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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wind_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Wind power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Solar power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_types_of_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_types_of_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Theoretical types of power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_types_of_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Steam_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steam_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Steam power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steam_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_as_a_craft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_as_a_craft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Technology as a craft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology_as_a_craft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engineering_and_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engineering_and_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Engineering and construction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Engineering_and_construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Engineering and construction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Engineering_and_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Building_materials_and_instruments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Building_materials_and_instruments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Building materials and instruments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Building_materials_and_instruments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Wood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Stone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Cements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cranes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cranes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Cranes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cranes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Buildings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Pantheon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Pantheon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>The Pantheon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Pantheon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hagia_Sophia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hagia_Sophia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Hagia Sophia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hagia_Sophia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waterworks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waterworks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Waterworks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waterworks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aqueducts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aqueducts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Aqueducts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aqueducts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Dams</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Sanitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_baths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_baths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Roman baths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_baths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Transportation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Roads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bridges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bridges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Bridges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bridges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Carts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Industrial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Military technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foot_soldier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foot_soldier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Foot soldier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foot_soldier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Weaponry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weaponry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Weaponry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weaponry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Armour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Tactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cavalry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cavalry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Cavalry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cavalry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Siege warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ballistas_and_onagers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballistas_and_onagers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Ballistas and onagers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballistas_and_onagers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Helepolis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Helepolis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>The Helepolis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Helepolis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_fire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_fire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Greek fire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_fire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Transportation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pontoon_bridge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pontoon_bridge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Pontoon bridge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pontoon_bridge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Medical technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medical_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medical technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medical_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Surgery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technologies_developed_or_invented_by_the_Romans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technologies_developed_or_invented_by_the_Romans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Technologies developed or invented by the Romans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technologies_developed_or_invented_by_the_Romans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Roman technology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="التقانة الرومانية القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التقانة الرومانية القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnologia_de_l%27antiga_Roma" title="Tecnologia de l'antiga Roma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tecnologia de l'antiga Roma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technik_im_R%C3%B6mischen_Reich" title="Technik im Römischen Reich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Technik im Römischen Reich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnolog%C3%ADa_de_la_Antigua_Roma" title="Tecnología de la Antigua Roma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tecnología de la Antigua Roma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologie_de_la_Rome_antique" title="Technologie de la Rome antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Technologie de la Rome antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnologija_starog_Rima" title="Tehnologija starog Rima – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tehnologija starog Rima" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologi_Romawi" title="Teknologi Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teknologi Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnologia_della_civilt%C3%A0_romana" title="Tecnologia della civiltà romana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tecnologia della civiltà romana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologia_Romana" title="Technologia Romana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Technologia Romana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnolojia_roman" title="Tecnolojia roman – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Tecnolojia roman" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Техника в Древнем Риме – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Техника в Древнем Риме" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teknologjia_n%C3%AB_Rom%C3%ABn_e_lasht%C3%AB" title="Teknologjia në Romën e lashtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Teknologjia në Romën e lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_tehnologija" title="Rimska tehnologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimska tehnologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnologija_starog_Rima" title="Tehnologija starog Rima – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tehnologija starog Rima" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Technological accomplishments of the ancient Roman civilization</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/260px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/390px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg/520px-Pont_du_Gard_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a> (1st century AD), over the Gardon in southern France, is one of the masterpieces of Roman technology</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Ancient Roman technology</b> is the collection of techniques, skills, methods, processes, and engineering practices which supported <a href="/wiki/Roman_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman civilization">Roman civilization</a> and made possible the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">military</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> (753 BC – 476 AD). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was one of the most technologically advanced civilizations of antiquity, with some of the more advanced concepts and inventions forgotten during the turbulent eras of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early Middle Ages</a>. Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Era">Modern Era</a>; with some in areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and certain inventions such as the <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_reaper" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical reaper">mechanical reaper</a>, not improved upon until the 19th century. The Romans achieved high levels of technology in large part because they borrowed technologies from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a>, and others. </p><p>With limited sources of power, the Romans managed to build impressive structures, some of which survive to this day. The durability of Roman structures, such as roads, dams, and buildings, is accounted for in the building techniques and practices they utilized in their construction projects. Rome and its surrounding area contained various types of volcanic materials, which Romans experimented with in the creation of building materials, particularly cements and mortars.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">concrete</a>, the Romans used stone, wood, and marble as building materials. They used these materials to construct civil engineering projects for their cities and transportation devices for land and sea travel. </p><p>Warfare was an essential aspect of Roman society and culture. The military was not only used for territorial acquisition and defense, but also as a tool for civilian administrators to use to help staff provincial governments and assist in construction projects.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans adopted, improved, and developed <a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">military technologies</a> for foot soldiers, cavalry, and siege weapons for land and sea environments. </p><p>In addition to military engineering, the Romans also made significant contributions to <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Rome" title="Medicine in ancient Rome">medical technologies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_power">Types of power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types of power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_power">Human power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Human power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most readily available sources of power to the ancients were human power and animal power. Mechanical devices were developed to assist in the manipulation of objects which exceeded human strength - one such device being the <a href="/wiki/Windlass" title="Windlass">windlass</a> which used ropes and pulleys to manipulate objects. The device was powered by multiple people pushing or pulling on <a href="/wiki/Handspike" title="Handspike">handspikes</a> attached to a cylinder. </p><p>Human power was also a factor in the movement of ships, particularly warships. Though wind-powered sails were the dominant form of power in <a href="/wiki/Water_transportation" title="Water transportation">water transportation</a>, rowing was often used by military craft during battle engagements.