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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Dual-process theory of belief bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dual-process_theory_of_belief_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influencing_factors_of_belief_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influencing_factors_of_belief_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Influencing factors of belief bias</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influencing_factors_of_belief_bias-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influencing factors of belief bias subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influencing_factors_of_belief_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nature_of_content" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nature_of_content"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Nature of content</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nature_of_content-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instructions_given" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instructions_given"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Instructions given</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instructions_given-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Religious bias" redirects here. For treating people unequally because of their religion, see <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious discrimination</a>. For the systematic mistreatment people based on their religion, see <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a>.</div> <p><b>Belief bias</b> is the tendency to judge the strength of <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a> based on the plausibility of their conclusion rather than how strongly they justify that conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-SternbergLeighton2004_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SternbergLeighton2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A person is more likely to accept an argument that supports a conclusion that aligns with their values, beliefs and prior knowledge, while rejecting counter arguments to the conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Human_Reasoning:_The_Psychology_of_Deduction_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Reasoning:_The_Psychology_of_Deduction-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belief bias is an extremely common and therefore significant form of error; we can easily be blinded by our beliefs and reach the wrong conclusion. Belief bias has been found to influence various reasoning tasks, including conditional reasoning,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> relation reasoning<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and transitive reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syllogisms">Syllogisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Syllogisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></div> <p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a></i> is a kind of <a href="/wiki/Logical_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical argument">logical argument</a> in which one <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> (the conclusion) is <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inferred</a> from two or more others (the <i><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a></i>) of a specific form. The classical example of a valid syllogism is: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>All humans are mortal. (major premise)</dd> <dd>Socrates is human. (<a href="/wiki/Minor_premise" class="mw-redirect" title="Minor premise">minor premise</a>)</dd> <dd>Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>An example of an invalid syllogism is: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>All teenage girls are ambitious.</dd> <dd>Teenage girls study hard.</dd> <dd>Therefore, girls study hard because they are ambitious.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Typically, a majority of test subjects in studies incorrectly identify this syllogism as one in which the conclusion follows from the premises.<sup id="cite_ref-SternbergLeighton2004_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SternbergLeighton2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It might be true <i>in the real world</i> that a) <i>girls study</i> and b) <i>this is because they are ambitious</i>. However, this argument is a fallacy, because the conclusion is not supported by its premises. The validity of an argument is independent from the truth of its conclusion: there are valid arguments for false conclusions and invalid arguments for true conclusions. Hence, it is an error to judge the validity of an argument from the plausibility of its conclusion. This is the reasoning error known as belief bias.<sup id="cite_ref-SternbergLeighton2004_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SternbergLeighton2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When a person gives a response that is determined by the believability of the conclusion rather than logical validity, this is referred to as belief bias only when a syllogism is used. This phenomenon is so closely related to syllogistic reasoning that, when it does occur, in areas such as <a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason's selection task</a> or the <a href="/wiki/THOG_problem" title="THOG problem">THOG problem</a>, it is called "memory cueing" or the "effects of content".<sup id="cite_ref-Human_Reasoning:_The_Psychology_of_Deduction_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Human_Reasoning:_The_Psychology_of_Deduction-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dual-process_theory_of_belief_bias">Dual-process theory of belief bias</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Dual-process theory of belief bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many researchers in thinking and reasoning have provided evidence for a <a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">dual-process</a> cognitive approach to reasoning, judgment and decision making. They argue that these two mental processes (system 1 and system 2) engage in a constant battle for control over our brain to reason and make decisions. System 1 can be described as an automatic response system<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> characterised by "unconscious",<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "intuitive"<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "rapid"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> evaluation; whereas system 2 is said to be a controlled response system,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> characterised by “conscious”,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> “analytic”<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and “slow”<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> evaluation; some researchers even claimed to have found a link between general intelligence and the effectiveness of decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dual-process cognitive theory is different from the two minds hypothesis. Research done by <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_St_B._T._Evans" title="Jonathan St B. T. Evans">Jonathan St B. T. Evans</a> in 2007 provided evidence for the view that System 1, which serves as a quick heuristic processor, fights for control over System 2's slower analytical approach.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the experiment, participants were asked to evaluate syllogisms that have valid arguments with unconvincing conclusions; valid arguments with convincing conclusions; invalid arguments with unconvincing conclusions; invalid arguments with convincing conclusions. The results show that when the conclusion is believable, people blindly accept invalid conclusions more so than invalid arguments are accepted. