that have been discovered are within a couple of AU from their host star because the most used methods (radial-velocity and transit) require observation of several orbits to confirm that the planet exists and there has only been enough time since these methods were first used to cover small separations. Some planets with larger orbits have been discovered by direct imaging but there is a middle range of distances, roughly equivalent to the Solar System's gas giant region, which is largely unexplored. Direct imaging equipment for exploring that region was installed on two large telescopes that began operation in 2014, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gemini_Planet_Imager" title="Gemini Planet Imager">Gemini Planet Imager</a> and <a href="/wiki/VLT-SPHERE" class="mw-redirect" title="VLT-SPHERE">VLT-SPHERE</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_extrasolar_planets#microlensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Methods of detecting extrasolar planets">microlensing</a> method has detected a few planets in the 1–10 AU range.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears plausible that in most exoplanetary systems, there are one or two giant planets with orbits comparable in size to those of Jupiter and Saturn in the Solar System. Giant planets with substantially larger orbits are now known to be rare, at least around Sun-like stars.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The distance of the <a href="#Habitability">habitable zone</a> from a star depends on the type of star and this distance changes during the star's lifetime as the size and temperature of the star changes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eccentricity">Eccentricity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eccentricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">eccentricity</a> of an orbit is a measure of how elliptical (elongated) it is. All the planets of the Solar System except for <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> have near-circular orbits (e<0.1).<sup id="cite_ref-marcyprogth05_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marcyprogth05-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most exoplanets with orbital periods of 20 days or less have near-circular orbits, i.e. very low eccentricity. That is thought to be due to <a href="/wiki/Tidal_circularization" title="Tidal circularization">tidal circularization</a>: reduction of eccentricity over time due to gravitational interaction between two bodies. The mostly sub-Neptune-sized planets found by the <i>Kepler</i> spacecraft with short orbital periods have very circular orbits.<sup id="cite_ref-kepler1700_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kepler1700-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, the giant planets with longer orbital periods discovered by radial-velocity methods have quite eccentric orbits. (As of July 2010, 55% of such exoplanets have eccentricities greater than 0.2, whereas 17% have eccentricities greater than 0.5.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopaedia_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Moderate to high eccentricities (e>0.2) of giant planets are <i>not</i> an observational selection effect, because a planet can be detected about equally well regardless of the eccentricity of its orbit. The statistical significance of elliptical orbits in the ensemble of observed giant planets is somewhat surprising, because current theories of <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Formation_of_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">planetary formation</a> suggest that low-mass planets should have their <a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">orbital eccentricity</a> circularized by gravitational interactions with the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-boss_book_p26_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boss_book_p26-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as a planet grows more massive and its interaction with the disk becomes nonlinear, it may induce eccentric motion of the surrounding disk's gas, which in turn may excite the planet's orbital eccentricity.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low eccentricities are correlated with high multiplicity (number of planets in the system).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low eccentricity is needed for habitability, especially advanced life.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For weak <a href="/wiki/Doppler_spectroscopy" title="Doppler spectroscopy">Doppler</a> signals near the limits of the current detection ability, the eccentricity becomes poorly constrained and biased towards higher values. It is suggested that some of the high eccentricities reported for low-mass exoplanets may be overestimates, because simulations show that many observations are also consistent with two planets on circular orbits. Reported observations of single planets in moderately eccentric orbits have about a 15% chance of being a pair of planets.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This misinterpretation is especially likely if the two planets orbit with a 2:1 resonance. With the exoplanet sample known in 2009, a group of astronomers estimated that "(1) around 35% of the published eccentric one-planet solutions are statistically indistinguishable from planetary systems in 2:1 orbital resonance, (2) another 40% cannot be statistically distinguished from a circular orbital solution" and "(3) planets with masses comparable to Earth could be hidden in known orbital solutions of eccentric super-Earths and Neptune mass planets".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radial velocity surveys found exoplanet orbits beyond 0.1 AU to be eccentric, particularly for large planets. Transit data obtained by the <i>Kepler</i> spacecraft, is consistent with the RV surveys and also revealed that smaller planets tend to have less eccentric orbits.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inclination_vs._spin–orbit_angle"><span id="Inclination_vs._spin.E2.80.93orbit_angle"></span>Inclination vs. spin–orbit angle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Inclination vs. spin–orbit angle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Orbital_inclination" title="Orbital inclination">Orbital inclination</a> is the angle between a planet's <a href="/wiki/Orbital_plane" title="Orbital plane">orbital plane</a> and another plane of reference. For exoplanets, the inclination is usually stated with respect to an observer on Earth: the angle used is that between the <a href="/wiki/Normal_(geometry)" title="Normal (geometry)">normal</a> to the planet's orbital plane and the line of sight from Earth to the star. Therefore, most planets observed by the <a href="/wiki/Transit_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit method">transit method</a> are close to 90 degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the word 'inclination' is used in exoplanet studies for this line-of-sight inclination then the angle between the planet's orbit and the star's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin–orbit angle or spin–orbit alignment. In most cases the orientation of the star's rotational axis is unknown. The <i>Kepler</i> spacecraft has found a few hundred multi-planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane, much like the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-kepler1700_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kepler1700-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a combination of astrometric and radial-velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than half of <a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">hot Jupiters</a> have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent star's rotation. A substantial fraction of hot-Jupiters even have <a href="/wiki/Retrograde_orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrograde orbit">retrograde orbits</a>, meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star's rotation.<sup id="cite_ref-2010question_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2010question-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than a planet's orbit having been disturbed, it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periastron_precession">Periastron precession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Periastron precession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Apsidal_precession" title="Apsidal precession">Periastron precession</a> is the rotation of a planet's orbit within the orbital plane, i.e. the axes of the ellipse change direction. In the Solar System, perturbations from other planets are the main cause, but for close-in exoplanets the largest factor can be tidal forces between the star and planet. For close-in exoplanets, the <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativistic</a> contribution to the precession is also significant and can be orders of magnitude larger than the <a href="/wiki/Perihelion_precession_of_Mercury" class="mw-redirect" title="Perihelion precession of Mercury">same effect for Mercury</a>. Some exoplanets have significantly <a href="#Eccentricity">eccentric orbits</a>, which makes it easier to detect the precession. The effect of general relativity can be detectable in timescales of about 10 years or less.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nodal_precession">Nodal precession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nodal precession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nodal_precession" title="Nodal precession">Nodal precession</a> is rotation of a planet's orbital plane. Nodal precession is more easily seen as distinct from periastron precession when the orbital plane is <a href="/wiki/Inclination" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclination">inclined</a> to the star's rotation, the extreme case being a polar orbit. </p><p><a href="/wiki/WASP-33" class="mw-redirect" title="WASP-33">WASP-33</a> is a fast-rotating star that hosts a <a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">hot Jupiter</a> in an almost polar orbit. The <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole#Gravitational_quadrupole" title="Quadrupole">quadrupole mass moment</a> and the proper <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> of the star are 1900 and 400 times, respectively, larger than those of the Sun. This causes significant <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">classical</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">relativistic</a> deviations from <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">Kepler's laws</a>. In particular, the fast rotation causes large nodal precession because of the star's <a href="/wiki/Oblateness" class="mw-redirect" title="Oblateness">oblateness</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lense%E2%80%93Thirring_precession" title="Lense–Thirring precession">Lense–Thirring effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rotation_and_axial_tilt">Rotation and axial tilt</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rotation and axial tilt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beta_Pictoris_b_-_The_universal_relation_between_mass_and_rotation_speed_of_planets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Log-linear plot of planet mass (in Jupiter masses) vs. spin velocity (in km/s), comparing exoplanet Beta Pictoris b to the Solar System planets" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Beta_Pictoris_b_-_The_universal_relation_between_mass_and_rotation_speed_of_planets.jpg/400px-Beta_Pictoris_b_-_The_universal_relation_between_mass_and_rotation_speed_of_planets.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Beta_Pictoris_b_-_The_universal_relation_between_mass_and_rotation_speed_of_planets.jpg/600px-Beta_Pictoris_b_-_The_universal_relation_between_mass_and_rotation_speed_of_planets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Beta_Pictoris_b_-_The_universal_relation_between_mass_and_rotation_speed_of_planets.jpg/800px-Beta_Pictoris_b_-_The_universal_relation_between_mass_and_rotation_speed_of_planets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2999" data-file-height="2249" /></a><figcaption>Plot of equatorial spin velocity vs. mass for planets comparing <a href="/wiki/Beta_Pictoris_b" title="Beta Pictoris b">Beta Pictoris b</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> planets.