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_power">Animal power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Animal power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary usage of animal power was for transportation. Several species of animals were used for differing tasks. Being strong and cheap to maintain, oxen were used to farm and transport large masses of goods. If speed was desired, horses were utilized. The main environment which called for speed was the battlefield, with horses being used in the cavalry and scouting parties. For carriages carrying passengers or light materials donkeys or mules were generally used, as they were faster than oxen and cheaper on fodder than horses. Other than being used as a means of transportation, animals were also employed in the operation of rotary mills. Beyond the confines of the land, a schematic for a ship propelled by animals has been discovered. The work known as Anonymous <i><a href="/wiki/De_rebus_bellicis" title="De rebus bellicis">De rebus bellicis</a></i> describes a ship powered by oxen. Wherein oxen are attached to a rotary, moving in a circle on a deck floor, spinning two paddle wheels, one on either side of the ship. The likelihood that such a ship was ever built is low, due to the impracticality of controlling animals on a watercraft.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_power">Water power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Water power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overshot_water_wheel_schematic_ml.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Overshot_water_wheel_schematic_ml.svg/220px-Overshot_water_wheel_schematic_ml.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Overshot_water_wheel_schematic_ml.svg/330px-Overshot_water_wheel_schematic_ml.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Overshot_water_wheel_schematic_ml.svg/440px-Overshot_water_wheel_schematic_ml.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="661" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of an Overshot water wheel</figcaption></figure> <p>Power from water was generated through the use of a <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</a>. A water wheel had two general designs: the undershot and the overshot. The undershot water wheel generated power from the natural flow of a running water source pushing upon the wheel's submerged paddles. The overshot water wheel generated power by having water flow over its buckets from above. This was usually achieved by building an aqueduct above the wheel. Although it is possible to make the overshot water wheel 70 percent more efficient than the undershot, the undershot was generally the preferred water wheel. The reason being the economic cost to building an aqueduct was too high for the mild benefit of having the water wheel turn faster. The primary purpose of water wheels was to generate power for milling operations and to raise water above a system's natural height. Evidence also exists that water wheels were used to power the operation of saws, though only scant descriptions of such devices remain.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wind_power">Wind power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wind power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wind power was used in the operation of watercraft, through the use of sails. Windmills do not appear to have been created in ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_power">Solar power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Solar power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Romans used the Sun as a <a href="/wiki/Passive_solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive solar">passive solar</a> heat source for buildings, such as bath houses. Thermae were built with large windows facing southwest, the location of the Sun at the hottest time of day.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_types_of_power">Theoretical types of power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Theoretical types of power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Steam_power">Steam power</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Steam power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hero%27s_Aeolipile,_1st_century_AD,_Alexandria_(reconstruction).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Hero%27s_Aeolipile%2C_1st_century_AD%2C_Alexandria_%28reconstruction%29.jpg/220px-Hero%27s_Aeolipile%2C_1st_century_AD%2C_Alexandria_%28reconstruction%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Hero%27s_Aeolipile%2C_1st_century_AD%2C_Alexandria_%28reconstruction%29.jpg/330px-Hero%27s_Aeolipile%2C_1st_century_AD%2C_Alexandria_%28reconstruction%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Hero%27s_Aeolipile%2C_1st_century_AD%2C_Alexandria_%28reconstruction%29.jpg/440px-Hero%27s_Aeolipile%2C_1st_century_AD%2C_Alexandria_%28reconstruction%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2571" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of Hero of Alexandria's steam machine the Aeolipile, 1st century CE</figcaption></figure> <p>The generation of power through steam remained theoretical in the Roman world. <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a> published schematics of a steam device that rotated a ball on a pivot. The device used heat from a cauldron to push steam through a system of tubes towards the ball. The device produced roughly 1500 rpm but would never be practical on an industrial scale as the labour requirements to operate, fuel and maintain the heat of the device would have come at too great a cost.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_as_a_craft">Technology as a craft</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Technology as a craft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roman technology was largely based on a system of crafts. Technical skills and knowledge were contained within the particular trade, such as stonemasons. In this sense, knowledge was generally passed down from a tradesman master to a tradesman apprentice. Since there are only a few sources from which to draw upon for technical information, it is theorized that tradesmen kept their knowledge a secret. <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a> are among the few writers who have published technical information about Roman technology.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a corpus of manuals on basic mathematics and science such as the many books by <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ctesibius" title="Ctesibius">Ctesibius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Heron (a.k.a. Hero of Alexandria)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and so on. Not all of the manuals which were available to the Romans have survived, as <a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">lost works</a> illustrate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Engineering_and_construction">Engineering and construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Engineering and construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman architecture">Roman architecture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">Roman engineering</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Building_materials_and_instruments">Building materials and instruments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Building materials and instruments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roemerkran_(Retusche).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Roemerkran_%28Retusche%29.jpg/220px-Roemerkran_%28Retusche%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Roemerkran_%28Retusche%29.jpg/330px-Roemerkran_%28Retusche%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Roemerkran_%28Retusche%29.jpg/440px-Roemerkran_%28Retusche%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a 10.4-metre-high Roman <a href="/wiki/Treadwheel_crane" title="Treadwheel crane">construction crane</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wood">Wood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Wood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Romans created fireproof wood by coating the wood with <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stone">Stone</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was ideal to mine stones from quarries that were situated as close to the site of construction as possible, to reduce the cost of transportation. Stone blocks were formed in quarries by punching holes in lines at the desired lengths and widths. Then, wooden wedges were hammered into the holes. The holes were then filled with water so that the wedges would swell with enough force to cut the stone block out of the Earth. Blocks with the dimensions of 23yds by 14 ft by 15 ft have been found, with weights of about 1000 tons. There is evidence that saws were developed to cut stone in the Imperial age. Initially, Romans used saws powered by hand to cut stone, but later went on to develop stone cutting saws powered by water.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cements">Cements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ratio of the mixture of Roman lime mortars depended upon where the sand for the mixture was acquired. For sand gathered at a river or sea, the mixture ratio was two parts sand, one part lime, and one part powdered shells. For sand gathered further inland, the mixture was three parts sand and one part lime. The lime for mortars was prepared in limekilns, which were underground pits designed to block out the wind.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another type of Roman mortar is known as <a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">pozzolana</a> mortar. Pozzolana is a volcanic clay substance located in and around Naples. The mixture ratio for the cement was two parts pozzolana and one part lime mortar. Due to its composition, pozzolana cement was able to form in water and has been found to be as hard as natural forming rock.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cranes">Cranes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cranes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_crane" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman crane">Cranes</a> were used for construction work and possibly to load and unload ships at their ports, although for the latter use there is according to the "present state of knowledge" still no evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most cranes were capable of lifting about 6–7 tons of cargo, and according to a relief shown on <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a> were worked by <a href="/wiki/Treadwheel" title="Treadwheel">treadwheel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buildings">Buildings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Buildings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oculus,_Dome,_Pantheon_(46505085211).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Oculus%2C_Dome%2C_Pantheon_%2846505085211%29.jpg/220px-Oculus%2C_Dome%2C_Pantheon_%2846505085211%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Oculus%2C_Dome%2C_Pantheon_%2846505085211%29.jpg/330px-Oculus%2C_Dome%2C_Pantheon_%2846505085211%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Oculus%2C_Dome%2C_Pantheon_%2846505085211%29.jpg/440px-Oculus%2C_Dome%2C_Pantheon_%2846505085211%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>The dome of the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>, constructed 113–125 AD</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Pantheon">The Pantheon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Pantheon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/The_Pantheon" class="mw-redirect" title="The Pantheon">The Pantheon</a></div><p>The Romans designed the Pantheon thinking about the concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection. The Romans incorporated these mathematical concepts into their public works projects. For instance, the concept of perfect numbers was used in the design of the Pantheon by embedding 28 coffers into the dome. A perfect number is a number where its factors add up to itself. So, the number 28 is considered to be a perfect number, because its factors of 1, 2, 4, 7, and 14 add together to equal 28. Perfect numbers are extremely rare, with there being only one number for each quantity of digits (one for single digits, double digits, triple digits, quadruple digits, etc.). Embodying mathematical concepts of beauty, symmetry, and perfection, into the structure conveys the technical sophistication of Roman engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a> was essential to the design of the Pantheon. The mortar used in the construction of the dome is made up of a mixture of lime and the volcanic powder known as pozzolana. The concrete is suited for use in constructing thick walls as it does not require to be completely dry to cure.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The construction of the Pantheon was a massive undertaking, requiring large quantities of resources and man-hours. Delaine estimates the amount of total manpower needed in the construction of the Pantheon to be about 400 000 man-days.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hagia_Sophia">Hagia Sophia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Hagia Sophia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Mars_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hagia_Sophia_Mars_2013.jpg/220px-Hagia_Sophia_Mars_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hagia_Sophia_Mars_2013.jpg/330px-Hagia_Sophia_Mars_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hagia_Sophia_Mars_2013.jpg/440px-Hagia_Sophia_Mars_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5514" data-file-height="3681" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, constructed 537 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the Hagia Sophia was constructed after the fall of the Western empire, its construction incorporated the building materials and techniques signature to ancient Rome. The building was constructed using <a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">pozzolana</a> mortar. Evidence for the use of the substance comes from the sagging of the structure's arches during construction, as a distinguishing feature of pozzolana mortar is the large amount of time it needs to cure. The engineers had to remove decorative walls to let the mortar cure.