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aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonotactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Phonotactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syntactic_case_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntactic_case_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.1</span> <span>Syntactic case suffixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntactic_case_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locative_case_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locative_case_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2.2</span> <span>Locative case suffixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locative_case_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Noun classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Personal pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstrative_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstrative_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Demonstrative pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstrative_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrogative_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogative_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Interrogative pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogative_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tense-aspect-mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense-aspect-mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Tense-aspect-mood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense-aspect-mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-finite_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-finite_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Non-finite forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-finite_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_and_causative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_and_causative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Potential and causative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_and_causative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Particles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Word formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Derivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun-forming_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun-forming_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1.1</span> <span>Noun-forming suffixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun-forming_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjective-forming_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjective-forming_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1.2</span> <span>Adjective-forming suffixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjective-forming_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb-forming_suffixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb-forming_suffixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1.3</span> <span>Verb-forming suffixes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb-forming_suffixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compounding_and_reduplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compounding_and_reduplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Compounding and reduplication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compounding_and_reduplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_phrase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_phrase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Noun phrase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_phrase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_phrase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_phrase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Verb phrase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_phrase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Copulas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copulas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Copulas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copulas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intransitive_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intransitive_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Intransitive verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intransitive_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monotransitive_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monotransitive_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Monotransitive verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monotransitive_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ditransitive_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ditransitive_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Ditransitive verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ditransitive_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affective_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affective_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>Affective clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affective_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.6</span> <span>Potential clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causativization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causativization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.7</span> <span>Causativization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causativization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Word order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrogative_sentences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogative_sentences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Interrogative sentences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogative_sentences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coordination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coordination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Coordination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coordination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subordination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subordination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Subordination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subordination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relative_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.1</span> <span>Relative clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbial_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbial_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.2</span> <span>Adverbial clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbial_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infinitival_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infinitival_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.3</span> <span>Infinitival clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infinitival_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Completement_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Completement_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.4</span> <span>Completement clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Completement_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reported_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reported_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.5</span> <span>Reported