</figcaption></figure> <p>In April 2014, the first measurement of a planet's <a href="/wiki/Rotation_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotation period">rotation period</a> was announced: the length of day for the <a href="/wiki/Super-Jupiter" title="Super-Jupiter">super-Jupiter</a> gas giant <a href="/wiki/Beta_Pictoris_b" title="Beta Pictoris b">Beta Pictoris b</a> is 8 hours (based on the assumption that the <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">axial tilt</a> of the planet is small.)<sup id="cite_ref-spinpress_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spinpress-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-snellenspin_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snellenspin-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-discoveryspin_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-discoveryspin-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With an equatorial rotational velocity of 25 km per second, this is faster than for the giant planets of the Solar System, in line with the expectation that the more massive a giant planet, the faster it spins. Beta Pictoris b's distance from its star is 9 AU. At such distances the rotation of <a href="/wiki/Jovian_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jovian planet">Jovian planets</a> is not slowed by tidal effects.<sup id="cite_ref-TidalEvoExop_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TidalEvoExop-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beta Pictoris b is still warm and young and over the next hundreds of millions of years, it will cool down and shrink to about the size of Jupiter, and if its <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> is preserved, then as it shrinks, the length of its day will decrease to about 3 hours and its equatorial rotation velocity will speed up to about 40 km/s.<sup id="cite_ref-snellenspin_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snellenspin-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The images of Beta Pictoris b do not have high enough resolution to directly see details but <a href="/wiki/Doppler_spectroscopy" title="Doppler spectroscopy">doppler spectroscopy</a> techniques were used to show that different parts of the planet were moving at different speeds and in opposite directions from which it was inferred that the planet is rotating.<sup id="cite_ref-spinpress_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spinpress-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the next generation of <a href="/wiki/Extremely_large_telescope" title="Extremely large telescope">large ground-based telescopes</a> it will be possible to use doppler imaging techniques to make a global map of the planet, like the mapping of the brown dwarf <a href="/wiki/Luhman_16#Atmosphere" title="Luhman 16">Luhman 16B</a> in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2017 study of the rotation of several gas giants found no correlation between rotation rate and mass of the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2024 the axial tilt of 4 exoplanets have been measured with one of them VHS 1256 b having a Uranus like tilt of 90 degrees +- 25 degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_spin_and_tilt_of_terrestrial_planets">Origin of spin and tilt of terrestrial planets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Origin of spin and tilt of terrestrial planets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Giant impacts</a> have a large effect on the spin of <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrestrial planets">terrestrial planets</a>. The last few giant impacts during <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Formation_of_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">planetary formation</a> tend to be the main determiner of a terrestrial planet's rotation rate. On average the spin <a href="/wiki/Angular_velocity" title="Angular velocity">angular velocity</a> will be about 70% of the velocity that would cause the planet to break up and fly apart; the natural outcome of <a href="/wiki/Planetary_embryo" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary embryo">planetary embryo</a> impacts at speeds slightly larger than <a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">escape velocity</a>. In later stages terrestrial planet spin is also affected by impacts with <a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">planetesimals</a>. During the giant impact stage, the thickness of a <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a> is far larger than the size of planetary embryos so collisions are equally likely to come from any direction in three-dimensions. This results in the <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">axial tilt</a> of accreted planets ranging from 0 to 180 degrees with any direction as likely as any other with both <a href="/wiki/Retrograde_and_prograde_motion" title="Retrograde and prograde motion">prograde and retrograde</a> spins equally probable. Therefore, prograde spin with a small axial tilt, common for the Solar System's terrestrial planets except Venus, is not common in general for terrestrial planets built by giant impacts. The initial axial tilt of a planet determined by giant impacts can be substantially changed by stellar tides if the planet is close to its star and by satellite tides if the planet has a large satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tidal_effects">Tidal effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tidal effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For most planets, the rotation period and <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">axial tilt</a> (also called obliquity) are not known, but a large number of planets have been detected with very short orbits (where tidal effects are greater) that will probably have reached an <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_equilibrium" title="Mechanical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> rotation that can be predicted (<i>i.e.</i> <a href="/wiki/Tidally_locked" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidally locked">tidal lock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)#Spin-orbit_resonance" title="Mercury (planet)">spin–orbit resonances</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Retrograde_and_prograde_motion#Planets" title="Retrograde and prograde motion">non-resonant equilibria such as retrograde rotation</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-TidalEvoExop_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TidalEvoExop-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gravitational tides tend to reduce the axial tilt to zero but over a longer timescale than the rotation rate reaches equilibrium. However, the presence of multiple planets in a system can cause axial tilt to be captured in a resonance called a <a href="/wiki/Cassini_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassini state">Cassini state</a>. There are small oscillations around this state and in the case of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> these axial tilt variations are chaotic.<sup id="cite_ref-TidalEvoExop_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TidalEvoExop-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">Hot Jupiters</a>' close proximity to their host star means that their spin–orbit evolution is mostly due to the star's gravity and not the other effects. Hot Jupiters' rotation rate is not thought to be captured into spin–orbit resonance because of the way in which such a fluid-body reacts to tides; a planet like this therefore slows down into synchronous rotation if its orbit is circular, or, alternatively, it slows down into a non-synchronous rotation if its orbit is eccentric. Hot Jupiters are likely to evolve towards zero axial tilt even if they had been in a Cassini state during planetary migration when they were further from their star. Hot Jupiters' orbits will become more circular over time, however the presence of other planets in the system on eccentric orbits, even ones as small as Earth and as far away as the habitable zone, can continue to maintain the eccentricity of the Hot Jupiter so that the length of time for <a href="/wiki/Tidal_circularization" title="Tidal circularization">tidal circularization</a> can be billions instead of millions of years.<sup id="cite_ref-TidalEvoExop_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TidalEvoExop-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rotation rate of planet <a href="/wiki/HD_80606_b" title="HD 80606 b">HD 80606 b</a> is predicted to be about 1.9 days.<sup id="cite_ref-TidalEvoExop_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TidalEvoExop-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HD 80606 b avoids spin–orbit resonance because it is a gas giant. The eccentricity of its orbit means that it avoids becoming tidally locked. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_parameters">Physical parameters</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Physical parameters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Planet#Physical_characteristics" title="Planet">Planet § Physical characteristics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass">Mass</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a planet is found by the <a href="/wiki/Radial-velocity_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial-velocity method">radial-velocity method</a>, its <a href="#Inclination_vs._spin–orbit_angle">orbital inclination</a> <i>i</i> is unknown and can range from 0 to 90 degrees. The method is unable to determine the <a href="/wiki/True_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="True mass">true mass</a> (<i>M</i>) of the planet, but rather gives a <a href="/wiki/Minimum_mass" title="Minimum mass">lower limit for its mass</a>, <i>M</i> sin<i>i</i>. In a few cases an apparent exoplanet may be a more massive object such as a brown dwarf or red dwarf. However, the probability of a small value of i (say less than 30 degrees, which would give a true mass at least double the observed lower limit) is relatively low (1−<span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;">3</span></span>/2 ≈ 13%) and hence most planets will have true masses fairly close to the observed lower limit.<sup id="cite_ref-cumming08_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cumming08-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a planet's orbit is nearly perpendicular to the line of vision (i.e. <i>i</i> close to 90°), a planet can be detected through the <a href="/wiki/Transit_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit method">transit method</a>. The inclination will then be known, and the inclination combined with <i>M</i> sin<i>i</i> from radial-velocity observations will give the planet's true mass. </p><p>Also, <a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">astrometric</a> observations and dynamical considerations in multiple-planet systems can sometimes provide an upper limit to the planet's true mass. </p><p>In 2013 it was proposed that the mass of a transiting exoplanet can also be determined from the transmission spectrum of its atmosphere, as it can be used to constrain independently the atmospheric composition, temperature, pressure, and <a href="/wiki/Scale_height" title="Scale height">scale height</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-JulienSeager2013_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JulienSeager2013-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however a 2017 study found that the transmission spectrum cannot unambiguously determine the mass.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Transit-timing_variation" title="Transit-timing variation">Transit-timing variation</a> can also be used to find a planet's mass.