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pozzolana mortar used in the construction of the Hagia Sophia does not contain volcanic ash but instead crushed brick dust. The composition of the materials used in pozzolana mortar leads to increased tensile strength. A mortar composed of mostly lime has a tensile strength of roughly 30 psi whereas pozzolana mortar using crushed brick dust has a tensile strength of 500 psi. The advantage of using pozzolana mortar in the construction of the Hagia Sophia is the increase in strength of the joints. The mortar joints used in the structure are wider than one would expect in a typical brick and mortar structure. The fact of the wide mortar joints suggests the designers of the Hagia Sophia knew about the high tensile strength of the mortar and incorporated it accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waterworks">Waterworks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Waterworks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aqueducts">Aqueducts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Aqueducts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">Aqueduct (bridge)</a></div><p>The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. The city of Rome itself was supplied by <a href="/wiki/List_of_aqueducts_in_the_city_of_Rome" title="List of aqueducts in the city of Rome">eleven aqueducts</a> made of limestone that provided the city with over 1 million cubic metres of water each day, sufficient for 3.5 million people even in modern-day times,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGRST-engineering_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGRST-engineering-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrontinus_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrontinus-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Aqueduct_Segovia_2012_Spain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Roman_Aqueduct_Segovia_2012_Spain.jpg/220px-Roman_Aqueduct_Segovia_2012_Spain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Roman_Aqueduct_Segovia_2012_Spain.jpg/330px-Roman_Aqueduct_Segovia_2012_Spain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Roman_Aqueduct_Segovia_2012_Spain.jpg/440px-Roman_Aqueduct_Segovia_2012_Spain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3010" data-file-height="2128" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_of_Segovia" title="Aqueduct of Segovia">Segovia Aqueduct</a> in modern-day Spain, constructed 1st century CE</figcaption></figure> <p>Water inside the aqueducts depended entirely on gravity. The raised stone channels in which the water traveled were slightly slanted. The water was carried directly from mountain springs. After it had gone through the aqueduct, the water was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to fountains, toilets, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main aqueducts in Ancient Rome were the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Claudia" title="Aqua Claudia">Aqua Claudia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Marcia" title="Aqua Marcia">Aqua Marcia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWater_History_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWater_History-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The longest Roman aqueduct, 178 kilometres (111 mi) in length, was traditionally assumed to be that which supplied the city of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>. The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerances, and to a technological standard that was not to be equaled until modern times. Powered entirely by <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, they transported very large amounts of water very efficiently. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 metres had to be crossed, <a href="/wiki/Inverted_siphon" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverted siphon">inverted siphons</a> were used to force water uphill.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWater_History_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWater_History-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An aqueduct also supplied water for the overshot wheels at <a href="/wiki/Barbegal_aqueduct_and_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbegal aqueduct and mill">Barbegal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a>, a complex of water mills hailed as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".<sup id="cite_ref-Greene_2000_393_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greene_2000_393-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Roman aqueducts conjure images of water travelling long distances across arched bridges, however; only 5 percent of the water being transported along the aqueduct systems traveled by way of bridges. Roman engineers worked to make the routes of aqueducts as practical as possible. In practice, this meant designing aqueducts that flowed ground level or below surface level, as these were more cost effective than building bridges considering the cost of construction and maintenance for bridges was higher than that of surface and sub-surface elevations. Aqueduct bridges were often in need of repairs and spent years at a time in disuse. Water theft from the aqueducts was a frequent problem which led to difficulties in estimating the amount of water flowing through the channels.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To prevent the channels of the aqueducts from eroding, a plaster known as opus signinum was used.<sup id="cite_ref-:52_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:52-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plaster incorporated crushed terracotta in the typical Roman mortar mixture of pozzolana rock and lime.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embalse_de_Proserpina,_M%C3%A9rida_(2015).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Embalse_de_Proserpina%2C_M%C3%A9rida_%282015%29.JPG/205px-Embalse_de_Proserpina%2C_M%C3%A9rida_%282015%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="205" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Embalse_de_Proserpina%2C_M%C3%A9rida_%282015%29.JPG/308px-Embalse_de_Proserpina%2C_M%C3%A9rida_%282015%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Embalse_de_Proserpina%2C_M%C3%A9rida_%282015%29.JPG/410px-Embalse_de_Proserpina%2C_M%C3%A9rida_%282015%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Proserpina_Dam" title="Proserpina Dam">Proserpina Dam</a> was constructed during the first to second century CE and is still in use today.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dams">Dams</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Dams"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dams_and_reservoirs" title="List of Roman dams and reservoirs">List of Roman dams and reservoirs</a></div> <p>The Romans built <a href="/wiki/Dams" class="mw-redirect" title="Dams">dams</a> for water collection, such as the <a href="/wiki/Subiaco_Dams" title="Subiaco Dams">Subiaco Dams</a>, two of which fed <a href="/wiki/Anio_Novus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anio Novus">Anio Novus</a>, one of the largest aqueducts of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. They built 72 dams in just one country, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and many more are known across the Empire, some of which are still in use. At one site, Montefurado in <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>, they appear to have built a dam across the river Sil to expose alluvial gold deposits in the bed of the river. The site is near the spectacular Roman gold mine of <a href="/wiki/Las_Medulas" class="mw-redirect" title="Las Medulas">Las Medulas</a>. Several earthen dams are known from <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>, including a well-preserved example from Roman Lanchester, <a href="/wiki/Longovicium" title="Longovicium">Longovicium</a>, where it may have been used in industrial-scale <a href="/wiki/Smithing" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithing">smithing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a>, judging by the piles of slag found at this site in northern England. Tanks for holding water are also common along aqueduct systems, and numerous examples are known from just one site, the gold mines at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a> in west <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>. Masonry dams were common in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> for providing a reliable water supply from the <a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">wadis</a> behind many settlements. </p><p>The Romans built dams to store water for irrigation. They understood that spillways were necessary to prevent the erosion of earth-packed banks. In Egypt, the Romans adopted the water technology known as wadi irrigation from the <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a>. Wadis were a technique developed to capture large amounts of water produced during the seasonal floods and store it for the growing season. The Romans successfully developed the technique further for a larger scale.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sanitation">Sanitation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sanitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos,_Bath,_Inglaterra,_2014-08-12,_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG/220px-Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG/330px-Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG/440px-Ba%C3%B1os_Romanos%2C_Bath%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-12%2C_DD_39-41_HDR.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5304" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>Roman baths in the English city of Bath. A temple was initially constructed on the site in 60 CE with the bathing complex being built up over time.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Romans did not invent plumbing or toilets, but instead borrowed their waste disposal system from their neighbors, particularly the Minoans.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A waste disposal system was not a new invention, but rather had been around since 3100 BCE, when one was created in the Indus River Valley <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman public <a href="/wiki/Bathing" title="Bathing">baths</a>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">thermae</a></i> served hygienic, social and cultural functions. The baths contained three main facilities for bathing. After undressing in the <a href="/wiki/Apodyterium" title="Apodyterium">apodyterium</a> or changing room, Romans would proceed to the <a href="/wiki/Tepidarium" title="Tepidarium">tepidarium</a> or warm room. In the moderate dry heat of the tepidarium, some performed warm-up exercises and stretched while others oiled themselves or had slaves oil them. The tepidarium's main purpose was to promote sweating to prepare for the next room, the <a href="/wiki/Caldarium" title="Caldarium">caldarium</a> or hot room. The caldarium, unlike the tepidarium, was extremely humid and hot. Temperatures in the caldarium could reach 40 degrees <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a> (104 degrees Fahrenheit). Many contained steam baths and a cold-water fountain known as the <a href="/wiki/Labrum_(architecture)" title="Labrum (architecture)">labrum</a>. The last room was the <a href="/wiki/Frigidarium" title="Frigidarium">frigidarium</a> or cold room, which offered a cold bath for cooling off after the caldarium. The Romans also had <a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet" title="Flush toilet">flush toilets</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_baths">Roman baths</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Roman baths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></div><p>The containment of heat in the rooms was important in the operation of the baths, as to avoid patrons from catching colds. To prevent doors from being left open, the door posts were installed at an inclined angle so that the doors would automatically swing shut. Another technique of heat efficiency was the use of wooden benches over stone, as wood conducts away less heat.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation">Transportation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Transportation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/220px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/330px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg/440px-Appia_antica_2-7-05_048.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Via Appia antica</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roads">Roads</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Roads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">Roman road</a></div> <p>The Romans primarily built roads for their military. Their economic importance was probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads to preserve their military value. In total, more than 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) of roads were constructed, 80,500 kilometres (50,000 mi) of which were stone-paved.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Way stations providing refreshments were maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also maintained. This allowed a dispatch to travel a maximum of 800 kilometres (500 mi) in 24 hours by using a relay of horses. </p><p>The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the intended course, often to <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a>. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand and then a layer of concrete. Finally, they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years. </p><p>Most Roman cities were shaped like a square. There were 4 main roads leading to the center of the city, or forum. They formed a cross shape, and each point on the edge of the cross was a gateway into the city. Connecting to these main roads were smaller roads, the streets where people lived. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bridges">Bridges</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bridges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Roman bridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_bridges" title="List of Roman bridges">List of Roman bridges</a></div> <p>Roman bridges were built with stone and/or concrete and utilized the <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a>. Built in 142 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Pons_Aemilius" title="Pons Aemilius">Pons Aemilius</a>, later named <i>Ponte Rotto</i> (broken bridge) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The biggest Roman bridge was <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Bridge" title="Trajan's Bridge">Trajan's Bridge</a> over the lower Danube, constructed by <a href="/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Damascus" title="Apollodorus of Damascus">Apollodorus of Damascus</a>, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. They were most of the time at least 60 feet (18 m) above the body of water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carts">Carts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Carts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El_puente_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara,_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/El_puente_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara%2C_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg/220px-El_puente_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara%2C_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/El_puente_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara%2C_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg/330px-El_puente_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara%2C_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/El_puente_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara%2C_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg/440px-El_puente_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara%2C_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2702" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1ntara_Bridge" title="Alcántara Bridge">Alcántara Bridge</a> constructed in 104 to 106 CE, was built in a similar in style to Trajan's Bridge.</figcaption></figure> <p>Roman carts had many purposes and came in a variety of forms. Freight carts were used to transport goods. Barrel carts were used to transport liquids. The carts had large cylindrical barrels laid horizontally with their tops facing forward. For transporting building materials, such as sand or soil, the Romans used carts with high walls. Public transportation carts were also in use with some designed with sleeping accommodations for up to six people.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Romans developed a railed cargo system for transporting heavy loads. The rails consisted of grooves embedded into existing stone roadways. The carts used in such a system had large block axles and wooden wheels with metal casings.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carts also contained brakes, elastic suspensions and bearings. The elastic suspension systems used leather belts attached bronze supports to suspend the carriage above the axles. The system helped to create a smoother ride by reducing the vibration. The Romans adopted bearings developed by the Celts. The bearings decreased rotational friction by using mud to lubricate stone rings.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial">Industrial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Industrial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosia_Montana_Roman_Gold_Mines_2011_-_Galleries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Rosia_Montana_Roman_Gold_Mines_2011_-_Galleries.jpg/220px-Rosia_Montana_Roman_Gold_Mines_2011_-_Galleries.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Rosia_Montana_Roman_Gold_Mines_2011_-_Galleries.jpg/330px-Rosia_Montana_Roman_Gold_Mines_2011_-_Galleries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Rosia_Montana_Roman_Gold_Mines_2011_-_Galleries.jpg/440px-Rosia_Montana_Roman_Gold_Mines_2011_-_Galleries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Rosia Montana Roman Gold Mine</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mining">Mining</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Roman metallurgy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman mining">Roman mining</a></div> <p>The Romans also made great use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, some sites such as <a href="/wiki/Las_Medulas" class="mw-redirect" title="Las Medulas">Las Medulas</a> in north-west Spain having at least 7 major channels entering the minehead. Other sites such as <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a> in south <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> was fed by at least five <a href="/wiki/Leat" title="Leat">leats</a>, all leading to reservoirs and tanks or <a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">cisterns</a> high above the present opencast. The water was used for <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">hydraulic mining</a>, where streams or waves of water are released onto the hillside, first to reveal any gold-bearing ore, and then to work the ore itself. Rock debris could be sluiced away by <a href="/wiki/Hushing" title="Hushing">hushing</a>, and the water also used to douse fires created to break down the hard rock and veins, a method known as <a href="/wiki/Fire-setting" title="Fire-setting">fire-setting</a>. </p><p>Alluvial <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> deposits could be worked and the <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> extracted without needing to crush the ore. Washing tables were fitted below the tanks to collect the gold-dust and any nuggets present. Vein gold needed crushing, and they probably used crushing or stamp mills worked by waterwheels to comminute the hard ore before washing. Large quantities of water were also needed in deep mining to remove waste debris and power primitive machines, as well as for washing the crushed ore. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> provides a detailed description of gold mining in book xxxiii of his <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a>, most of which has been confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>. That they used water mills on a large scale elsewhere is attested by the flour mills at <a href="/wiki/Barbegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbegal">Barbegal</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, and on the <a href="/wiki/Janiculum" title="Janiculum">Janiculum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_technology">Military technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Military technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technological history of the Roman military</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Roman military engineering</a></div><p>The Roman military technology ranged from personal equipment and armament to deadly siege engines. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foot_soldier">Foot soldier</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Foot soldier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weaponry">Weaponry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Weaponry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pilum" title="Pilum">Pilum</a> (spear): The Roman heavy spear was a weapon favored by legionaries and weighed approximately five pounds/2.25 kilograms.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The innovated javelin was designed to be used only once and was destroyed upon initial use. This ability prevented the enemy from reusing spears. All soldiers carried two versions of this weapon: a primary spear and a backup. A solid block of wood in the middle of the weapon provided legionaries protection for their hands while carrying the device. According to <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, historians have records of "how the Romans threw their spears and then charged with swords".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tactic seemed to be common practice among Roman infantry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armour">Armour</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Armour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_scale_armour_detail.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Roman_scale_armour_detail.JPG/220px-Roman_scale_armour_detail.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Roman_scale_armour_detail.JPG/330px-Roman_scale_armour_detail.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Roman_scale_armour_detail.JPG/440px-Roman_scale_armour_detail.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Roman scale armour</figcaption></figure> <p>While heavy, intricate armour was not uncommon (<a href="/wiki/Cataphracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataphracts">cataphracts</a>), the Romans perfected a relatively light, full torso armour made of segmented plates (<i><a href="/wiki/Lorica_segmentata" title="Lorica segmentata">lorica segmentata</a></i>). This segmented armour provided good protection for vital areas, but did not cover as much of the body as <i><a href="/wiki/Lorica_hamata" title="Lorica hamata">lorica hamata</a></i> or chainmail. The <i>lorica segmentata</i> provided better protection, but the plate bands were expensive and difficult to produce and difficult to repair in the field. Generally, chainmail was cheaper, easier to produce, and simpler to maintain, was one-size-fits-all and was more comfortable to wear; thus, it remained the primary form of armour even when <i>lorica segmentata</i> was in use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tactics">Tactics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Testudo_formation" title="Testudo formation">Testudo</a> is a tactical military maneuver original to Rome. The tactic was implemented by having units raise their shields in order to protect themselves from enemy projectiles raining down on them. The strategy only worked if each member of the testudo protected his comrade. Commonly used during siege battles, the "sheer discipline and synchronization required to form a Testudo" was a testament to the abilities of legionnaires.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Testudo, meaning tortoise in Latin, "was not the norm, but rather adopted in specific situations to deal with particular threats on the battlefield".<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> and other Roman formations were a source of inspiration for this maneuver. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cavalry">Cavalry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Cavalry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_cavalry" title="Roman cavalry">Roman cavalry</a> saddle had four horns <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.caerleon.net/history/army/page9.html">[1]</a> and is believed to have been copied from <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> peoples. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_warfare">Siege warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Siege warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Roman siege engines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scorpio_(dart-thrower)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorpio (dart-thrower)">scorpions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onagers</a> were not unique, but the Romans were probably the first people to put ballistas on carts for better mobility on campaigns. On the battlefield, it is thought that they were used to pick off enemy leaders. There is one account of the use of artillery in battle from Tacitus, Histories III,23:</p><blockquote><p>On engaging they drove back the enemy, only to be driven back themselves, for the Vitellians had concentrated their artillery on the raised road that they might have free and open ground from which to fire; their earlier shots had been scattered and had struck the trees without injuring the enemy. A ballista of enormous size belonging to the Fifteenth legion began to do great harm to the Flavians' line with the huge stones that it hurled; and it would have caused wide destruction if it had not been for the splendid bravery of two soldiers, who, taking some shields from the dead and so disguising themselves, cut the ropes and springs of the machine<i>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:6_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>In addition to innovations in land warfare, the Romans also developed the <a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">corvus (boarding device)</a> a movable bridge that could attach itself to an enemy ship and allow the Romans to board the enemy vessel. Developed during the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> it allowed them to apply their experience in land warfare on the seas.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ballistas_and_onagers">Ballistas and onagers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Ballistas and onagers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></div><p>While core artillery inventions were notably founded by the Greeks, Rome saw opportunity in the ability to enhance this long-range artillery. Large artillery pieces such as carroballista and onagers bombarded enemy lines, before full ground assault by infantry. The manuballista would "often be described as the most advanced two-armed torsion engine used by the Roman Army”.