speech</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reported_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Lexicon</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lexicon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Lexicon subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Lexicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Numerals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_of_the_Tsez_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_of_the_Tsez_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sample of the Tsez language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_of_the_Tsez_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsez language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_tsez" title="Idioma tsez – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma tsez" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%82%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D3%80" title="ЦӀунтӀасезул мацӀ – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ЦӀунтӀасезул мацӀ" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sez_dili" title="Sez dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sez dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Цезки език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цезки език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsezeg" title="Tsezeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tsezeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llengua_tsez" title="Llengua tsez – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengua tsez" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cez%C5%A1tina" title="Cezština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Cezština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsesische_Sprache" title="Tsesische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tsesische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_tsez" title="Idioma tsez – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma tsez" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceza_lingvo" title="Ceza lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ceza lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didoera" title="Didoera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Didoera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="زبان تسزی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان تسزی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsez_bhasa" title="Tsez bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Tsez bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsez" title="Tsez – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tsez" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%B4%EC%A6%88%EC%96%B4" title="체즈어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="체즈어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaren_Tsez" title="Yaren Tsez – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yaren Tsez" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cezi%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Cezišćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Cezišćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_tsez" title="Lingua tsez – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua tsez" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="დიდოური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დიდოური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidido" title="Kidido – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kidido" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Цески јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Цески јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%84%E3%82%A7%E3%82%BA%E8%AA%9E" title="ツェズ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ツェズ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsez" title="Tsez – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tsez" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Dido" title="Lenga Dido – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Dido" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_cezyjski" title="Język cezyjski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język cezyjski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_tsez" title="Língua tsez – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua tsez" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Цезский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цезский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsez_language" title="Tsez language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tsez language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesk%C5%8F_g%C5%8Fdka" title="Ceskŏ gŏdka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Ceskŏ gŏdka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Дидојски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Дидојски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didon_kieli" title="Didon kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Didon kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%B7_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Цез теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Цез теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsezce" title="Tsezce – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tsezce" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used - notably <code>ddo</code> for Dido.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: lightgreen;">Tsez</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lightgreen;">Dido, Cez</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lightgreen;"><span title="Dido-language text"><span lang="ddo">цезйас мец</span></span><br /><span title="Dido-language romanization"><i lang="ddo-Latn">cezyas mec</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="cau-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[t͡sɛzˈjas<span class="wrap"> </span>mɛt͡s]</a></span><br /><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="cau-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[tsejos<span class="wrap"> </span>mets]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Southern <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Tsez_people" title="Tsez people">Tsez</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">18,000 (2020 census)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Tsezic_languages" title="Tsezic languages">Tsezic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Tsez–Hinukh<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Tsez</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: lightgreen;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ddo" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ddo">ddo</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/dido1241">dido1241</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2211">Tsez</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottopedia" title="Glottopedia">Glottopedia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Tsez">Tsez</a></code><sup id="cite_ref-Glottopedia_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glottopedia-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Northeast_Caucasus_languages_map_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Northeast_Caucasus_languages_map_en.svg/320px-Northeast_Caucasus_languages_map_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Northeast_Caucasus_languages_map_en.svg/480px-Northeast_Caucasus_languages_map_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Northeast_Caucasus_languages_map_en.svg/640px-Northeast_Caucasus_languages_map_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1133" data-file-height="1183" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#D50000; color:white;"> </span> Tsez</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lang_Status_60-DE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lang_Status_60-DE.svg/320px-Lang_Status_60-DE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lang_Status_60-DE.svg/480px-Lang_Status_60-DE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Lang_Status_60-DE.svg/640px-Lang_Status_60-DE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="153" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Tsez