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radius,_density,_and_bulk_composition"><span id="Radius.2C_density.2C_and_bulk_composition"></span>Radius, density, and bulk composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Radius, density, and bulk composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to recent results from the <i>Kepler</i> space observatory, most confirmed planets were <a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">gas giants</a> comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are most easily detected. However, the planets detected by <i>Kepler</i> are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-kepler1700_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kepler1700-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a planet is detectable by both the radial-velocity and the transit methods, then both its true mass and its radius can be determined, as well as its <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>. Planets with low density are inferred to be composed mainly of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, whereas planets of intermediate density are inferred to have water as a major constituent. A planet of high density is inferred to be rocky, like Earth and the other terrestrial planets of the Solar System. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:670px;max-width:670px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:322px;max-width:322px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Size_of_Kepler_Planet_Candidates.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="alt=Histogram showing the radius-comparison of B4D exoplanet candidates to radii of Earth, a super-Earth, Neptune, Jupiter, and a super-Jupiter. Neptune and super-Jupiter are the most and least populated size-ranges, respectively."><img alt="alt=Histogram showing the radius-comparison of B4D exoplanet candidates to radii of Earth, a super-Earth, Neptune, Jupiter, and a super-Jupiter. Neptune and super-Jupiter are the most and least populated size-ranges, respectively." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Size_of_Kepler_Planet_Candidates.jpg/320px-Size_of_Kepler_Planet_Candidates.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Size_of_Kepler_Planet_Candidates.jpg/480px-Size_of_Kepler_Planet_Candidates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Size_of_Kepler_Planet_Candidates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="396" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Sizes of <i>Kepler</i> Planet Candidates – based on 2,740 candidates orbiting 2,036 stars as of 4 November 2013<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> (NASA).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:344px;max-width:344px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Planet_sizes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Size-comparison of planets with different compositions to a Sun-like star, and to Earth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Planet_sizes.svg/342px-Planet_sizes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="342" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Planet_sizes.svg/513px-Planet_sizes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Planet_sizes.svg/684px-Planet_sizes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Comparison of sizes of planets with <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2007/earthsized_planets.html">different compositions.</a></div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gas_giants,_puffy_planets,_and_super-Jupiters"><span id="Gas_giants.2C_puffy_planets.2C_and_super-Jupiters"></span>Gas giants, puffy planets, and super-Jupiters</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gas giants, puffy planets, and super-Jupiters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exoplanet_Comparison_WASP-17_b.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Size comparison of Jupiter and exoplanet WASP-17b" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Exoplanet_Comparison_WASP-17_b.png/300px-Exoplanet_Comparison_WASP-17_b.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Exoplanet_Comparison_WASP-17_b.png/450px-Exoplanet_Comparison_WASP-17_b.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Exoplanet_Comparison_WASP-17_b.png/600px-Exoplanet_Comparison_WASP-17_b.png 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Size comparison of <a href="/wiki/WASP-17b" title="WASP-17b">WASP-17b</a> (right) with <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> (left).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">Gas giant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puffy_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Puffy planet">Puffy planet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Super-Jupiter" title="Super-Jupiter">Super-Jupiter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Super-puff" title="Super-puff">Super-puff</a></div> <p>Gaseous planets that are hot are caused by extreme proximity to their host star, or because they are still hot from their formation and are expanded by the heat. For colder gas planets, there is a maximum radius which is slightly larger than Jupiter which occurs when the mass reaches a few Jupiter-masses. Adding mass beyond this point causes the radius to shrink.<sup id="cite_ref-whatbasribrown_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatbasribrown-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even when taking heat from the star into account, many transiting exoplanets are much larger than expected given their mass, meaning that they have surprisingly low density.<sup id="cite_ref-baraffe10_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baraffe10-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See the <a href="/wiki/Exoplanet#Magnetic_field" title="Exoplanet">magnetic field section</a> for one possible explanation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exoplanet_density_vs_radius_and_diffusity_vs_radius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two plots of exoplanet density vs. radius (in Jupiter radii). One shows density in g/cm3. The other shows diffusivity, or 1/density, or cm3/g." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Exoplanet_density_vs_radius_and_diffusity_vs_radius.jpg/220px-Exoplanet_density_vs_radius_and_diffusity_vs_radius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Exoplanet_density_vs_radius_and_diffusity_vs_radius.jpg/330px-Exoplanet_density_vs_radius_and_diffusity_vs_radius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Exoplanet_density_vs_radius_and_diffusity_vs_radius.jpg/440px-Exoplanet_density_vs_radius_and_diffusity_vs_radius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Plots of exoplanet <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radius" title="Radius">radius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-density-radius-diagrams_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-density-radius-diagrams-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Top: Density vs. Radius. Bottom: Diffusity=1/Density vs. Radius. Units: Radius in <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_radius" title="Jupiter radius">Jupiter radii</a> (<var>R</var><sub>Jup</sub>). Density in g/cm<sup>3</sup>. Diffusity in cm<sup>3</sup>/g. These plots show that there are a wide range of densities for planets between Earth and Neptune size, then the planets of <span class="nowrap">0.6</span> <var>R</var><sub>Jup</sub> size are very low-density and there are very few of them, then the gas giants have a large range of densities.</figcaption></figure> <p>Besides the inflated <a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">hot Jupiters</a>, there is another type of low-density planet: <a href="/wiki/Super-puff" title="Super-puff">super-puffs</a> with masses only a few times Earth's but with radii larger than Neptune. The planets around <a href="/wiki/Kepler-51" title="Kepler-51">Kepler-51</a><sup id="cite_ref-kepler-51_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kepler-51-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are far less dense (far more diffuse) than the inflated hot Jupiters as can be seen in the plots on the right where the three Kepler-51 planets stand out in the diffusity vs. radius plot. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ice_giants_and_super-Neptunes">Ice giants and super-Neptunes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ice giants and super-Neptunes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ice_giant" title="Ice giant">Ice giant</a></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kepler-101b&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kepler-101b (page does not exist)">Kepler-101b</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Super-Neptune" title="Super-Neptune">super-Neptune</a> discovered. It has three times Neptune's mass but its density suggests that heavy elements make up more than 60% of its total mass, unlike hydrogen–helium-dominated gas giants.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Super-Earths,_mini-Neptunes,_and_gas_dwarfs"><span id="Super-Earths.2C_mini-Neptunes.2C_and_gas_dwarfs"></span>Super-Earths, mini-Neptunes, and gas dwarfs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Super-Earths, mini-Neptunes, and gas dwarfs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Super-Earth" title="Super-Earth">Super-Earth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mini-Neptune" title="Mini-Neptune">Mini-Neptune</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helium_planet" title="Helium planet">Helium planet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gas_dwarf" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas dwarf">Gas dwarf</a></div> <p>If a planet has a radius and/or mass between that of Earth and Neptune, then there is a question about whether the planet is rocky like Earth, a mixture of volatiles and gas like Neptune, a small planet with a hydrogen/helium envelope (mini-Jupiter), or of some other composition. </p><p>Some of the Kepler transiting planets with radii in the range of 1–4 Earth radii have had their masses measured by radial-velocity or transit-timing methods. The calculated densities show that up to 1.5 Earth radii, these planets are rocky and that density increases with increasing radius due to gravitational compression. However, between 1.5 and 4 Earth radii the density decreases with increasing radius. This indicates that above 1.5 Earth radii, planets tend to have increasing amounts of volatiles and gas. Despite this general trend, there is a wide range of masses at a given radius, which could be because gas planets can have rocky cores of different masses and compositions,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and could also be due to <a href="/wiki/Photoevaporation" title="Photoevaporation">photoevaporation</a> of volatiles.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thermal evolutionary atmosphere models suggest a radius of 1.75 times that of Earth as a dividing line between rocky and gaseous planets.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excluding close-in planets that have lost their gas envelope due to stellar irradiation, studies of the <a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metallicity</a> of stars suggest a dividing line of 1.7 Earth radii between rocky planets and gas dwarfs, then another dividing line at 3.9 Earth radii between gas dwarfs and gas giants. These dividing lines are statistical trends and do not apply universally, because there are many other factors besides metallicity that affect planet formation, including distance from star – there may be larger rocky planets that formed at larger distances.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An independent reanalysis of the data suggests that there are no such dividing lines and that there is a continuum of planet formation between 1 and 4 Earth radii and no reason to suspect that the amount of solid material in a protoplanetary disk determines whether super-Earths or mini-Neptunes form.