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influencing_factors_of_belief_bias">Influencing factors of belief bias</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Influencing factors of belief bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time">Time</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various studies have proved that the time period for which a subject is allowed to think when evaluating arguments is related to the tendency for belief bias to take place. In a study done by Evans and Holmes in 2005,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they recruited two different groups of people to answer a series of reasoning questions. One group of people were given only two seconds to answer the questions; whereas the other group of people were allowed to use as much time as they would like to answer the questions. The result obtained was that a higher percentage of incorrect answers were found in the time pressured group than the other; they concluded that this was a result of a shift in logical to belief-biased way of thinking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature_of_content">Nature of content</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nature of content"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The nature of the content presented can also affect belief bias of an individual as shown by a study done by Goel & Vartanian in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their experiment, 34 participants were presented with a syllogism upon each trial. Each trial were either neutral or carried some degree of negative content. Negative content involved in the experiment were politically incorrect social norm violations, such as the statement “Some wars are not unjustified, Some wars involve raping of women, therefore, Some raping of women is not unjustified”. For syllogisms where the content was neutral, the results were consistent with studies of belief bias; however, for syllogisms with <a href="/wiki/Negative_affectivity" title="Negative affectivity">negative emotional</a> content, participants were more likely to reason logically on invalid syllogisms with believable conclusions instead of automatically judging them to be valid. In other words, the effect of belief bias is reduced when the content presented is of negative emotion. According to Goel and Vartanian, this is because negative emotions prompts us to reason in more careful and in more detail. This argument was supported by the observation that for questions with negative emotions, the reaction time taken was significantly longer than that of questions that a neutral. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instructions_given">Instructions given</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Instructions given"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an experiment done by Evans, Newstead, Allen & Pollard in 1994,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where subjects were given detailed instructions which lack specific reference to the notion of logical necessity when answering questions, it was shown that a larger proportion of answers actually rejected invalid arguments with convincing conclusions as opposed to when no further instructions were given when the subjects were asked to answer the questions. The results of the experiments reflects that when elaborated instructions were given to subjects to reason logically, the effects of belief bias is decreased. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a series of experiments by Evans, Barston and Pollard (1983),<sup id="cite_ref-EvansBarstonPollard1983_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EvansBarstonPollard1983-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> participants were presented with evaluation task paradigms, containing two premises and a conclusion. The participants were asked to make an evaluation of logical <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">validity</a>. The subjects, however, exhibited a belief bias, evidenced by their tendency to reject valid arguments with unbelievable conclusions, and endorse invalid arguments with believable conclusions. Instead of following directions and assessing logical validity, the subjects based their assessments on personal beliefs. </p><p>Consequently, these results demonstrated a greater acceptance of more believable (80%), than unbelievable (33%) conclusions. Participants also illustrated evidence of logical competences and the results determined an increase in acceptance of valid (73%) than invalid (41%). Additionally, there's a small difference between believable and valid (89%) in comparison to unbelievable and invalid (56%) (Evans, Barston & Pollard, 1983; Morley, Evans & Handley, 2004).<sup id="cite_ref-EvansBarstonPollard1983_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EvansBarstonPollard1983-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been argued that using more realistic content in <a href="/wiki/Syllogisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogisms">syllogisms</a> can facilitate more normative performance from participants. It has been suggested that the use of more abstract, artificial content will also have a biasing effect on performance. Therefore, more research is required to fully understand how and why belief bias occurs and if there are certain mechanisms that are responsible for such things.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence of clear individual differences in normative responding that are predicted by the response times of participants.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1989 study by Markovits and Nantel gave participants four reasoning tasks. The results indicated “a significant belief-bias effect” that existed “independently of the subjects' abstract reasoning ability.”<sup id="cite_ref-Markovits_&_Nantel_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markovits_&_Nantel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2010 study by Donna Torrens examined differences in belief bias among individuals. Torrens found that “the extent of an individual's belief bias effect was unrelated to a number of measures of reasoning competence” but was, instead, related to that person's ability “to generate alternative representations of premises: the more alternatives a person generated, the less likely they were to show a belief bias effect."<sup id="cite_ref-Torrens_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torrens-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2010 study, Chad Dube and Caren M. Rotello of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts" title="University of Massachusetts">University of Massachusetts</a> and Evan Heit of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Merced" title="University of California, Merced">University of California, Merced</a>, showed that “the belief bias effect is simply a response bias effect.”<sup id="cite_ref-Dube,_Rotello,_and_Heit_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dube,_Rotello,_and_Heit-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2012 study, Adrian P. Banks of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Surrey" title="University of Surrey">University of Surrey</a> explained that “belief bias is caused by the believability of a conclusion in working memory which influences its activation level, determining its likelihood of retrieval and therefore its effect on the reasoning process.”<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Michelle Colleen and Elizabeth Hilscher of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> showed in 2014 that belief bias can be affected by the difficulty level and placement of the syllogism in question.