is classified as Definitely Endangered by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a> (2010)</span></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Tsez</b>, also known as <b>Dido</b> (<b>Tsez</b>: <span title="Dido-language text"><span lang="ddo">цезйас мец</span></span> (<span title="Dido-language romanization"><i lang="ddo-Latn">cezyas mec</i></span>) or <span title="Dido-language text"><span lang="ddo">цез мец</span></span> (<span title="Dido-language romanization"><i lang="ddo-Latn">cez mec</i></span>)), is a <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian language</a> with about 15,000 speakers (15,354 in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Census_(2002)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Census (2002)">2002</a>) spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Tsez_people" title="Tsez people">Tsez</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> people in the mountainous <a href="/wiki/Tsunta_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsunta District">Tsunta District</a> of southwestern <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. The name is said to derive from the Tsez word for '<a href="/wiki/Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a>', but this is most likely a <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">folk etymology</a>. The name <i>Dido</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> word <span title="Georgian-language text"><span lang="ka">დიდი</span></span> (<span title="Georgian-language romanization"><i lang="ka-Latn">didi</i></span>), meaning 'big'. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsez can be divided into the following dialects, with their Tsez names given in parentheses: </p> <ul><li>Asakh <i>(Asaq)</i> <ul><li>Tsebari <i>(Ceboru)</i></li></ul></li> <li>Mokok <i>(Newo)</i></li> <li>Kidero <i>(Kidiro)</i> <ul><li>Shaytl <i>(Ešiƛʼ)</i></li></ul></li> <li>Shapikh <i>(Šopix)</i></li> <li>Sagada <i>(Soƛʼo)</i></li></ul> <p>The examples in this article are based on the Tsebari subdialect of Asakh. The Sagada dialect is notable for its divergence from the others, and is considered to be a separate language by some.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hinukh_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinukh language">Hinukh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khwarshi_language" title="Khwarshi language">Khwarshi</a> were also once regarded as dialects of the Tsez language but are now commonly viewed as distinct languages of the same family. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>Labialized and pharyngeal consonants do not have their respective orthographical variants.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Tsez_language" title="Special:EditPage/Tsez language">improve this section</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Each phoneme is listed with its <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> [brackets], <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> transcriptions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stops</a> </th> <th><small>Voiceless</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> p п <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> t т <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> k к <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>Voiced</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span> b б <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[bˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span> d д <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[dʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> g г <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[gʷ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[gˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>Ejective</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʼ]</span> pʼ пӀ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pˤʼ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʼ]</span> tʼ тӀ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʷʼ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʼ]</span> kʼ кӀ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷʼ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kˤʼ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[qʼ]</span> qʼ къ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[qʷʼ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[qˤʼ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricates</a> </th> <th><small>Voiceless</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡s]</span> c ц <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡sʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ɬ]</span> ƛ лӀ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ɬʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃ]</span> č ч <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[q͡χ]</span> q хъ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[q͡χʷ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[q͡χˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>Ejective</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡sʼ]</span> cʼ цӀ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡sʷʼ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ɬʼ]</span> ƛʼ кь <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ɬʷʼ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃʼ]</span> čʼ чӀ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃʷʼ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricatives</a> </th> <th><small>Voiceless</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> s с <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[sʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬ]</span> ł лъ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span> š ш <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[χ]</span> x х <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[χʷ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[χˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ħ]</span> ħ хӀ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ħʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> h гь <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[hʷ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[hˤ]</span>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>Voiced</small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> z з <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[zʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒ]</span> ž ж <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒʷ]</span>) </p> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʁ]</span> ɣ гъ <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʁʷ]</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʁˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʕ]</span> ʕ гӀ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasals</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span> m м <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mˤ]</span>) </p> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> n н </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquids</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span> r р </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> l л </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowels</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span> w в </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span> y й </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Tsez shows an inventory of 33 <a href="/wiki/Consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonants">consonants</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span>) is not phonemic but occurs automatically before non-pharyngealized vowels in word-initial position.