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies done in 2016 based on over 300 planets suggest that most objects over approximately two Earth masses collect significant hydrogen–helium envelopes, meaning rocky super-Earths may be rare.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The discovery of the low-density Earth-mass planet <a href="/wiki/Kepler-138" title="Kepler-138">Kepler-138d</a> shows that there is an overlapping range of <i>masses</i> in which both rocky planets and low-density planets occur.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A low-mass low-density planets could be an <a href="/wiki/Ocean_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean planet">ocean planet</a> or <a href="/wiki/Super-Earth" title="Super-Earth">super-Earth</a> with a remnant hydrogen atmosphere, or a hot planet with a steam atmosphere, or a mini-Neptune with a hydrogen–helium atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another possibility for a low-mass low-density planet is that it has a large atmosphere made up chiefly of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Massive_solid_planets">Massive solid planets <span class="anchor" id="Massive_solid_planets"></span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Massive solid planets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-10_c.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Size comparison of Kepler-10c with Earth and Neptune" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-10_c.png/300px-Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-10_c.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-10_c.png/450px-Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-10_c.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-10_c.png/600px-Exoplanet_Comparison_Kepler-10_c.png 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Size comparison of <a href="/wiki/Kepler-10c" title="Kepler-10c">Kepler-10c</a> with Earth and Neptune</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2014, new measurements of <a href="/wiki/Kepler-10c" title="Kepler-10c">Kepler-10c</a> found it to be a Neptune-mass planet (17 Earth masses) with a density higher than Earth's, indicating that Kepler-10c is composed mostly of rock with possibly up to 20% high-pressure water ice but without a hydrogen-dominated envelope. Because this is well above the 10-Earth-mass upper limit that is commonly used for the term 'super-Earth', the term <b><a href="/wiki/Mega-Earth" title="Mega-Earth">mega-Earth</a></b> has been coined.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similarly massive and dense planet could be <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kepler-131b&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kepler-131b (page does not exist)">Kepler-131b</a>, although its density is not as well measured as that of Kepler 10c. The next most massive known solid planets are half this mass: <a href="/wiki/55_Cancri_e" title="55 Cancri e">55 Cancri e</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kepler-20b" title="Kepler-20b">Kepler-20b</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gas planets can have large solid cores. The Saturn-mass planet <a href="/wiki/HD_149026_b" title="HD 149026 b">HD 149026 b</a> has only two-thirds of Saturn's radius, so it may have a rock–ice core of 60 Earth masses or more.<sup id="cite_ref-whatbasribrown_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatbasribrown-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/CoRoT-20b" title="CoRoT-20b">CoRoT-20b</a> has 4.24 times Jupiter's mass but a radius of only 0.84 that of Jupiter; it may have a metal core of 800 Earth masses if the heavy elements are concentrated in the core, or a core of 300 Earth masses if the heavy elements are more distributed throughout the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Transit-timing_variation" title="Transit-timing variation">Transit-timing variation</a> measurements indicate that Kepler-52b, Kepler-52c and Kepler-57b have maximum masses between 30 and 100 times that of Earth, although the actual masses could be much lower. With radii about 2 Earth radii<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in size, they might have densities larger than that of an <a href="/wiki/Iron_planet" title="Iron planet">iron planet</a> of the same size. They orbit very close to their stars, so they could each be the remnant core (<a href="/wiki/Chthonian_planet" title="Chthonian planet">chthonian planet</a>) of an evaporated <a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">gas giant</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">brown dwarf</a>. If a remnant core is massive enough it could remain in such a state for billions of years despite having lost the atmospheric mass.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Solid planets up to thousands of Earth masses may be able to form around massive stars (<a href="/wiki/B-type_main-sequence_star" title="B-type main-sequence star">B-type</a> and <a href="/wiki/O-type_main-sequence_star" title="O-type main-sequence star">O-type</a> stars; 5–120 solar masses), where the <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a> would contain enough heavy elements. Also, these stars have high <a href="/wiki/UV_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="UV radiation">UV radiation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">winds</a> that could <a href="/wiki/Photoevaporation" title="Photoevaporation">photoevaporate</a> the gas in the disk, leaving just the heavy elements.<sup id="cite_ref-mass/radius_sold_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mass/radius_sold-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For comparison, Neptune's mass equals 17 Earth masses, Jupiter has 318 Earth masses, and the 13-Jupiter-mass limit used in the <a href="/wiki/IAU" class="mw-redirect" title="IAU">IAU</a>'s working definition of an exoplanet equals approximately 4000 Earth masses.<sup id="cite_ref-mass/radius_sold_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mass/radius_sold-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cold planets have a maximum radius because adding more mass at that point causes the planet to compress under the weight instead of increasing the radius. The maximum radius for solid planets is lower than the maximum radius for gas planets.<sup id="cite_ref-mass/radius_sold_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mass/radius_sold-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shape">Shape</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Shape"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the size of a planet is described using its radius, this is approximating the shape by a sphere. However, the rotation of a planet causes it to be flattened at the poles; so the equatorial radius is larger than the polar radius, making it closer to an <a href="/wiki/Oblate_spheroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Oblate spheroid">oblate spheroid</a>. The oblateness of <a href="/wiki/Transit_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Transit method">transiting</a> exoplanets will affect the transit light curves. At the limits of current technology it has been possible to show that <a href="/wiki/HD_189733b" class="mw-redirect" title="HD 189733b">HD 189733b</a> is less oblate than <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CarterWinn_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarterWinn-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the planet is close to its star, then gravitational tides will elongate the planet in the direction of the star, making the planet closer to a <a href="/wiki/Triaxial_ellipsoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Triaxial ellipsoid">triaxial ellipsoid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because tidal deformation is along a line between the planet and the star, it is difficult to detect from transit photometry; it will have an effect on the transit light curves an order of magnitude less than that caused by rotational deformation even in cases where tidal deformation is larger than rotational deformation (as is the case for tidally locked <a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">hot Jupiters</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-CarterWinn_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarterWinn-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Material rigidity of rocky planets and rocky cores of gas planets will cause further deviations from the aforementioned shapes.<sup id="cite_ref-CarterWinn_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarterWinn-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thermal tides caused by unevenly irradiated surfaces are another factor.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detecting_Earth_from_distant_star-based_systems" title="Detecting Earth from distant star-based systems">Detecting Earth from distant star-based systems</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-density-radius-diagrams-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-density-radius-diagrams_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Data from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu">NASA catalog July 2014</a>, excluding objects described as having unphysically high density</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free 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"Empirical Constraints on the Oblateness of an Exoplanet". <i>The Astrophysical Journal</i>. <b>709</b> (2): 1219–1229. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0912.1594">0912.1594</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ApJ...709.1219C">2010ApJ...709.1219C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F709%2F2%2F1219">10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/1219</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73583633">73583633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Empirical+Constraints+on+the+Oblateness+of+an+Exoplanet&rft.volume=709&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1219-1229&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0912.1594&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73583633%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F709%2F2%2F1219&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010ApJ...709.1219C&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft.au=Winn%2C+J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExoplanet+orbital+and+physical+parameters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeconteLaiChabrier2011" class="citation journal cs1">Leconte, J.; Lai, D.; Chabrier, G. 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"Thermal Tides in Short Period Exoplanets". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0901.0735">0901.0735</a></span> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/astro-ph.EP">astro-ph.EP</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Thermal+Tides+in+Short+Period+Exoplanets&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0901.0735&rft.aulast=Arras&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft.au=Socrates%2C+Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExoplanet+orbital+and+physical+parameters" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Exoplanet_orbital_and_physical_parameters&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.stsci.edu/kepler/"><i>Kepler</i> public data archive</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Space_Telescope_Science_Institute" title="Space Telescope Science Institute">Space Telescope Science Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mso.anu.edu.au/saga/">Strömgren Survey for Asteroseismology and Galactic Archaeology</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">Exoplanet</a> catalogs and databases</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exoplanet.eu/home/">Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Observatory" title="Paris Observatory">Paris Observatory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phl.upr.edu/projects/habitable-exoplanets-catalog">The Habitable Exoplanets Catalog</a> by <a href="/wiki/University_of_Puerto_Rico_at_Arecibo" title="University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo">UPR Arecibo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/newworldsatlas">New Worlds Atlas</a> by the NASA/JPL PlanetQuest</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Exoplanet"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Exoplanets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Exoplanets</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Definition_of_planet" title="Definition of planet">Definition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IAU_definition_of_planet" title="IAU definition of planet">IAU</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">Exoplanet</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Methods of detecting exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet-hosting_star" title="Planet-hosting star">Planet-hosting stars</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/PDS_70" title="PDS 70"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PDS_70.jpg/100px-PDS_70.