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The weapon often looks like a mounted crossbow capable of shooting projectiles. Similarly, the onager "named after the wild ass because of its 'kick'," was a larger weapon that was capable of hurling large projectiles at walls or forts.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both were very capable machines of war and were put to use by the Roman military. </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helepolis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Helepolis.png/220px-Helepolis.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Helepolis.png/330px-Helepolis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Helepolis.png/440px-Helepolis.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Computer model of a helepolis</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Helepolis">The Helepolis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: The Helepolis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Helepolis" title="Helepolis">Helepolis</a></div><p>The helepolis was a transportation vehicle used to besiege cities. The vehicle had wooden walls to shield soldiers as they were transported toward the enemy's walls. Upon reaching the walls, the soldiers would disembark at the top of the 15m tall structure and drop on to the enemy's ramparts. To be effective in combat, the helepolis was designed to be self-propelled. The self-propelled vehicles were operated using two types of motors: an internal motor powered by humans, or a counterweight motor powered by gravity. The human-powered motor used a system of ropes that connected the axles to a capstan. It has been calculated that at least 30 men would be required to turn the capstan in order to exceed the force required to move the vehicle. Two capstans may have been used instead of just the one, reducing the number of men needed per capstan to 16, for a total of 32 to power the helepolis. The gravity-powered counterweight motor used a system of ropes and pulleys to propel the vehicle. Ropes were wrapped around the axles, strung through a pulley system that connected them to a counterweight hanging at the top of the vehicle. The counterweights would have been made of lead or a bucket filled with water. The lead counterweight was encapsulated in a pipe filled with seeds to control its fall. The water bucket counterweight was emptied when it reached the bottom of the vehicle, raised back to the top, and filled with water using a reciprocating water pump, so that motion could again be achieved. It has been calculated that to move a helepolis with a mass of 40000 kg, a counterweight with a mass of 1000 kg was needed.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greek_fire">Greek fire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Greek fire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a></div><p>Originally an incendiary weapon adopted from the Greeks in 7th century AD, the Greek fire "is one of the very few contrivances whose gruesome effectiveness was noted by"<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many sources. Roman innovators made this already lethal weapon even more deadly. Its nature is often described as a "precursor to napalm".<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Military strategists often put the weapon to good use during naval battles, and the ingredients to its construction "remained a closely guarded military secret".<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, the devastation caused by Greek fire in combat is indisputable. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Pontoon_Bridge,_Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius,_Rome,_Italy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Roman_Pontoon_Bridge%2C_Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg/220px-Roman_Pontoon_Bridge%2C_Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Roman_Pontoon_Bridge%2C_Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg/330px-Roman_Pontoon_Bridge%2C_Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Roman_Pontoon_Bridge%2C_Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg/440px-Roman_Pontoon_Bridge%2C_Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius%2C_Rome%2C_Italy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2586" data-file-height="1417" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of a Roman pontoon bridge on the <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a>, constructed 193 CE</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_2">Transportation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Transportation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pontoon_bridge">Pontoon bridge</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Pontoon bridge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">Pontoon bridge</a></div><p>Mobility, for a military force, was an essential key to success. Although this was not a Roman invention, as there were instances of "ancient Chinese and Persians making use of the floating mechanism”,<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman generals used the innovation to great effect in campaigns. Furthermore, engineers perfected the speed at which these bridges were constructed. Leaders surprised enemy units to great effect by speedily crossing otherwise treacherous bodies of water. Lightweight crafts were "organized and tied together with the aid of planks, nails and cables".<sup id="cite_ref-:15_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rafts were more commonly used instead of building new makeshift bridges, enabling quick construction and deconstruction.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expedient and valuable innovation of the pontoon bridge also accredited its success to the excellent abilities of Roman Engineers. </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graeco-Roman_surgical_instruments._Wellcome_L0012385.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Graeco-Roman_surgical_instruments._Wellcome_L0012385.jpg/220px-Graeco-Roman_surgical_instruments._Wellcome_L0012385.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Graeco-Roman_surgical_instruments._Wellcome_L0012385.jpg/330px-Graeco-Roman_surgical_instruments._Wellcome_L0012385.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Graeco-Roman_surgical_instruments._Wellcome_L0012385.jpg/440px-Graeco-Roman_surgical_instruments._Wellcome_L0012385.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3672" data-file-height="2890" /></a><figcaption>Surgical instruments used by ancient Romans</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_technology">Medical technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Medical technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Military medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Rome" title="Medicine in ancient Rome">Medicine in ancient Rome</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surgery">Surgery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Surgery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although various levels of medicine were practiced in the ancient world,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Romans created or pioneered many innovative surgeries and tools that are still in use today such as hemostatic tourniquets and arterial surgical clamps.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rome was also responsible for producing the first battlefield surgery unit, a move that paired with their contributions to medicine made the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> a force to be reckoned with.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also used a rudimentary version of antiseptic surgery years before its use became popular in the 19th century and possessed very capable doctors.<sup id="cite_ref-:022_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:022-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technologies_developed_or_invented_by_the_Romans">Technologies developed or invented by the Romans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Technologies developed or invented by the Romans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible"> <tbody><tr> <th>Technology </th> <th>Comment </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roman_abacus" title="Roman abacus">Abacus, Roman</a> </td> <td>Portable. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">Alum</a> </td> <td>The production of alum (KAl(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>.12H<sub>2</sub>O) from alunite (KAl<sub>3</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub><sup>.</sup>(OH)<sub>6</sub>) is archaeologically attested on the island Lesbos.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This site was abandoned in the 7th century but dates back at least to the 2nd century AD. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amphitheatre" title="Amphitheatre">Amphitheatre</a> </td> <td>See e.g. <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Apartment_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Apartment building">Apartment building</a> </td> <td>See e.g. <a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">Insula</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueduct</a>, <a href="/wiki/True_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="True arch">true arch</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pont_du_Gard" title="Pont du Gard">Pont du Gard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Segovia" title="Segovia">Segovia</a> etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">Arch</a>, monumental </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bath, monumental public (<a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a>) </td> <td>See e.g. <a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Book (<a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codex</a>) </td> <td>First mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a> in the 1st century AD. Held many advantages over the scroll. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Brass </td> <td>The Romans had enough understanding of <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> to produce a <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> denomination coinage; see <a href="/wiki/Sestertius" title="Sestertius">sestertius</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridge, true arch</a> </td> <td>See e.g. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Bridge_of_Chaves" title="Roman Bridge of Chaves">Roman Bridge of Chaves</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Severan_Bridge" title="Severan Bridge">Severan Bridge</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bridge, segmental arch </td> <td>More than a dozen Roman bridges are known to feature segmental (=flat) arches. A prominent example was <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajan's bridge">Trajan's bridge</a> over the Danube, a lesser known the extant <a href="/wiki/Limyra_Bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Limyra Bridge">Limyra Bridge</a> in Lycia </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bridge, pointed arch </td> <td>Constructed in the early <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> era, the earliest known bridge featuring a pointed arch is the 5th or 6th century AD <a href="/wiki/Karamagara_Bridge" title="Karamagara Bridge">Karamagara Bridge</a><sup id="cite_ref-Galliazzo_1995,_92_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galliazzo_1995,_92-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Camel harness </td> <td>The harnessing of camels to ploughs is attested in North Africa by the 3rd century AD<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">Cameos</a> </td> <td>Probably a Hellenistic innovation e.g. <a href="/wiki/Cup_of_the_Ptolemies" title="Cup of the Ptolemies">Cup of the Ptolemies</a> but taken up by the Emperors e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gemma_Augustea" title="Gemma Augustea">Gemma Augustea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gemma_Claudia" title="Gemma Claudia">Gemma Claudia</a> etc. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cast Iron </td> <td>Recently archaeologically detected in the Val Gabbia in northern Lombardy from the 5th and 6th centuries AD.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technically interesting innovation appears to have had little economic impact. But archaeologists may have failed to recognize the distinctive slag, so the date and location of this innovation may be revised. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">Cement</a> <p><a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a> </p> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pozzolana" title="Pozzolana">Pozzolana</a> variety </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">Crank</a> handle </td> <td>A Roman iron crank handle was excavated in <a href="/wiki/Augusta_Raurica" title="Augusta Raurica">Augusta Raurica</a>, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece with a 15 cm long handle is of yet unknown purpose and dates to no later than c. 250 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Laur-Belart_1988_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laur-Belart_1988-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Crank and <a href="/wiki/Connecting_rod" title="Connecting rod">connecting rod</a> </td> <td>Found in several water-powered <a href="/wiki/Saw_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Saw mill">saw mills</a> dating from the late 3rd (<a href="/wiki/Hierapolis_sawmill" title="Hierapolis sawmill">Hierapolis sawmill</a>) to 6th century AD (at <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a> respectively <a href="/wiki/Gerasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerasa">Gerasa</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_161_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ritti,_Grewe,_Kessener_2007,_161-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Roman_crane" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman crane">Crane, treadwheel</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arch_dam" title="Arch dam">Dam, Arch</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Currently best attested for <a href="/wiki/Glanum_Dam" title="Glanum Dam">the dam at Glanum</a>, France dated c. 20 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The structure has entirely disappeared. Its existence attested from the cuts into the rock on either side to key in the dam wall, which was 14.7 metres high, 3.9m thick at base narrowing to 2.96m at the top. Earliest description of <a href="/wiki/Arch_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Arch action">arch action</a> in such types of dam by <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> around 560 AD, the <a href="/wiki/Dara_Dam" title="Dara Dam">Dara Dam</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arch-gravity_dam" title="Arch-gravity dam">Dam, Arch-gravity</a> </td> <td>Examples include curved dams at Orükaya,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%C3%87avdarhisar" title="Çavdarhisar">Çavdarhisar</a>, both Turkey (and 2nd century)<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kasserine_Dam" title="Kasserine Dam">Kasserine Dam</a> in Tunisia,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Puy_Foradado_Dam" title="Puy Foradado Dam">Puy Foradado Dam</a> in Spain (2nd–3rd century)<sup id="cite_ref-Arenillas_&_Castillo_2003_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arenillas_&_Castillo_2003-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dam, Bridge </td> <td>The Band-i-Kaisar, constructed by Roman prisoners of war in Shustar, Persia, in the 3rd century AD,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> featured a <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weir</a> combined with an arch bridge, a multifunctional hydraulic structure which subsequently spread throughout Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Buttress_dam" title="Buttress dam">Dam, Buttress</a> </td> <td>Attested in <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dams_and_reservoirs" title="List of Roman dams and reservoirs">a number of Roman dams</a> in Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-Arenillas_&_Castillo_2003_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arenillas_&_Castillo_2003-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like the 600 m long <a href="/wiki/Consuegra_Dam" title="Consuegra Dam">Consuegra Dam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arch_dam#Variations" title="Arch dam">Dam, Multiple Arch Buttress</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Esparragalejo_Dam" title="Esparragalejo Dam">Esparragalejo Dam</a>, Spain (1st century AD) earliest known<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dental_fillings" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental fillings">Dental fillings</a> </td> <td>First mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Celsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornelius Celsus">Cornelius Celsus</a> in the 1st century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">Dome</a>, monumental </td> <td>See e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Flos Salis</i> </td> <td>A product of salt evaporation ponds <i><a href="/wiki/Dunaliella_salina" title="Dunaliella salina">Dunaliella salina</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> used in the perfume industry (Pliny <i>Nat. Hist. 31,90</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Force_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Force pump">Force pump</a> used in fire engine </td> <td>See image of pointable nozzle </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Glass_blowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass blowing">Glass blowing</a> </td> <td>This led to a number of innovations in the use of glass. Window glass is attested at Pompeii in AD 79. In the 2nd century AD<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hanging glass oil lamps were introduced. These used floating wicks and by reducing self-shading gave more lumens in a downwards direction. Cage cups (see photograph) are hypothesised as oil lamps. </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Dichroic glass as in the <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_Cup" title="Lycurgus Cup">Lycurgus Cup</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070403121640/http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/science/lycurguscup/sr-lycugus-p1.html">[2]</a> Note, this material attests otherwise unknown chemistry (or other way?) to generate nano-scale gold-silver particles. </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Glass mirrors (<a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a> 33,130) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Greenhouse cold frames </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a> 19.64; <a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a> on Ag. 11.3.52) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Water_organ" title="Water organ">Hydraulis</a> </td> <td>A water organ. Later also the pneumatic organ. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hushing" title="Hushing">Hushing</a> </td> <td>Described by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and confirmed at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">Hydraulic mining</a> </td> <td>Described by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> and confirmed at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolaucothi">Dolaucothi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">Hydrometer</a> </td> <td>Mentioned in a letter of <a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">Hypocaust</a> </td> <td>A floor and also wall heating system. Described by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Knife, multifunctional </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081207064108/http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/opac/search/cataloguedetail.html?&priref=70534&_function_=xslt&_limit_=10">[3]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lighthouses </td> <td>The best surviving examples are those at <a href="/wiki/Dover_Castle" title="Dover Castle">Dover Castle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Hercules" title="Tower of Hercules">Tower of Hercules</a> at <a href="/wiki/A_Coru%C3%B1a" title="A Coruña">A Coruña</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Leather, Tanned </td> <td>The preservation of skins with vegetable tannins was a pre-Roman invention but not of the antiquity once supposed. (Tawing was far more ancient.) The Romans were responsible for spreading this technology into areas where it was previously unknown such as Britain and <a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a> on the Nile. In both places this technology was lost when the Romans withdrew.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mills </td> <td>M.J.T.Lewis presents good evidence that water powered vertical pounding machines came in by the middle of the 1st century AD for <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fulling</a>, grain hulling (Pliny <i>Nat. Hist. 18,97</i>) and ore crushing (archaeological evidence at <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi_Gold_Mines" title="Dolaucothi Gold Mines">Dolaucothi Gold Mines</a> and Spain). </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Grainmill, rotary. According to Moritz (p57) rotary grainmills were not known to the ancient Greeks but date from before 160 BC. Unlike reciprocating mills, rotary mills could be easily adapted to animal or water power. Lewis (1997) argues that the rotary grainmill dates to the 5th century BC in the western Mediterranean. Animal and water powered rotary mills came in the 3rd century BC. </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Sawmill, water powered. Recorded by 370 AD. Attested in <a href="/wiki/Decimus_Magnus_Ausonius" class="mw-redirect" title="Decimus Magnus Ausonius">Ausonius's</a> poem Mosella. Translated <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.parsonsd.co.uk/moselle12.php">[4]</a>"<i>the Ruwer sends mill-stones swiftly round to grind the corn, And drives shrill saw-blades through smooth marble blocks</i>". Recent archaeological evidence from Phrygia, Anatolia, now pushes back the date to the 3rd century AD and confirms the use of a crank in the sawmill.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>Shipmill, (though small, the conventional term is "shipmill" not boat mill, probably because there was always a deck, and usually an enclosed superstructure, to keep the flour away from the damp) where water wheels were attached to <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a>, was first recorded at Rome in 547 AD in <a href="/wiki/Procopius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Procopius of Caesarea">Procopius of Caesarea</a>'s <i>Gothic Wars</i> (1.19.8–29) when <a href="/wiki/Belisaurius" class="mw-redirect" title="Belisaurius">Belisaurius</a> was besieged there. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Essentials of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam engine</a> </td> <td>By the late 3rd century AD, all essential elements for constructing a steam engine were known by Roman engineers: steam power (in <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeolipile" title="Aeolipile">aeolipile</a>), the crank and connecting rod mechanism (in the <a href="/wiki/Hierapolis_sawmill" title="Hierapolis sawmill">Hierapolis sawmill</a>), the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water pumps) and gearing (in water mills and clocks)<sup id="cite_ref-RittiGrewe_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RittiGrewe-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">Watermill</a>. Improvements upon earlier models. For the largest mill complex known see <a href="/wiki/Barbegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbegal">Barbegal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mercury <a href="/wiki/Gilding" title="Gilding">Gilding</a> </td> <td>as in the <a href="/wiki/Horses_of_San_Marco" class="mw-redirect" title="Horses of San Marco">Horses of San Marco</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Newspaper, rudimentary </td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Acta_Diurna" title="Acta Diurna">Acta Diurna</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Odometer" title="Odometer">Odometer</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer" title="Paddle steamer">Paddle wheel boats</a> </td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/De_Rebus_Bellicis" class="mw-redirect" title="De Rebus Bellicis">de Rebus Bellicis</a> (possibly only a paper invention). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pewter" title="Pewter">Pewter</a> </td> <td>Mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a> 34, 160–1). Surviving examples are mainly Romano-British of the 3rd and 4th centuries e.g.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506121240/http://www.romanbaths.co.uk/index.cfm?fuseAction=collection.disp&objectID=batrm_1983_13_c_4">[5]</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/cambridgeshire/cambourne/pewter.html">[6]</a>. Roman pewter had a wide range of proportions of tin but proportions of 50%, 75% and 95% predominate (Beagrie 1989). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pleasure lake </td> <td>An artificial reservoir, highly unusual in that it was meant for recreational rather than utilitarian purposes was created at <a href="/wiki/Subiaco,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Subiaco, Italy">Subiaco</a>, Italy, for emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68 AD). The dam remained the highest in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (50 m),<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the world until its destruction in 1305.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">Plough</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-bladed (A much older innovation (e.g. Bible; I Samuel 13, 20–1) that became much more common in the Roman period) </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td>wheeled (<a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a> 18. 171–3) (More important for the Middle Ages, than this era.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pottery, glossed </td> <td>i.e. <a href="/wiki/Samian_ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Samian ware">Samian ware</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Reaper" title="Reaper">Reaper</a> </td> <td>An early harvesting machine: <i>vallus</i> (<a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Naturalis_Historia" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalis Historia">Naturalis Historia</a> 18,296, <a href="/wiki/Rutilius_Taurus_Aemilianus_Palladius" title="Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius">Palladius</a> <i>7.2.2–4</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080505210942/http://www.gnrtr.com/tendencies/en/t08.html">[7]</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Sails, fore-and-aft rig</a> </td> <td>Introduction of fore-and-aft rigs 1) the <a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a> sail 2) the <a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a>, this last already attested in 2nd century BC in the northern <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note: there is no evidence of any combination of fore-and-aft rigs with square sails on the same Roman ship. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lateen_sail" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateen sail">Sails, Lateen</a> </td> <td>Representations show lateen sails in the Mediterranean as early as the 2nd century AD. Both the quadrilateral and the triangular type were employed.<sup id="cite_ref-Casson_1995,_243–245_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casson_1995,_243–245-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Roller bearings </td> <td>Archaeologically attested in the Lake <a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rudder, stern-mounted </td> <td>See image for something very close to being a sternpost rudder </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sausage, fermented dry (probably) </td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Salami" title="Salami">salami</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Screw press </td> <td>An innovation of about the mid-1st century AD<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sewers</a> </td> <td>See for example <a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Soap, hard (sodium) </td> <td>First mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (earlier, potassium, soap being Celtic). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Stairway#Spiral_and_helical_stairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Stairway">Spiral staircase</a> </td> <td>Though first attested as early as the 5th century BC in Greek <a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinunte</a>, spiral staircases only become more widespread after their adoption in <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajan's column">Trajan's column</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Stenography" class="mw-redirect" title="Stenography">Stenography</a>, a system of </td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Street map, early </td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Forma_Urbis_Romae" title="Forma Urbis Romae">Forma Urbis Romae</a> (Severan Marble Plan), a carved marble ground plan of every architectural feature in ancient Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sundial, portable </td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Bithynia" title="Theodosius of Bithynia">Theodosius of Bithynia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Surgical_instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical instruments">Surgical instruments</a>, various </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tooth implants, iron </td> <td>From archaeological evidence in Gaul<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Towpath </td> <td>e.g. beside the Danube, see the "road" in <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajan's bridge">Trajan's bridge</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tunnels </td> <td>Excavated from both ends simultaneously. The longest known is the 5.6-kilometre (3.5 mi) drain of the <a href="/wiki/Fucine_Lake" title="Fucine Lake">Fucine Lake</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vehicles, one wheeled </td> <td>Solely attested by a Latin word in 4th century AD <a href="/wiki/Scriptores_Historiae_Augustae" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptores Historiae Augustae">Scriptores Historiae Augustae</a> Heliogabalus 29. As this is fiction, the evidence dates to its time of writing. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wood_veneer" title="Wood veneer">Wood veneer</a> </td> <td>Pliny <i>Nat. Hist. 16. 231–2</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek technology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">List of Byzantine inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_hydraulics_in_antiquity" title="Maritime hydraulics in antiquity">Maritime hydraulics in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Science in classical antiquity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLancaster2008" class="citation book cs1">Lancaster, Lynn (2008). <i>Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195187311" title="Special:BookSources/9780195187311"><bdi>9780195187311</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+and+Technology+in+the+Classical+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=260-266&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780195187311&rft.aulast=Lancaster&rft.aufirst=Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2008" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Gwyn (2008). <i>Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 707–710. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195187311" title="Special:BookSources/9780195187311"><bdi>9780195187311</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+and+Technology+in+the+Classical+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=707-710&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780195187311&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/10-innovations-that-built-ancient-rome">10 Innovations That Built Ancient Rome</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandels1978" class="citation book cs1">Landels, John G. (1978). <i>Engineering in the Ancient World</i>. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 9–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0701122218" title="Special:BookSources/0701122218"><bdi>0701122218</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.place=London&rft.pages=9-32&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0701122218&rft.aulast=Landels&rft.aufirst=John+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:52-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:52_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:52_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:52_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikolic2014" class="citation book cs1">Nikolic, Milorad (2014). <i>Themes in Roman Society and Culture</i>. Canada: Oxford University Press. pp. 355–375. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195445190" title="Special:BookSources/9780195445190"><bdi>9780195445190</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Themes+in+Roman+Society+and+Culture&rft.place=Canada&rft.pages=355-375&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780195445190&rft.aulast=Nikolic&rft.aufirst=Milorad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeubuger,_Albert1930" class="citation book cs1">Neubuger, Albert, and Brose, Henry L (1930). <i>The Technical Arts and Sciences of the Ancients</i>. 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Roma : La Libreria dello stato</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H Schneider Technology in <i>The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World</i> 2007; p. 157 CUP</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://formaurbis.stanford.edu/">Stanford University: Forma Urbis Romae</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/43705.stm">BBC: Tooth and nail dentures</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2002" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_(classical_archaeologist)" title="Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist)">Wilson, Andrew</a> (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Roman_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of Roman Studies">The Journal of Roman Studies</a></i>, vol. 92, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–32, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3184857">10.2307/3184857</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3184857">3184857</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154629776">154629776</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Machines%2C+Power+and+the+Ancient+Economy&rft.volume=92&rft.pages=1-32&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154629776%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3184857%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3184857&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2000" class="citation cs2">Greene, Kevin (2000), "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", <i>The Economic History Review</i>, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 29–59, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00151">10.1111/1468-0289.00151</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10.1111%2F1468-0289.00151">10.1111/1468-0289.00151</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Technological+Innovation+and+Economic+Progress+in+the+Ancient+World%3A+M.I.+Finley+Re-Considered&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29-59&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-0289.00151&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. <i>A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900.</i> New York : Dover Publications, 1993</li> <li>Williams, Trevor I. <i>A History of Invention From Stone Axes to Silicon Chips.</i> New York, New York, Facts on File, 2000</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2001" class="citation cs2">Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A.; Rees, J. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091007111319/http://www.sciencenews.gr/docs/diolkos.pdf"><i>Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, pp. 8–19 (10–15), archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.gr/docs/diolkos.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 October 2009</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Railways+in+the+Greek+and+Roman+world&rft.btitle=Early+Railways.+A+Selection+of+Papers+from+the+First+International+Early+Railways+Conference&rft.pages=8-19+%2810-15%29&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=M.+J.+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.gr%2Fdocs%2Fdiolkos.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalliazzo1995" class="citation cs2">Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995), <i>I ponti romani</i>, vol. 1, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, pp. 92, 93 (fig. 39), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-85066-66-6" title="Special:BookSources/88-85066-66-6"><bdi>88-85066-66-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+ponti+romani&rft.place=Treviso&rft.pages=92%2C+93+%28fig.+39%29&rft.pub=Edizioni+Canova&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=88-85066-66-6&rft.aulast=Galliazzo&rft.aufirst=Vittorio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner1997" class="citation cs2">Werner, Walter (1997), "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal", <i><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society#International_Journal_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology</a></i>, <b>26</b> (2): 98–119, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997IJNAr..26...98W">1997IJNAr..26...98W</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x">10.1111/j.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Nautical+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+largest+ship+trackway+in+ancient+times%3A+the+Diolkos+of+the+Isthmus+of+Corinth%2C+Greece%2C+and+early+attempts+to+build+a+canal&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=98-119&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.1997.tb01322.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997IJNAr..26...98W&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Neil Beagrie, "The Romano-British Pewter Industry", <i>Britannia</i>, Vol. 20 (1989), pp. 169–91</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrewe2009" class="citation cs2">Grewe, Klaus (2009), "Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.−16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul", in Bachmann, Martin (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511200049/http://www.freundeskreis-roemerkanal.de/Text/BAUTECHNIK%20IM%20ANTIKEN%20UND.pdf"><i>Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Byzas, vol. 9, Istanbul: Ege Yayınları/Zero Prod. Ltd., pp. 429–454, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-8072-23-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-8072-23-1"><bdi>978-975-8072-23-1</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freundeskreis-roemerkanal.de/Text/BAUTECHNIK%20IM%20ANTIKEN%20UND.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 May 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+Reliefdarstellung+einer+antiken+Steins%C3%A4gemaschine+aus+Hierapolis+in+Phrygien+und+ihre+Bedeutung+f%C3%BCr+die+Technikgeschichte.+Internationale+Konferenz+13.%E2%88%9216.+Juni+2007+in+Istanbul&rft.btitle=Bautechnik+im+antiken+und+vorantiken+Kleinasien&rft.place=Istanbul&rft.series=Byzas&rft.pages=429-454&rft.pub=Ege+Yay%C4%B1nlar%C4%B1%2FZero+Prod.+Ltd.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-975-8072-23-1&rft.aulast=Grewe&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freundeskreis-roemerkanal.de%2FText%2FBAUTECHNIK%2520IM%2520ANTIKEN%2520UND.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lewis, M.J.T., 1997, <i>Millstone and Hammer</i>, University of Hull Press</li> <li>Moritz, L.A., 1958, <i>Grainmills and Flour in Classical Antiquity</i>, Oxford</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRittiGreweKessener2007" class="citation cs2">Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i>, <b>20</b>: 138–163, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759400005341">10.1017/S1047759400005341</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161937987">161937987</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=A+Relief+of+a+Water-powered+Stone+Saw+Mill+on+a+Sarcophagus+at+Hierapolis+and+its+Implications&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=138-163&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1047759400005341&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161937987%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ritti&rft.aufirst=Tullia&rft.au=Grewe%2C+Klaus&rft.au=Kessener%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Oliver Davies, "Roman Mines in Europe", Clarendon Press (Oxford), 1935.