</li> <li>Consonant clusters are often broken up by inserting the <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a> vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span>. After <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span>, the inserted vowel is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span>.</li> <li>Word-initial consonants can be pharyngealized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Does this mean that there is an additional series of pharyngealized consonants, or that there's a suprasegmental feature of pharyngealization, or a pharyngealization phoneme, or something else? (June 2017)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and are marked as such in the proposed orthography by a small <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˤ]</span> following the consonant; in the Cyrillic spelling a <a href="/wiki/Palochka" title="Palochka">palochka</a> ("Ӏ") is used after the vowel that follows the consonant. <ul><li>A syllable-final pharyngealization of the consonant is transcribed in Cyrillic with <b>Cʼ</b> (where C stands for a consonant) and with <b>VCˤ</b> in the Latin transcription (the V stands for a vowel). Some dictionaries write this as <b>VӀC</b> though, which makes the sequence <b>CVӀC</b> ambiguous (see below).</li> <li>A syllable-initial pharyngealization of the consonant is transcribed in Cyrillic with <b>CVӀ</b> (the <a href="/wiki/Palochka" title="Palochka">palochka</a> follows the vowel, since the pharyngealization actually affects it more than the preceding consonant) and with <b>CˤV</b> in the Latin transcription.</li> <li>The pharyngealization itself is reported to be <a href="/wiki/Epiglotto-pharyngeal_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiglotto-pharyngeal consonant">epiglottal</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">Labialized</a> consonants are written as <b>Cв</b> in the Cyrillic and as <b>Cʷ</b> in the Latin transcription, respectively. Any consonant besides <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n,<span class="wrap"> </span>l,<span class="wrap"> </span>j,<span class="wrap"> </span>ʕ/</span> and the bilabials can be labialized.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/High_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="High vowel">High</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> i и </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span> u у </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e̞]</span> e е/э </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o̞]</span> o о </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Low_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Low vowel">Low</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span> a а <p>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aː]</span> ā а̄) </p> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The Tsebari dialect has only one long vowel <i>ā</i>.</li> <li>A vowel is dropped before another vowel, so there are never two consecutive vowels. However, a final <i>-u</i> <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labializes</a> the preceding consonant, if followed by a vowel.</li> <li>Word-initial <i>e</i> is spelled <i>э</i> in Cyrillic.</li> <li>In the proposed Cyrillic orthography, <i>ya</i>, <i>yo</i>, <i>yu</i> can also be written as <i>я</i>, <i>ё</i>, <i>ю</i>.</li> <li>In the Asakh dialect, lengthened vowels are automatically neutralized to <i>ā</i>. Other dialects (e.g. Mokok) also have a <a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">low front vowel</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span>), usually transcribed as <i>ä</i> in Latin and <i>аь</i> in Cyrillic, some also have a long <a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel#Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">mid back rounded vowel</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span>), transcribed as <i>ō</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phonotactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The syllable structure is generally <b>CV(C)</b>. There are no vowel clusters. It is an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative language</a> with a complex morphology. Suffixes are either <b>C</b>, <b>V</b>, <b>CV</b>, <b>VC</b> or <b>C+CV</b> (where the first consonant belongs to the preceding syllable), depending on the structure of the stem. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Superessive_case" title="Superessive case">superessive</a> suffix <i>-ƛʼ(o)</i>, which attached to the word <i>besuro</i> (fish) forms <i>besuro-ƛʼ</i> (on the fish) and together with <i>is</i> (bull) forms <i>is-ƛʼo</i> in order to maintain the syllable restriction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsez grammar was first analyzed by the Georgian linguist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Davit_Imnaishvili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Davit Imnaishvili (page does not exist)">Davit Imnaishvili</a> in 1963. Currently,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2012)">clarification needed</span></a> When?</i>]</sup> a collection of Tsez folklore texts (written in the Mokok dialect) is in production.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2012)">clarification needed</span></a> By whom?</i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Nouns</a> are inflected for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>, and have <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">noun classes</a> assigned to them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Number">Number</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nouns can either be singular or plural. The plural is formed by adding <i>-bi</i> to the stem in the <a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">absolutive case</a>: <i>besuro</i> (fish [sg.]) → <i>besuro-bi</i> (fish [pl.]). For all other cases, the suffix is <i>-za</i>; thus, "of the fish [pl.]" becomes <i>besuro-za-s</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Case">Case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are eight syntactical and a much larger number of locative cases, which distinguish three categories: location, orientation, and direction. Thus, counting the locative and non-locative cases together overall, there are 39 cases.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Tsez is an <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative–absolutive language</a>, which means that it makes no distinction between the subject of an intransitive sentence and the object of a transitive one. Both are in the unmarked absolutive case; the agent of the transitive sentence is in the ergative case. </p><p>According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ramazan_Rajabov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ramazan Rajabov (page does not exist)">Ramazan Rajabov</a>, the oblique stem of 42% of the nouns is different from the absolutive stem. Some nouns change their internal structure (such as a vowel), but others add one of about 20 so-called "thematic suffixes" to their end, to which the other case suffixes are attached. For example, the word for "language" or "tongue" is <i>mec</i>, but its oblique stem is <i>mecre-</i>, hence its plural is <i>mecrebi</i>, the ergative <i>mecrā</i> and so on. Rajabov says that the choice of the correct thematic suffix is sometimes difficult even for native speakers. It is likely that their origin lies in an application of two different plural forms, similar to the way the English word "children" actually has two archaic plural endings: <i>-(e)r</i> and <i>-en</i>. In Tsez it is sometimes even possible to use both the archaic and the regular and more productive <i>-bi</i> plural for a word.