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PDS_70.jpg/150px-PDS_70.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/PDS_70.jpg/200px-PDS_70.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1692" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Sizes<br />and <br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_planet_types" title="List of planet types">types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_planet" title="Terrestrial planet">Terrestrial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_planet" title="Carbon planet">Carbon planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coreless_planet" title="Coreless planet">Coreless planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_planet" title="Desert planet">Desert planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">Dwarf planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hycean_planet" title="Hycean planet">Hycean planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_planet" title="Ice planet">Ice planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_planet" title="Iron planet">Iron planet</a> (Super-Mercury)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_planet" title="Lava planet">Lava planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_world" title="Ocean world">Ocean world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mega-Earth" title="Mega-Earth">Mega-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Earth" title="Sub-Earth">Sub-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Earth" title="Super-Earth">Super-Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">Gaseous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eccentric_Jupiter" title="Eccentric Jupiter">Eccentric Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini-Neptune" title="Mini-Neptune">Mini-Neptune</a> (Gas dwarf)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_planet" title="Helium planet">Helium planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_Jupiter" title="Hot Jupiter">Hot Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_Neptune" title="Hot Neptune">Hot Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_giant" title="Gas giant">Gas giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_giant" title="Ice giant">Ice giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Jupiter" title="Super-Jupiter">Super-Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Neptune" title="Super-Neptune">Super-Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-puff" title="Super-puff">Super-puff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-hot_Jupiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-hot Jupiter">Ultra-hot Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-hot_Neptune" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-hot Neptune">Ultra-hot Neptune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Other types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blanet" title="Blanet">Blanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">Brown dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chthonian_planet" title="Chthonian planet">Chthonian planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumbinary_planet" title="Circumbinary planet">Circumbinary planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumtriple_planet" title="Circumtriple planet">Circumtriple planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disrupted_planet" title="Disrupted planet">Disrupted planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_planet" title="Double planet">Double planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenopolis" title="Ecumenopolis">Ecumenopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyeball_planet" title="Eyeball planet">Eyeball planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">Giant planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoplanet" title="Mesoplanet">Mesoplanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary-mass_object" title="Planetary-mass object">Planemo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf#Low-mass_brown_dwarfs_versus_high-mass_planets" title="Brown dwarf">Planet/Brown dwarf boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanet" title="Protoplanet">Protoplanet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_planet" title="Pulsar planet">Pulsar planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-brown_dwarf" title="Sub-brown dwarf">Sub-brown dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Neptune" title="Sub-Neptune">Sub-Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toroidal_planet" title="Toroidal planet">Toroidal planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-cool_dwarf" title="Ultra-cool dwarf">Ultra-cool dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-short_period_planet" title="Ultra-short period planet">Ultra-short period planet (USP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Formation <br />and <br />evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">Asteroid belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumplanetary_disk" title="Circumplanetary disk">Circumplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">Circumstellar disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_disk" title="Debris disk">Debris disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detached_object" title="Detached object">Detached object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disrupted_planet" title="Disrupted planet">Disrupted planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk#Excretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Excretion disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exozodiacal_dust" title="Exozodiacal dust">Exozodiacal dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_materials" title="Extraterrestrial materials">Extraterrestrial materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_sample_curation" title="Extraterrestrial sample curation">Extraterrestrial sample curation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">Giant-impact hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">Gravitational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hills_cloud" title="Hills cloud">Hills cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_interiors" title="Exoplanet interiors">Internal structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_dust_cloud" title="Interplanetary dust cloud">Interplanetary dust cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">Interplanetary space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_cloud" title="Interstellar cloud">Interstellar cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar dust">Interstellar dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">Interstellar medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space#Interstellar_space" title="Outer space">Interstellar space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuiper_belt" title="Kuiper belt">Kuiper belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules" title="List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules">List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_collision#Formation_of_planets" title="Stellar collision">Merging stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oort_cloud" title="Oort cloud">Oort cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">Outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_migration" title="Planetary migration">Planetary migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">Planetesimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis#Formation_of_planets" title="Nebular hypothesis">Planet formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_pile" title="Rubble pile">Rubble pile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sample-return_mission" title="Sample-return mission">Sample-return mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scattered_disc" title="Scattered disc">Scattered disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Star formation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exocomet" title="Exocomet">Exocomet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar comet">Interstellar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exomoon" title="Exomoon">Exomoon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tidally_detached_exomoon" title="Tidally detached exomoon">Tidally detached</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_planet" title="Rogue planet">Rogue planet</a></li> <li>Orbits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_and_prograde_motion#Exoplanets" title="Retrograde and prograde motion">Retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-orbital_configuration#Trojans" title="Co-orbital configuration">Trojan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_resonance#Mean-motion_resonances_among_extrasolar_planets" title="Orbital resonance">Mean-motion resonances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titius%E2%80%93Bode_law#Lunar_systems_and_other_planetary_systems" title="Titius–Bode law">Titius–Bode law</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system#Planet-hosting_stars" title="Planetary system">Host stars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="A-type main-sequence star">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="B-type main-sequence star">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_star#Planets" title="Binary star">Binary star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf#Planets_around_brown_dwarfs" title="Brown dwarf">Brown dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="F-type main-sequence star">F/Yellow-white dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="G-type main-sequence star">G/Yellow dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig_Ae/Be_star#Planets" title="Herbig Ae/Be star">Herbig Ae/Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star#Planets" title="K-type main-sequence star">K/Orange dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf#Planets" title="Red dwarf">M/Red dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_planet" title="Pulsar planet">Pulsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_giant#Planets" title="Red giant">Red giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_B_star#Planetary_systems" title="Subdwarf B star">Subdwarf B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgiant#Planets" title="Subgiant">Subgiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star#Planets" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf#Debris_disks_and_planets" title="White dwarf">White dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_giant#Planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow giant">Yellow giants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Detection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrometry" title="Astrometry">Astrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets#Direct_imaging" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Direct imaging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_directly_imaged_exoplanets" title="List