</li> <li>Jones G. D. B., I. J. Blakey, and E. C. F. MacPherson, "Dolaucothi: the Roman aqueduct," <i>Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies</i> 19 (1960): 71–84 and plates III-V.</li> <li>Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence," <i>The Antiquaries Journal</i>, 49, no. 2 (1969): 244–72.</li> <li>Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain," <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i> 60 (1970): 169–85.</li> <li>Lewis, P. R., "The Ogofau Roman gold mines at Dolaucothi," The National Trust Year Book 1976–77 (1977).</li> <li>Barry C. Burnham, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/britannia/article/roman-mining-at-dolaucothi-the-implications-of-the-19913-excavations-near-the-carreg-pumsaint/26D2795D09E90E8899EA6E10AE309368">Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: the Implications of the 1991–3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint</a>", <i>Britannia</i> 28 (1997), 325–336</li> <li>A.H.V. Smith, "Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales", <i>Britannia</i>, Vol. 28 (1997), pp. 297–324</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasch2001" class="citation cs2">Basch, Lucien (2001), "La voile latine, son origine, son évolution et ses parentés arabes", in Tzalas, H. (ed.), <i>Tropis VI, 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996 proceedings</i>, Athens: Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, pp. 55–85</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=La+voile+latine%2C+son+origine%2C+son+%C3%A9volution+et+ses+parent%C3%A9s+arabes&rft.btitle=Tropis+VI%2C+6th+International+Symposium+on+Ship+Construction+in+Antiquity%2C+Lamia+1996+proceedings&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=55-85&rft.pub=Hellenic+Institute+for+the+Preservation+of+Nautical+Tradition&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Basch&rft.aufirst=Lucien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1995" class="citation cs2">Campbell, I.C. 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(2008), "A Quantitative Look at Mediterranean Lateen- and Square-Rigged Ships (Part 1)", <i>The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology</i>, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 347–359, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008IJNAr..37..347C">2008IJNAr..37..347C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.2008.00183.x">10.1111/j.1095-9270.2008.00183.x</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45072686">45072686</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Nautical+Archaeology&rft.atitle=A+Quantitative+Look+at+Mediterranean+Lateen-+and+Square-Rigged+Ships+%28Part+1%29&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=347-359&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45072686%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.2008.00183.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008IJNAr..37..347C&rft.aulast=Castro&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Fonseca%2C+N.&rft.au=Vacas%2C+T.&rft.au=Ciciliot%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmanZoroglu2006" class="citation cs2">Friedman, Zaraza; Zoroglu, Levent (2006), "Kelenderis Ship. 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From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century</i>, vol. 2, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 89–99, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88402-288-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-88402-288-9"><bdi>0-88402-288-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ships&rft.btitle=The+Economic+History+of+Byzantium.+From+the+Seventh+through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.pages=89-99&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-88402-288-9&rft.aulast=Makris&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPomey2006" class="citation cs2">Pomey, Patrice (2006), "The Kelenderis Ship: A Lateen Sail", <i>The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology</i>, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 326–335, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IJNAr..35..326P">2006IJNAr..35..326P</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.2006.00111.x">10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00111.x</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162300888">162300888</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Nautical+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Kelenderis+Ship%3A+A+Lateen+Sail&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=326-335&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162300888%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-9270.2006.00111.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006IJNAr..35..326P&rft.aulast=Pomey&rft.aufirst=Patrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006" class="citation cs2">Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. 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(2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.traianvs.net/textos/presas_in.htm#_ednref4">"Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)"</a>, <i>1st International Congress on Construction History [20th–24th January]</i>, Madrid</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=1st+International+Congress+on+Construction+History+%5B20th%E2%80%9324th+January%5D&rft.atitle=Dams+from+the+Roman+Era+in+Spain.+Analysis+of+Design+Forms+%28with+Appendix%29&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Arenillas&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft.au=Castillo%2C+Juan+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.traianvs.net%2Ftextos%2Fpresas_in.htm%23_ednref4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge1992" class="citation cs2">Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), <i>Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply</i>, London: Duckworth, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-2194-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-2194-7"><bdi>0-7156-2194-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Aqueducts+%26+Water+Supply&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7156-2194-7&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=A.+Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge2000" class="citation cs2">Hodge, A. Trevor (2000), "Reservoirs and Dams", in <a href="/wiki/%C3%96rjan_Wikander" title="Örjan Wikander">Wikander, Örjan</a> (ed.), <i>Handbook of Ancient Water Technology</i>, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 331–339, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11123-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-11123-9"><bdi>90-04-11123-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reservoirs+and+Dams&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Water+Technology&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Technology+and+Change+in+History&rft.pages=331-339&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=90-04-11123-9&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=A.+Trevor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamesChanson2002" class="citation cs2">James, Patrick; Chanson, Hubert (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.traianvs.net/textos/archdams_en.htm">"Historical Development of Arch Dams. From Roman Arch Dams to Modern Concrete Designs"</a>, <i>Australian Civil Engineering Transactions</i>, <b>CE43</b>: 39–56</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Civil+Engineering+Transactions&rft.atitle=Historical+Development+of+Arch+Dams.+From+Roman+Arch+Dams+to+Modern+Concrete+Designs&rft.volume=CE43&rft.pages=39-56&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Chanson%2C+Hubert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.traianvs.net%2Ftextos%2Farchdams_en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaur-Belart1988" class="citation cs2">Laur-Belart, Rudolf (1988), <i>Führer durch Augusta Raurica</i> (5th ed.), Augst</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=F%C3%BChrer+durch+Augusta+Raurica&rft.place=Augst&rft.edition=5th&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Laur-Belart&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchnitter1978" class="citation cs2">Schnitter, Niklaus (1978), "Römische Talsperren", <i>Antike Welt</i>, <b>8</b> (2): 25–32</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antike+Welt&rft.atitle=R%C3%B6mische+Talsperren&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=25-32&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Schnitter&rft.aufirst=Niklaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchnitter1987a" class="citation cs2">Schnitter, Niklaus (1987a), "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), <i>Historische Talsperren</i>, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 9–20, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X"><bdi>3-87919-145-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Verzeichnis+geschichtlicher+Talsperren+bis+Ende+des+17.+Jahrhunderts&rft.btitle=Historische+Talsperren&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=9-20&rft.pub=Verlag+Konrad+Wittwer&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=3-87919-145-X&rft.aulast=Schnitter&rft.aufirst=Niklaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchnitter1987b" class="citation cs2">Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), <i>Historische Talsperren</i>, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 57–74, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X"><bdi>3-87919-145-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+Entwicklungsgeschichte+der+Pfeilerstaumauer&rft.btitle=Historische+Talsperren&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=57-74&rft.pub=Verlag+Konrad+Wittwer&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=3-87919-145-X&rft.aulast=Schnitter&rft.aufirst=Niklaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchnitter1987c" class="citation cs2">Schnitter, Niklaus (1987c), "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), <i>Historische Talsperren</i>, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 75–96, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X"><bdi>3-87919-145-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+Entwicklungsgeschichte+der+Bogenstaumauer&rft.btitle=Historische+Talsperren&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=75-96&rft.pub=Verlag+Konrad+Wittwer&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=3-87919-145-X&rft.aulast=Schnitter&rft.aufirst=Niklaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1970" class="citation cs2">Smith, Norman (1970), "The Roman Dams of Subiaco", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, <b>11</b> (1): 58–68, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3102810">10.2307/3102810</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3102810">3102810</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:111915102">111915102</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Dams+of+Subiaco&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=58-68&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A111915102%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3102810%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3102810&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1971" class="citation cs2">Smith, Norman (1971), <i>A History of Dams</i>, London: Peter Davies, pp. 25–49, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-432-15090-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-432-15090-0"><bdi>0-432-15090-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Dams&rft.place=London&rft.pages=25-49&rft.pub=Peter+Davies&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-432-15090-0&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogel1987" class="citation cs2">Vogel, Alexius (1987), "Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer", in Garbrecht, Günther (ed.), <i>Historische Talsperren</i>, Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer, pp. 47–56, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-87919-145-X"><bdi>3-87919-145-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Die+historische+Entwicklung+der+Gewichtsmauer&rft.btitle=Historische+Talsperren&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pages=47-56&rft.pub=Verlag+Konrad+Wittwer&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=3-87919-145-X&rft.aulast=Vogel&rft.aufirst=Alexius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Roman+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Roman_technology&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Roman technology</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Roman+technology&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Roman+technology">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Roman+technology&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanist.de/rome/rts/index.html">Roman Traction Systems</a> – Horse, harness, wagon</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanist.de/rome/harnessing/collar.html">Roman Horse Harnesses</a> – With pictorial evidence</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.romanconcrete.com/">Roman Concrete</a> – Roman concrete buildings</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology" title="Template:History of technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology" title="Template talk:History of technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology cultures</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_technology" title="Inca technology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology domains</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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