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsez_morphonology_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsez_morphonology-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Syntactic_case_suffixes">Syntactic case suffixes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Syntactic case suffixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th>singular </th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">Absolutive</a></b> </th> <td>-∅ </td> <td>-bi </td></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">Ergative</a></b> </th> <td>-ā </td> <td>-z-ā </td></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive 1</a></b> </th> <td>-(e)s </td> <td>-za-s </td></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive 2</a></b> </th> <td>-(e)z </td> <td>-za-z </td></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a></b> </th> <td>-(e)r </td> <td>-za-r </td></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a></b> </th> <td>-(e)d </td> <td>-za-d </td></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Equative_case" title="Equative case">Equative 1</a></b> </th> <td>-ce </td> <td>-za-ce </td></tr> <tr> <th><b><a href="/wiki/Equative_case" title="Equative case">Equative 2</a></b> </th> <td>-qʼāy </td> <td>-za-qʼāy </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Of the two genitive cases, the first is used as attribute to an absolutive head noun and the second to an oblique one. That means, that the Genitive 1 is used for phrases like <i>žekʼu-s is</i> (the man's bull), and the Genitive 2 is used for <i>žekʼu-z is-er</i> (for the man's bull). </p><p>The Equative 1 is used to make comparisons, like <i>besuro-ce</i> (like a fish) and can also be attached to other cases. </p><p>Rajabov suggests 3 more syntactical cases, namely <a href="/wiki/Possessive_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive case">possessive</a> 1 (<i>-łay</i>), possessive 2 (<i>-xu</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Abessive_case" title="Abessive case">abessive</a> (<i>-tay</i>). However, their status is debatable, as they seem to show both inflectional as well as derivational tendencies.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsez_morphonology_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsez_morphonology-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Locative_case_suffixes">Locative case suffixes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Locative case suffixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Essive_case" title="Essive case">Essive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lative_case" title="Lative case">Lative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Ablative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Allative_case" title="Allative case">Allative</a><sup>1</sup> </th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th>In— </th> <td>-ā<br />-āz </td> <td>-ā-r<br />-āz-a-r </td> <td>-āy<br />-āz-ay </td> <td>-āɣor<br />-āz-a </td> <td>= <i>in (a hollow object)</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Cont— </th> <td>-ł<br />-ł-āz </td> <td>-ł-er<br />-ł-āz-a-r </td> <td>-ł-āy<br />-ł-āz-ay </td> <td>-ł-xor<br />-ł-āz-a </td> <td>= <i>in (a mass), among</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Super— </th> <td>-ƛʼ(o)<br />-ƛʼ-āz </td> <td>-ƛʼo-r<br />-ƛʼ-āz-a-r </td> <td>-ƛʼ-āy<br />-ƛʼ-āz-ay </td> <td>-ƛʼ-āɣor, -ƛʼ-ār<br />-ƛʼ-āz-a </td> <td>= <i>on (horizontal)</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Sub— </th> <td>-ƛ<br />-ƛ-āz </td> <td>-ƛ-er<br />-ƛ-āz-a-r </td> <td>-ƛ-āy<br />-ƛ-āz-ay </td> <td>-ƛ-xor<br />-ƛ-āz-a </td> <td>= <i>under</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ad— </th> <td>-x(o)<br />-x-āz </td> <td>-xo-r<br />-x-āz-a-r </td> <td>-x-āy<br />-x-āz-ay </td> <td>-x-āɣor, -x-ā-r<br />-x-āz-a </td> <td>= <i>at</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Apud— </th> <td>-de<br />-d-āz </td> <td>-de-r<br />-d-āz-a-r </td> <td>-d-āy<br />-d-āz-ay </td> <td>-d-āɣor, -d-ā-r<br />-d-āz-a </td> <td>= <i>near</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Poss— </th> <td>-q(o)<br />-q-āz </td> <td>-qo-r<br />-q-āz-a-r </td> <td>-q-āy<br />-q-āz-ay </td> <td>-q-āɣor, -q-ā-r<br />-q-āz-a </td> <td>= <i>on (vertical)</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>meaning </th> <td>= <i>at (position)</i> </td> <td>= <i>to (destination)</i> </td> <td>= <i>from (origin)</i> </td> <td>= <i>towards (direction)</i> </td> <td>  </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>The allative case is also called 'versative'. In the distal paradigm, it is used in the sense of "behind" or "beyond" and is then called 'posterior'.</li></ol> <p>Of the forms, the upper one shows the <b>non-distal</b> (i.e. close), the lower one the <b>distal</b> (i.e. far) form of the suffix. In the non-distal there are sometimes two equal forms <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="two forms, one of which has ''o'' (in an different place than the other), seem to be unequal forms (March 2018)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> for the allative case. The epenthetic vowel <i>o</i> in parentheses is used after noun stems ending in a consonant; thus, "next to the bull" is <i>is-xo</i>, while "next to the fish" is <i>besuro-x</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_classes">Noun classes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Noun classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsez distinguishes four <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">noun classes</a> in the singular and two in the plural. They are prefixes that are attached to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, several postpositions like <i>-oƛƛʼo</i> ("between") or <i>-iłe</i> ("like") and the emphatic particle <i>-uy</i> to show agreement with the noun. Agreement is only possible on vowel-initial words or words that begin with a pharyngealized vowel, but there are also a few words beginning with a vowel that do not take these prefixes. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Class </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Attribution </th></tr> <tr> <th>I </th> <td>∅- </td> <td>b- </td> <td><i>for male people only</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>II </th> <td>y- </td> <td rowspan="3">r- </td> <td><i>for female people and inanimate objects (e.g. "book")</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>III </th> <td>b- </td> <td><i>for animals and inanimate objects (e.g. "sun")</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>IV </th> <td>r- </td> <td><i>for inanimate objects only (e.g. "water")</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As inanimate objects cover the classes II, III and IV, it's not transparent into which class an inanimate object belongs. However, there are certain tendencies based on the semantic field of the nouns. Nouns that are able to move (like sun, moon, star, lightning, car, train) usually belong to class III, while products that traditionally have to do with the work of women (like clothes or berries and also milk) often belong to class II. Clothes made from leather are—as the word for leather itself—usually assigned to class III, due to their relation to animals. </p><p>Class IV originally included abstract words, collective and mass nouns, such as water, salt, sky or wind. Materials also often seem to trigger noun classes: "chair" and "wood" are both class IV nouns. Also shape seems to have an influence (flat things are associated with class II, round things with class III and long things with class IV). In the same manner, proper names are assigned the classes of the nouns they denote. Thus, <i>Patʼi</i> ("Fatima") is assigned class II, because it's a female name, and <i>Asaq</i> (a Tsez village) belongs to class III, because "village" (<i>ʕaƛʼ</i>) is also in this group. Likewise, new loan words are assigned the noun class of a semantically similar existing Tsez word. </p><p>Experiments have shown that Tsez speakers do not assign any noun classes to new words for objects or places with which they are unfamiliar.