of directly imaged exoplanets">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_microlensing" title="Gravitational microlensing">Microlensing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_detected_by_microlensing" title="List of exoplanets detected by microlensing">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarimetry" title="Polarimetry">Polarimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets#Pulsar_timing" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Timing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_detected_by_timing" title="List of exoplanets detected by timing">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doppler_spectroscopy" title="Doppler spectroscopy">Radial velocity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_detected_by_radial_velocity" title="List of exoplanets detected by radial velocity">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets#Transit_photometry" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Transit method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transiting_exoplanets" title="List of transiting exoplanets">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit-timing_variation" title="Transit-timing variation">Transit-timing variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">Habitability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrooceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrooceanography">Astrooceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">Circumstellar habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_habitable_zone" title="Galactic habitable zone">Galactic habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_binary_star_systems" title="Habitability of binary star systems">Habitability of binary star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_F-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_K-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_natural_satellites" title="Habitability of natural satellites">Habitability of natural satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_neutron_star_systems" title="Habitability of neutron star systems">Habitability of neutron star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_red_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of red dwarf systems">Habitability of red dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of yellow dwarf systems">Habitability of yellow dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitable_zone_for_complex_life" title="Habitable zone for complex life">Habitable zone for complex life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">List of potentially habitable exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholin" title="Tholin">Tholin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhabitable_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Superhabitable planet">Superhabitable planet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Catalogues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalog_of_Nearby_Habitable_Systems" title="Catalog of Nearby Habitable Systems">Nearby Habitable Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_Data_Explorer" title="Exoplanet Data Explorer">Exoplanet Data Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_Planets_Encyclopaedia" title="Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia">Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Exoplanet_Archive" title="NASA Exoplanet Archive">NASA Exoplanet Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Star_and_Exoplanet_Database" title="NASA Star and Exoplanet Database">NASA Star and Exoplanet Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Exoplanet_Catalogue" title="Open Exoplanet Catalogue">Open Exoplanet Catalogue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_planets" title="Lists of planets">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Exoplanetary systems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanetary_host_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of exoplanetary host stars">Host stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiplanetary_systems" title="List of multiplanetary systems">Multiplanetary systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stars_with_proplyds" title="List of stars with proplyds">Stars with proto-planetary discs</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_exoplanets" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of exoplanets">Exoplanets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discoveries_of_exoplanets" title="Discoveries of exoplanets">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanet_extremes" title="List of exoplanet extremes">Extremes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanet_firsts" title="List of exoplanet firsts">Firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_exoplanets" title="List of nearest exoplanets">Nearest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_exoplanets" title="List of largest exoplanets">Largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_exoplanets" class="mw-redirect" title="List of most massive exoplanets">Heaviest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_terrestrial_exoplanet_candidates" title="List of nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates">Terrestrial candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope">Kepler</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_1%E2%80%93500" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 1–500">1–500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_501%E2%80%931000" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 501–1000">501–1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_1001%E2%80%931500" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 1001–1500">1001–1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope:_1501%E2%80%932000" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope: 1501–2000">1501–2000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_observed_during_Kepler%27s_K2_mission" title="List of exoplanets observed during Kepler's K2 mission">K2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">Potentially habitable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proper_names_of_exoplanets" title="List of proper names of exoplanets">Proper names</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Discovered exoplanets by year <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_before_2000" title="List of exoplanets discovered before 2000">before 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_between_2000%E2%80%932009" title="List of exoplanets discovered between 2000–2009">2000–2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2010" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2010">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2011" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2012" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2012">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2013" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2014" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2014">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2015" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2015">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2016" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2017" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2017">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2018" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2018">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2019" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2020" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2020">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2021" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2021">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2022" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2022">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2023" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2023">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_in_2024" title="List of exoplanets discovered in 2024">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan_Institute" title="Carl Sagan Institute">Carl Sagan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet_naming_convention" title="Exoplanet naming convention">Exoplanet naming convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_curve_(astronomy)#Exoplanets" title="Phase curve (astronomy)">Exoplanet phase curves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetary_Circumstellar_Environments_and_Disk_Explorer" title="Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer">Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extragalactic_planet" title="Extragalactic planet">Extragalactic planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planets_in_fiction" title="Extrasolar planets in fiction">Extrasolar planets in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics_of_terrestrial_exoplanets" title="Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets">Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptunian_desert" title="Neptunian desert">Neptunian desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_for_Exoplanet_System_Science" title="Nexus for Exoplanet System Science">Nexus for Exoplanet System Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster#Planets" title="Globular cluster">Planets in globular clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_planet_radius_gap" title="Small planet radius gap">Small planet radius gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudarsky%27s_gas_giant_classification" title="Sudarsky's gas giant classification">Sudarsky's gas giant classification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discoveries_of_exoplanets" title="Discoveries of exoplanets">Discoveries of exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanet_search_projects" title="List of exoplanet search projects">Search projects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Exoplanet_search_projects" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Exoplanet_search_projects" title="Template:Exoplanet search projects"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Exoplanet_search_projects" title="Template talk:Exoplanet search projects"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Exoplanet_search_projects" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Exoplanet search projects"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Exoplanet_search_projects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanet_search_projects" title="List of exoplanet search projects">Exoplanet search projects</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetology" class="mw-redirect" title="Exoplanetology">Exoplanetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanet" title="Exoplanet">Exoplanet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ground-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Australian_Planet_Search" title="Anglo-Australian Planet Search">AAPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_Planet_Finder" title="Automated Planet Finder">APF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_1.2-metre_Leonhard_Euler_Telescope" title="Swiss 1.2-metre Leonhard Euler Telescope">CORALIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East-Asian_Planet_Search_Network" title="East-Asian Planet Search Network">EAPSNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ELODIE_spectrograph" title="ELODIE spectrograph">ELODIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremely_Large_Telescope#Instrumentation" title="Extremely Large Telescope">EPICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ESPRESSO" title="ESPRESSO">ESPRESSO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_Improved_Next-generation_Doppler_Search_for_Exo-Earths" title="Fiber-optic Improved Next-generation Doppler Search for Exo-Earths">FINDS