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilscher_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilscher-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belief_perseverance" title="Belief perseverance">Belief perseverance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_media_effect" title="Hostile media effect">Hostile media effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-SternbergLeighton2004-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SternbergLeighton2004_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SternbergLeighton2004_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SternbergLeighton2004_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRobert_J._SternbergJacqueline_P._Leighton2004" class="citation book cs1">Robert J. Sternberg; Jacqueline P. Leighton (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ujoNZNZrZcoC&pg=PA300"><i>The Nature of Reasoning</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00928-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00928-7"><bdi>978-0-521-00928-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Reasoning&rft.pages=300&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00928-7&rft.au=Robert+J.+Sternberg&rft.au=Jacqueline+P.+Leighton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DujoNZNZrZcoC%26pg%3DPA300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Human_Reasoning:_The_Psychology_of_Deduction-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Reasoning:_The_Psychology_of_Deduction_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Human_Reasoning:_The_Psychology_of_Deduction_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansNewsteadByrne1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_St_B._T._Evans" title="Jonathan St B. T. Evans">Evans, Jonathan</a>; Newstead, Stephen; Byrne, Ruth (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humanreasoningps0000evan_l5y4"><i>Human Reasoning: The Psychology of Deduction</i></a></span>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humanreasoningps0000evan_l5y4/page/243">243</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780863773136" title="Special:BookSources/9780863773136"><bdi>9780863773136</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Toronto<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Attenuating+Belief+Bias+Effects+in+Syllogistic+Reasoning%3A+The+Role+of+Belief-Content+Conflict&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto&rft.aulast=Hilscher&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftspace.library.utoronto.ca%2Fbitstream%2F1807%2F65668%2F6%2FHilscher_Michelle_C_201406_PhD_thesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief+bias" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkovitsG._Nantel1989" class="citation journal cs1">Markovits, H.; G. Nantel (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03199552">"The belief-bias effect in the production and evaluation of logical conclusions"</a>. <i>Memory and Cognition</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 11–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03199552">10.3758/BF03199552</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2913452">2913452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memory+and+Cognition&rft.atitle=The+belief-bias+effect+in+the+production+and+evaluation+of+logical+conclusions&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11-17&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3758%2FBF03199552&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2913452&rft.aulast=Markovits&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=G.+Nantel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3758%252FBF03199552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief+bias" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlauerJ._MuschB._Naumer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Klauer, K.C.; J. Musch; B. Naumer (2000). "On belief bias in syllogistic reasoning". <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>107</b> (4): 852–884. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-295X.107.4.852">10.1037/0033-295X.107.4.852</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11089409">11089409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=On+belief+bias+in+syllogistic+reasoning&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=852-884&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-295X.107.4.852&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11089409&rft.aulast=Klauer&rft.aufirst=K.C.&rft.au=J.+Musch&rft.au=B.+Naumer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief+bias" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDubeC._M._RotelloE._Heit2010" class="citation journal cs1">Dube, C.; C. M. Rotello; E. Heit (2010). "Assessing the belief bias effect with ROCs: It's a response bias effect". <i>Psychological Review</i>. <b>117</b> (3): 831–863. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.717.4988">10.1.1.717.4988</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0019634">10.1037/a0019634</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20658855">20658855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Review&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+belief+bias+effect+with+ROCs%3A+It%27s+a+response+bias+effect&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=831-863&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.717.4988%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20658855&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fa0019634&rft.aulast=Dube&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=C.+M.+Rotello&rft.au=E.+Heit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief+bias" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrippasM._F._VerdeS._J._Handley2014" class="citation journal cs1">Trippas, D.; M. F. Verde; S. J. Handley (2014). "Using forced choice to test belief bias in syllogistic reasoning". <i>Cognition</i>. <b>133</b> (3): 586–600. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2014.08.009">10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10026.1%2F9936">10026.1/9936</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25218460">25218460</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10769512">10769512</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognition&rft.atitle=Using+forced+choice+to+test+belief+bias+in+syllogistic+reasoning&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=586-600&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10026.1%2F9936&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10769512%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25218460&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2014.08.009&rft.aulast=Trippas&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=M.+F.+Verde&rft.au=S.+J.+Handley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABelief+bias" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief_bias&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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.1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive biases</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquiescence_bias" title="Acquiescence bias">Acquiescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity_effect" title="Ambiguity effect">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_bias" title="Affinity bias">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anchoring_(cognitive_bias)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchoring (cognitive bias)">Anchoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribution_bias" title="Attribution bias">Attribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93observer_asymmetry" title="Actor–observer asymmetry">Actor–observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">Correspondence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authority_bias" title="Authority bias">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automation_bias" title="Automation bias">Automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Availability_heuristic" title="Availability heuristic">Availability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_blind_spot" title="Bias blind spot">Blind spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice-supportive_bias" title="Choice-supportive bias">Choice-supportive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escalation_of_commitment" title="Escalation of commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion_fade" title="Compassion fade">Compassion fade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declinism" title="Declinism">Declinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_bias" title="Distinction bias">Distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect" title="Dunning–Kruger effect">Dunning–Kruger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egocentric_bias" title="Egocentric bias">Egocentric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_of_knowledge" title="Curse of knowledge">Curse of knowledge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_bias" title="Emotional bias">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrinsic_incentives_bias" title="Extrinsic incentives bias">Extrinsic incentives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fading_affect_bias" title="Fading affect bias">Fading affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_effect_(psychology)" title="Framing effect (psychology)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_illusion" title="Frequency illusion">Frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_pond_effect" title="Frog pond effect">Frog pond effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_effect" title="Halo effect">Halo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_effect" title="Horn effect">Horn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_attribution_bias" title="Hostile attribution bias">Hostile attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_bias" title="Impact bias">Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_stereotype" title="Implicit stereotype">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality_bias" title="Intentionality bias">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion_of_transparency" title="Illusion of transparency">Illusion of transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome" title="Mean world syndrome">Mean world syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere-exposure_effect" title="Mere-exposure effect">Mere-exposure effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_bias" title="Narrative bias">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negativity_bias" title="Negativity bias">Negativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalcy_bias" title="Normalcy bias">Normalcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity" title="Out-group homogeneity">Out-group homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcome_bias" title="Outcome bias">Outcome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precision_bias" title="Precision bias">Precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_bias" title="Present bias">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-innovation_bias" title="Pro-innovation bias">Pro-innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proximity_bias" title="Proximity bias">Proximity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Response_bias" title="Response bias">Response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restraint_bias" title="Restraint bias">Restraint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">Self-serving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_bias" title="Social comparison bias">Social comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence_bias" title="Social influence bias">Social influence bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_effect" title="Spotlight effect">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attribute_substitution" title="Attribute substitution">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-saving_bias" title="Time-saving bias">Time-saving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait_ascription_bias" title="Trait ascription bias">Trait ascription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_illusion" title="Turkey illusion">Turkey illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Restorff_effect" title="Von Restorff effect">von Restorff effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-risk_bias" title="Zero-risk bias">Zero-risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">In animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">Statistical biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Estimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forecast_bias" title="Forecast bias">Forecast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_user_bias" title="Healthy user bias">Healthy user</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(epidemiology)" title="Information bias (epidemiology)">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_bias_(psychology)" title="Information bias (psychology)">Psychological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_time_bias" title="Lead time bias">Lead time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_time_bias" title="Length time bias">Length time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Non-response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer_bias" title="Observer bias">Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omitted-variable_bias" title="Omitted-variable bias">Omitted-variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participation_bias" title="Participation bias">Participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_bias" title="Recall bias">Recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-selection_bias" title="Self-selection bias">Self-selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-desirability_bias" title="Social-desirability bias">Social desirability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrum_bias" title="Spectrum bias">Spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic error">Systematic error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_bias" title="Verification bias">Verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bias" title="Wet bias">Wet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other biases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basking_in_reflected_glory" title="Basking in reflected glory">Basking in reflected glory</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9formation_professionnelle" title="Déformation professionnelle">Déformation professionnelle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUTON_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="FUTON bias">FUTON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_bias" title="Inductive bias">Inductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_bias" title="Infrastructure bias">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherent_bias" title="Inherent bias">Inherent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_in_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Bias in education">In education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liking_gap" title="Liking gap">Liking gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_news_media_and_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States news media and the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_South_Asia" title="Media bias in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">Publication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporting_bias" title="Reporting bias">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hat_bias" title="White hat bias">White hat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bias reduction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_mitigation" title="Cognitive bias mitigation">Cognitive bias mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debiasing" title="Debiasing">Debiasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heuristic_(psychology)" title="Heuristic (psychology)">Heuristics in judgment and decision-making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Lists: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases#Memory_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">Memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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