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain derivational endings also require a specific noun class, see the section about derivation below. </p><p>Verbs and adverbs always agree with the absolutive argument of the phrase, regardless of the clause's transitivity.<br /> If more than one absolutive argument is linked by the conjunction <i>-n(o)</i> ("and") and one of them is of the first noun class, then class I plural triggers the agreement for the clause; otherwise, it is class II/III/IV plural. Compare: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kid-no</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl[<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">II</span>]:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span>-and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">uži-n</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy[I]:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span>-and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>b</b>-ay-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPL</span></b>-come-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">kid-no uži-n <b>b</b>-ay-si</p><p style="display: none;">girl[II]:ABS-and boy[I]:ABS-and <b>IPL</b>-come-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"A girl and a boy arrived."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>and </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kid-no</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl[<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">II</span>]:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span>-and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">meši-n</p><p style="margin: 0px;">calf[<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">III</span>]:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span>-and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>r</b>-ay-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IIPL</span></b>-come-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">kid-no meši-n <b>r</b>-ay-si</p><p style="display: none;">girl[II]:ABS-and calf[III]:ABS-and <b>IIPL</b>-come-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"A girl and a calf arrived."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Personal_pronouns">Personal pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal pronouns">Personal pronouns</a> exist in Tsez only for the first and second person; for the third person the demonstratives <i>že</i> (singular) and <i>žedi</i> (plural) are used. As the singular personal pronouns have the same form in absolutive and ergative, a sentence like <i>Di mi okʼsi</i> is ambiguous, because it can both mean "I hit you" and "You hit me", due to the rather free word order. However, they have a different form for the oblique cases and an irregular form in the genitive 1 case, the same as the plural pronouns. The singular pronouns also have the same forms for all four noun classes, while the plurals make this distinction, as shown in the chart below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th>  </th> <th>class I </th> <th>class II-IV </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">1st person singular </th> <th>abs. & erg. </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">di </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">dā- </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive 1 </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">dey </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">2nd person singular </th> <th>abs. & erg </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">mi </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">debe-<sup>1</sup><br />dow-<sup>2</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>genitive 1 </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">debi </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4;" align="center">1st person plural </th> <th>absolutive </th> <td>eli </td> <td>ela </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td>elu- </td> <td>ela- </td></tr> <tr> <th>special gen. 1<sup>3</sup> </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">eli </td></tr> <tr> <th>special gen. 2<sup>3</sup> </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">eliz </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">2nd person plural </th> <th>absolutive </th> <td>meži </td> <td>meža </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td>mežu- </td> <td>meža- </td></tr> <tr> <th>special gen. 1<sup>3</sup> </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">meži </td></tr> <tr> <th>special gen. 2<sup>3</sup> </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">mežiz </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>This form is used before a syllable-final consonant, such as the suffix <i>-r</i>.</li> <li>This form is used before a syllable-initial consonant, such as the suffix <i>-de</i>.</li> <li>The special forms of the two genitives is used when the possessor is a close group, typically a family, thus <i>eli eniy</i> is used for "our mother" instead of <i>elus eniy</i>. The plural demonstrative <i>žedi</i> ("they") also shows this feature, being <i>žedi</i> in the close group genitive 1 and <i>žediz</i> in the close group genitive 2. For ordinary possessors these forms would be <i>žedus</i> and <i>žeduz</i>, respectively.</li></ol> <ul><li>There is also a reflexive personal pronoun, meaning "self" or "oneself", which is <i>žo</i> and <i>ne-</i> in its oblique form, respectively.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstrative_pronouns">Demonstrative pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Demonstrative pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative pronouns</a> are suffixes that are attached to the corresponding noun. They inflect for noun classes, number and case and make a two-way distinction into <b>proximal</b> (close, English: "this/these") and <b>distal</b> (far, English: "that/those"), the latter of which are also used as third person pronouns. </p><p>The oblique forms are used attributively and also as a base to which other (oblique) case suffixes can be attached. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">  </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">  </th> <th>Class I </th> <th>Class II-IV </th> <th>Class I </th> <th>Class II-IV </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Proximal </th> <th>Absolutive </th> <td>-da </td> <td>-du </td> <td colspan="2;" align="center">-ziri </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>-si </td> <td>-ła-, -ł<sup>1</sup> </td> <td>-zi </td> <td>-za </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Distal </th> <th>Absolutive </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">že </td> <td colspan="2;" align="center">žedi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>nesi </td> <td>neło, neł<sup>1</sup> </td> <td>žedu </td> <td>žeda </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>The <i>-ł</i> forms are used optionally after vowels at the end of words.