Exo-Earths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Extrasolar_Planet_Search" title="Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search">Geneva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Accuracy_Radial_Velocity_Planet_Searcher" title="High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher">HARPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HARPS-N" title="HARPS-N">HARPS-N</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemini_Planet_Imager" title="Gemini Planet Imager">GPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HATNet_Project" title="HATNet Project">HATNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_for_Exomoons_with_Kepler" title="Hunt for Exomoons with Kepler">HEK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HiCIAO" class="mw-redirect" title="HiCIAO">HiCIAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIRES" class="mw-redirect" title="HIRES">HIRES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilodegree_Extremely_Little_Telescope" title="Kilodegree Extremely Little Telescope">KELT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lick%E2%80%93Carnegie_Exoplanet_Survey" title="Lick–Carnegie Exoplanet Survey">LCES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magellan_Planet_Search_Program" title="Magellan Planet Search Program">Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MARVELS" class="mw-redirect" title="MARVELS">MARVELS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MASCARA" title="MASCARA">MASCARA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MEarth_Project" title="MEarth Project">MEarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroFUN" title="MicroFUN">MicroFUN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_Exoplanet_Radial_Velocity_Array" title="Miniature Exoplanet Radial Velocity Array">MINERVA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MINERVA-Australis" title="MINERVA-Australis">Australis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlensing_Observations_in_Astrophysics" title="Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics">MOA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N2K_Consortium" title="N2K Consortium">N2K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-Generation_Transit_Survey" title="Next-Generation Transit Survey">NGTS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Exoplanet_Spectroscopic_Survey_Instrument" title="New Mexico Exoplanet Spectroscopic Survey Instrument">NESSI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_Gravitational_Lensing_Experiment" title="Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment">OGLE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okayama_Planet_Search_Program" title="Okayama Planet Search Program">OPSP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PlanetPol" title="PlanetPol">PlanetPol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_1640" title="Project 1640">Project 1640</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRL_Advanced_Radial-velocity_All-sky_Search" title="PRL Advanced Radial-velocity All-sky Search">PARAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Explorations_of_Exoplanets_and_Disks_with_Subaru" title="Strategic Explorations of Exoplanets and Disks with Subaru">SEEDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Search for extraterrestrial intelligence">SETI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOPHIE_%C3%A9chelle_spectrograph" title="SOPHIE échelle spectrograph">SOPHIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPECULOOS" title="SPECULOOS">SPECULOOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectro-Polarimetric_High-Contrast_Exoplanet_Research" title="Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research">SPHERE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_Angle_Search_for_Planets" title="Wide Angle Search for Planets">SuperWASP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_(amateur_extrasolar_planet_search_project)" title="Systemic (amateur extrasolar planet search project)">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Atlantic_Exoplanet_Survey" title="Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey">TrES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_Telescope" class="mw-redirect" title="XO Telescope">XO Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZIMPOL/CHEOPS" title="ZIMPOL/CHEOPS">ZIMPOL/CHEOPS</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HST_SWEEPS_Detail_2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/HST_SWEEPS_Detail_2006.jpg/80px-HST_SWEEPS_Detail_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/HST_SWEEPS_Detail_2006.jpg/120px-HST_SWEEPS_Detail_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/HST_SWEEPS_Detail_2006.jpg/160px-HST_SWEEPS_Detail_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Keplerspacecraft-FocalPlane-cutout.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Keplerspacecraft-FocalPlane-cutout.svg/80px-Keplerspacecraft-FocalPlane-cutout.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Keplerspacecraft-FocalPlane-cutout.svg/120px-Keplerspacecraft-FocalPlane-cutout.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Keplerspacecraft-FocalPlane-cutout.svg/160px-Keplerspacecraft-FocalPlane-cutout.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="416" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LombergA1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/LombergA1024.jpg/80px-LombergA1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/LombergA1024.jpg/120px-LombergA1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/LombergA1024.jpg/160px-LombergA1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1596" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Space missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MOST_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="MOST (satellite)">MOST</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2003–2019)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_Window_Eclipsing_Extrasolar_Planet_Search" title="Sagittarius Window Eclipsing Extrasolar Planet Search">SWEEPS</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">using <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">HST</a></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2006)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CoRoT" title="CoRoT">CoRoT</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2006–2013)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPOXI" title="EPOXI">EPOXI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">using <i><a href="/wiki/Deep_Impact_(spacecraft)" title="Deep Impact (spacecraft)">Deep Impact</a></i></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2008–2013)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepler_space_telescope" title="Kepler space telescope">Kepler</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009–2018)</span> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_exoplanets_discovered_by_the_Kepler_space_telescope" title="List of exoplanets discovered by the Kepler space telescope">detected exoplanets</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASTERIA_(spacecraft)" title="ASTERIA (spacecraft)">ASTERIA</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017–2020)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaia_(spacecraft)" title="Gaia (spacecraft)">Gaia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2013–present)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transiting_Exoplanet_Survey_Satellite" title="Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite">TESS</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2018–present)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CHEOPS" title="CHEOPS">CHEOPS</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2019–present)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hayabusa2" title="Hayabusa2">Hayabusa2</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2021–present)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2021–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/PLATO_(spacecraft)" title="PLATO (spacecraft)">PLATO</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2026)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARIEL" title="ARIEL">ARIEL</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2029)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Grace_Roman_Space_Telescope" title="Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(mid-2020s)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetary_Circumstellar_Environments_and_Disk_Explorer" title="Exoplanetary Circumstellar Environments and Disk Explorer">EXCEDE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitable_Exoplanet_Imaging_Mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission">HabEx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Interferometer_For_Exoplanets" title="Large Interferometer For Exoplanets">LIFE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Ultraviolet_Optical_Infrared_Surveyor" title="Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared Surveyor">LUVOIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Deep_Space_Observatory" title="Nautilus Deep Space Observatory">Nautilus Deep Space Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Worlds_Mission" title="New Worlds Mission">New Worlds Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_Space_Telescope" title="Origins Space Telescope">OST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PEGASE" title="PEGASE">PEGASE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cancelled</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Darwin_(spacecraft)" title="Darwin (spacecraft)">Darwin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EChO" title="EChO">EChO</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eddington_(spacecraft)" title="Eddington (spacecraft)">Eddington</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Interferometry_Mission" title="Space Interferometry Mission">Space Interferometry Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_Planet_Finder" title="Terrestrial Planet Finder">Terrestrial Planet Finder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methods_of_detecting_exoplanets" title="Methods of detecting exoplanets">Detection methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoveries_of_exoplanets" title="Discoveries of exoplanets">Discoveries of exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitable_zone_for_complex_life" title="Habitable zone for complex life">Habitable zone for complex life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_exoplanets" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of exoplanets">Lists of exoplanets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_exoplanets" title="List of nearest exoplanets">nearest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Exoplanet_search_projects" title="Category:Exoplanet search projects">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Exoplanet_search_projects" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Exoplanet search projects"><b>Commons</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astrobiology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astrobiology" title="Template:Astrobiology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astrobiology" title="Template talk:Astrobiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astrobiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astrobiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astrobiology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric sciences">Atmospheric sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exoplanetology" class="mw-redirect" title="Exoplanetology">Exoplanetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomicrobiology" title="Geomicrobiology">Geomicrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_oceanography" title="Planetary oceanography">Planetary oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Hills_84001" title="Allan Hills 84001">Allan Hills 84001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">Biomolecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosignature" title="Biosignature">Biosignature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drake_equation" title="Drake equation">Drake equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life" title="Extraterrestrial life">Extraterrestrial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_sample_curation" title="Extraterrestrial sample curation">Extraterrestrial sample curation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">Extremophiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry" title="Hypothetical types of biochemistry">Hypothetical types of biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">List of microorganisms tested in outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean planet">Ocean planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_protection" title="Planetary protection">Planetary protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_for_extraterrestrial_intelligence" title="Search for extraterrestrial intelligence">Search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_000593" title="Yamato 000593">Yamato meteorite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_habitability" title="Planetary habitability">Planetary<br />habitability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_habitable_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumstellar habitable zone">Circumstellar habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_analog" title="Earth analog">Earth analog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_habitable_zone" title="Galactic habitable zone">Galactic habitable zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_binary_star_systems" title="Habitability of binary star systems">Habitability of binary star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_natural_satellites" title="Habitability of natural satellites">Habitability of natural satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_neutron_star_systems" title="Habitability of neutron star systems">Habitability of neutron star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_red_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of red dwarf systems">Habitability of red dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_K-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of K-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_yellow_dwarf_systems" title="Habitability of yellow dwarf systems">Habitability of yellow dwarf systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitability_of_F-type_main-sequence_star_systems" title="Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems">Habitability of F-type main-sequence star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitable_zone_for_complex_life" title="Habitable zone for complex life">Habitable zone for complex life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_potentially_habitable_exoplanets" title="List of potentially habitable exoplanets">List of potentially habitable exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tholin" title="Tholin">Tholin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superhabitable_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Superhabitable planet">Superhabitable planet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Space<br /> missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Earth orbit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Flyer_Unit#Experimentation_data" title="Space Flyer Unit">BIO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_17#Biological_cosmic_ray_experiment" title="Apollo 17">BIOCORE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolab" title="Biolab">Biolab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_(satellite)" title="Bion (satellite)">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BIOPAN" title="BIOPAN">BIOPAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosatellite_program" title="Biosatellite program">Biosatellite program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_Microorganisms_in_the_Stratosphere" title="Exposing Microorganisms in the Stratosphere">E-MIST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exobiology_Radiation_Assembly" title="Exobiology Radiation Assembly">ERA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EuCROPIS" title="EuCROPIS">Eu:CROPIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Duration_Exposure_Facility#EXOSTACK" title="Long Duration Exposure Facility">EXOSTACK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EXPOSE" title="EXPOSE">EXPOSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e_4#Lunar_lander" title="Chang'e 4">Lunar Micro Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O/OREOS" title="O/OREOS">O/OREOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OREOcube" title="OREOcube">OREOcube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanpopo_(mission)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanpopo (mission)">Tanpopo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_Production_System" title="Vegetable Production System">VEGGIE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Mars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beagle_2" title="Beagle 2">Beagle 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fobos-Grunt" title="Fobos-Grunt">Fobos-Grunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)"><i>Curiosity</i> rover</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_2020" title="Mars 2020">Mars 2020</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perseverance_(rover)" title="Perseverance (rover)"><i>Perseverance</i> rover</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)" title="Phoenix (spacecraft)">Phoenix</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianwen-1" title="Tianwen-1">Tianwen-1</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhurong_(rover)" title="Zhurong (rover)"><i>Zhurong</i> rover</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_Gas_Orbiter" title="Trace Gas Orbiter">Trace Gas Orbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_lander_biological_experiments" title="Viking lander biological experiments">Viking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Comets and<br />asteroids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hayabusa2" title="Hayabusa2">Hayabusa2</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSIRIS-REx" title="OSIRIS-REx">OSIRIS-REx</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)">Rosetta</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Heliocentric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BioSentinel" title="BioSentinel">BioSentinel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dragonfly_(Titan_space_probe)" title="Dragonfly (Titan space probe)">Dragonfly</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin_(rover)" title="Rosalind Franklin (rover)"><i>Rosalind Franklin</i> rover</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Enceladus_mission" title="Breakthrough Enceladus mission">Breakthrough Enceladus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRUIE" title="BRUIE">BRUIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAESAR_(spacecraft)" title="CAESAR (spacecraft)">CAESAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Explorer" title="Enceladus Explorer">Enceladus Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Life_Finder" title="Enceladus Life Finder">Enceladus Life Finder‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Life_Signatures_and_Habitability" title="Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability">Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus_Orbilander" title="Enceladus Orbilander">Enceladus Orbilander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Lander_(NASA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Europa Lander (NASA)">Europa Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExoLance" title="ExoLance">ExoLance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_of_Enceladus_and_Titan" title="Explorer of Enceladus and Titan">Explorer of Enceladus and Titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icebreaker_Life" title="Icebreaker Life">Icebreaker Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_Enceladus_and_Titan" title="Journey to Enceladus and Titan">Journey to Enceladus and Titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laplace-P" title="Laplace-P">Laplace-P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_Investigation_For_Enceladus" title="Life Investigation For Enceladus">Life Investigation For Enceladus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_sample_return_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars sample return mission">Mars sample return mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanus_(Titan_orbiter)" title="Oceanus (Titan orbiter)">Oceanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THEO" title="THEO">THEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trident_(spacecraft)" title="Trident (spacecraft)">Trident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Cancelled and <br />undeveloped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology_Field_Laboratory" title="Astrobiology Field Laboratory">Astrobiology Field Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beagle_3" title="Beagle 3">Beagle 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_Oxidant_and_Life_Detection" title="Biological Oxidant and Life Detection">Biological Oxidant and Life Detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazachok" title="Kazachok">Kazachok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_Interplanetary_Flight_Experiment" title="Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment">Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_Astrobiology_Explorer-Cacher" title="Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher">Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MELOS" title="MELOS">MELOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Light_(spacecraft)" title="Northern Light (spacecraft)">Northern Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX_Red_Dragon" title="SpaceX Red Dragon">Red Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_Planet_Finder" title="Terrestrial Planet Finder">Terrestrial Planet Finder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Institutions<br />and programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology_Society_of_Britain" title="Astrobiology Society of Britain">Astrobiology Society of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology_Science_and_Technology_for_Exploring_Planets" title="Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets">Astrobiology Science and Technology for Exploring Planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Initiatives" title="Breakthrough Initiatives">Breakthrough Initiatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Listen" title="Breakthrough Listen">Breakthrough Listen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Message" class="mw-redirect" title="Breakthrough Message">Breakthrough Message</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_Starshot" title="Breakthrough Starshot">Breakthrough Starshot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan_Institute" title="Carl Sagan Institute">Carl Sagan Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Life_Detection_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for Life Detection Science">Center for Life Detection Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Astrobiology_Network_Association" title="European Astrobiology Network Association">European Astrobiology Network Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MERMOZ" title="MERMOZ">MERMOZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA_Astrobiology_Institute" title="NASA Astrobiology Institute">NASA Astrobiology Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_for_Exoplanet_System_Science" title="Nexus for Exoplanet System Science">Nexus for Exoplanet System Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_Worlds_Exploration_Program" title="Ocean Worlds Exploration Program">Ocean Worlds Exploration Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Astrobiology_Center" title="Spanish Astrobiology Center">Spanish Astrobiology Center‎</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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