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interrogative_pronouns">Interrogative pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Interrogative pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative pronouns</a> make a distinction between human ("who?") and non-human ("what?") only in the oblique forms, but not in the absolutive. The non-human interrogative pronouns require the class IV affix when triggering agreement. </p><p>Interrogative pronouns that are replacing an adjunct (as, for instance, "when?" or "why?") usually occur at the beginning of the sentence, while those replacing arguments ("who?", "what?", etc.) often stay in the position of the replaced word. However, they can be fronted as well for the purpose of discourse-specific linking. Thus, a fronted <i>šebi</i> might be translated as "Which...?" instead of "What...?". </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th>Human </th> <th>Non-human </th></tr> <tr> <th>Absolutive </th> <td colspan="2;" align="center">šebi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>łā </td> <td>łina </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ergative </th> <td>łu </td> <td>łinā </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other interrogative pronouns include: </p> <ul><li><i>dice</i> ("how much?")</li> <li><i>didiyu</i> ("which?")</li> <li><i>didur</i> ("how?")</li> <li><i>łina-s</i> ("why?"), this seems to be the genitive 1 form of the non-human oblique interrogative pronoun</li> <li><i>nā</i> ("where?"), stem <i>na-</i></li> <li><i>neti</i> ("when?")</li> <li><i>šidā</i> ("why?")</li> <li><i>šomo</i> ("how many?")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsez has a rich verbal morphology with many categories. Despite the great variety in <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugation</a>, the only truly irregular verb is "to be" with some forms being <i>yoł</i> (present), <i>ānu</i> (present negative), <i>zow-</i> (past), etc. There are 4 morphological groups, according to the final phoneme of the stem: The first group ends in a consonant, the second in <i>i</i>, the third in <i>-u</i> and the fourth group contains the verbs with the variable ending <i>-d</i> (before a vowel) / <i>-y</i> (elsewhere). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tense-aspect-mood">Tense-aspect-mood</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tense-aspect-mood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are five <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> forms in the <a href="/wiki/Realis_mood#Indicative" title="Realis mood">indicative mood</a>, shown in the following table with examples for verbs with vocalic and consonantal stem endings. The past forms make an <a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">evidentiality</a> distinction. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Form</th> <th>Suffix</th> <th>With <i>-iš-</i> ("to eat")</th> <th>With <i>-esu-</i> ("to find") </th></tr> <tr> <th>past unwitnessed </th> <td>-n(o)</td> <td>-iš-no <i>"ate"</i></td> <td>-esu-n <i>"found"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>past witnessed </th> <td>-s(i)</td> <td>-iš-si <i>"ate"</i></td> <td>-esu-s <i>"found"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>present </th> <td>-x(o)</td> <td>-iš-xo <i>"eat"</i></td> <td>-esu-x <i>"find"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>future definite </th> <td>-an</td> <td>-iš-an <i>"will eat"</i></td> <td>-esʷ-an <i>"will find"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>future indefinite </th> <td>shift of the vowel in<br />the stem before the last<br />consonant to <i>ā</i></td> <td>-āš <i>"will eat"</i></td> <td>-āsu <i>"will find"</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>In interrogative sentences (English "wh-questions"), the past witnessed suffix is <i>-ā</i> instead of <i>-s(i)</i>. In yes–no questions, the finite verb receives the additional ending <i>-ā</i>, except for the past witnessed form, which receives the ending <i>-iyā</i> (after consonants) or <i>-yā</i> (after vowels).</li> <li>Of the two different future tenses, the definite one bears the connotation of being wanted by the speaker ("I want and I will...") and is only used with the first person, while the indefinite one (simply "will") tends to be used with second and third.</li> <li>Other moods are formed as follows: <ul><li>The <b><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a></b> has no suffix for intransitive verbs (e.g. <i>-ikʼi!</i> "go!") and the suffix <i>-o</i> for transitive verbs (e.g. <i>tʼetʼr-o!</i> "read!"); the verb is usually put in the first position in the phrase then.</li> <li>The <b><a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative</a></b> adds a <i>-ƛ</i> to the imperative form, e.g. <i>tʼetʼr-o-ƛ!</i> ("let him read!").</li></ul></li> <li>There is also a great variety of analytical forms for verbs often exhibiting <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspectual</a> meaning: <ul><li><b>emphatic future</b> = infinitive + "to be" (present tense); e.g. <i>-ikʼ-a yoł</i> ("shall go")</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">continuous aspect</a></b> = imperfect gerund + "to be" (in its appropriate tense-aspect form); e.g. <i>-ikʼi-x zow-si</i> ("was going")</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a></b> = perfect gerund + "to be"; e.g. <i>-ikʼi-n zow-si</i> ("had gone")</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a></b> = resultative participle + "to be"; e.g. <i>-ikʼ-āsi zow-si</i> ("had gone")</li> <li><b>intentive</b> = present participle + "to be"; e.g. <i>-ikʼi-xo-si zow-si</i> ("intended to go")</li> <li><b>resultative</b> = imperfective/perfective gerund + resultative participle of <i>-iči-</i> ("be located") + "to be"; e.g. <i>-ikʼi-n -ič-ā-si zow-si</i> ("was gone") or <i>-ikʼi-x -ič-ā-si zow-si</i> ("was in the state of being on his way hence")</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Negation">Negation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic negation suffix in the indicative is <i>-čʼ<b>V</b></i> with <b>V</b> being a vowel that can be different, depending on the tense/aspect/mood of the verb; it is inserted after the verb stem. With the example verb <i>-ikʼi-</i> ("to go"), the following forms are possible: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Form</th> <th>Negation Suffix</th> <th>With <i>-ikʼi-</i> ("to go") </th></tr> <tr> <th>past unwitnessed negative </th> <td>-čʼey-</td> <td>-ikʼi-čʼey <i>"didn't go"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>past witnessed negative </th> <td>-čʼu-</td> <td>-ikʼi-čʼu-s <i>or</i> -ikʼi-čʼu <i>"didn't go"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>present negative </th> <td>-ānu- <i>(present negative of "to be")</i></td> <td>-ikʼi-x-ānu <i>"doesn't go"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>future definite negative </th> <td>-čʼi-</td> <td>-ikʼ-ā-čʼi-n <i>"won't go"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>future indefinite negative </th> <td>-čʼi-</td> <td>-ākʼi-čʼi <i>"won't go"</i> (vowel shift!) </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The prohibitive (i.e. the negative imperative) is expressed by adding the suffix <i>-no</i> to the future indefinite form of the verb, e.g. <i>-āš-no!</i> ("don't eat!").</li> <li>The negative optative form simply adds a <i>-ƛ</i> to that: <i>āš-no-ƛ</i> ("let him not eat!").</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-finite_forms">Non-finite forms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Non-finite forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participles</a> behave like adjectives and only vary according to the class agreement, which gets attached to them as prefixes. There are several different kinds of participles in the Tsez language: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Form</th> <th>Suffix</th> <th>With <i>-iš-</i> ("to eat") </th></tr> <tr> <th>past participle </th> <td>-ru <i>(stem vowel → </i>ā<i>)<sup>1</sup></i></td> <td>-āš-ru <i>"having eaten"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>past negative participle </th> <td>-čʼi-ru <i>(stem vowel → </i>ā<i>)<sup>1</sup></i></td> <td>-āš-čʼi-ru <i>"not having eaten"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>resultative participle </th> <td>-ā-si</td> <td>-iš-ā-si <i>"in the state of having eaten"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>resultative negative participle </th> <td>-ani</td> <td>-iš-ani <i>"in the state of not having eaten"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>present participle </th> <td>-xo-si</td> <td>-iš-xo-si <i>"eating"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>present negative participle </th> <td>-x-ānu-si</td> <td>-iš-x-ānu-si <i>"not eating"</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>The stem vowel here is the vowel before the last consonant. Note that stems, different from roots, include causatives; thus <i>-ikʼi-</i> ("to go") becomes <i>-ākʼi-</i>, but its causative form <i>-ikʼir-</i> ("to let go") becomes <i>-ikʼār-</i>! Sometimes also unarticulated epenthetic vowels can be lengthened to <i>ā</i>, as in: <i>tʼetʼr-</i> ("to learn"), which becomes <i>tʼetʼār-</i>.</li></ol> <p>Converbs, like <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerunds</a> and verbal adverbs, are very numerous in Tsez. The following list gives only an incomplete account. The table illustrates the relationship between the temporal converb (C) and the main verb (V): </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Relationship between C and V</th> <th>Suffix</th> <th>With <i>-ikʼi-</i> ("to go") </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">C and V are simultaneous </th> <th>manner of action </th> <td>-x</td> <td>-ikʼi-x </td></tr> <tr> <th>punctual </th> <td>-ƛʼ</td> <td>-ikʼi-ƛʼ </td></tr> <tr> <th>simple simultaneous </th> <td>-ƛʼorey / -zey</td> <td>-ikʼi-ƛʼorey / -ikʼi-zey <i>"while he goes/went"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">C precedes V </th> <th>manner of action </th> <td>-n</td> <td>-ikʼi-n </td></tr> <tr> <th>simple anterior </th> <td>-nosi</td> <td>-ikʼi-nosi <i>"after he goes/went"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>immediate anterior </th> <td>-run <i>(stem vowel → </i>ā<i>)<sup>1</sup></i></td> <td>-ākʼi-run <i>"immediately after he goes/went"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">C follows V </th> <th>simple posterior </th> <td>-zaƛʼor</td> <td>-ikʼi-zaƛʼor <i>"before he goes/went"</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>terminative </th> <td>-a-ce</td> <td>-ikʼ-a-ce <i>"until he goes/went"</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Other non-temporal converbs are: <ul><li><b>perfective</b> (completive) and <b>imperfective</b> (durative) <b>converbs</b> are identical to the past unwitnessed and present forms respectively: <i>-n(o)</i> and <i>-x(o)</i></li> <li><b>locative converb</b>: <i>-z-ā</i>, stem vowel changes to <i>ā</i></li> <li><b>causal converb</b>: <i>-xoy</i>, <i>-za-ƛʼ</i> or <i>-za-q</i>; e.g. <i>-iš-xoy</i> ("because of eating")</li> <li><b>conditional converb</b>: <i>-nāy</i> or <i>-łi</i>; e.g. <i>iš-nāy</i> ("if he eats")</li> <li><b>concessive converb</b>: <i>-łin</i></li></ul></li> <li><b>infinitive</b>: <i>-a</i>; e.g. <i>-iš-a</i> ("to eat")</li> <li><b>verbal noun</b>: <i>-(a)ni</i>; e.g. <i>-iš-ani</i> ("the eating") and <i>-rečʼ-ni</i> ("the cutting")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Potential_and_causative">Potential and causative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Potential and causative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood#Potential" title="Irrealis mood">potential mood</a> receives the suffix <i>-(e)ł</i>, while the <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative mood</a> suffix is <i>-(e)r</i>. Again, the epenthetic vowel is dropped when the stem ends in a vowel or if another suffix starting with a vowel is attached. Together with the definite future suffixes <i>-an</i>, for instance, the epenthetic vowel has to be dropped: <i>iš-er</i> ("let him eat"), but <i>iš-r-an</i> ("will let him eat"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particles">Particles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Particles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsez has a rich set of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a>, most of them occurring as <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a>. The particle <i>-tow</i> shows general emphasis while <i>-kin</i> shows general emphasis and focusing. A contrastively topicalized constituent is marked by the particle <i>-gon</i>. Being clitics, they can be attached to any <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">part of speech</a>. There is also a quotation particle that is used in direct reported speech and appears as the suffix <i>-ƛin</i> that always appears at the end of the quoted phrase or sentence. Example: <i>Di žekʼu yołƛin eƛix kʼetʼā</i> ("'I am a man', says the cat"). There are also other free particles like <i>hudu</i> ("yes, so") or <i>āy</i> ("no"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_formation">Word formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Word formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Derivation">Derivation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Derivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Noun-forming_suffixes">Noun-forming suffixes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Noun-forming suffixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following list is a selection of suffixes used to form nouns from other parts of speech as well as other nouns. </p> <ul><li><i>-bi</i> / <i>-zi</i> (added to place names): <b>residents</b><br />e.g. <i>Newo-bi</i> / <i>Newo-zi</i> ("resident of Mokok", from <i>Newo</i> "Mokok")</li> <li><i>-łi</i> (added to singular absolutive nouns denoting persons or to adjectives in the class IV form): <b>abstract nouns</b> and <b>occupations</b><br />e.g. <i>laɣ-łi</i> ("slavery", from <i>laɣ</i> "slave"), <i>učitel-łi</i> ("teaching", from the Russian loan <i>učitel</i> "teacher"), <i>r-igu-łi</i> ("grace, kindness", from <i>-igu</i> "good")</li> <li><i>-kʼu</i> (added to verbs in the iterative stem forms): <b>instruments</b> or <b>personal descriptions</b><br />e.g. <i>ˤuƛʼno-kʼu</i> ("coward", from <i>ˤuƛʼ-</i>, "to be afraid"), <i>ˤiya-kʼu</i> ("cryer", from <i>ˤiyad-</i>, "to cry")</li> <li><i>-ni</i> (added to verb stems and onomatopoeic nouns): <b>abstract nouns</b><br />e.g. <i>rečʼ-ni</i> ("sharpness", from <i>rečʼ-</i> "to cut"), <i>ˤoy-ni</i> ("mooing", from <i>ˤoy</i> "moo")</li> <li><i>-qu</i> (added to nouns in their oblique stem) or the lesser used Awar suffix <i>-qan</i>: <b>container</b> or <b>occupation</b><br />e.g. <i>magala-qu</i> ("baker"), <i>bocʼ-a-qu</i> ("wolf-trap"), <i>qido-qan</i> ("mason")</li> <li><i>-qʼoy</i> / <i>-qoy</i> / <i>-ħoy</i> (added to singular oblique noun stems): <b>enveloping objects</b><br />e.g. <i>reƛʼi-qoy</i> ("glove", from <i>reƛʼa</i> "hand")</li> <li><i>-yo</i> (added to the lative singular of a noun): <b>possessor</b><br />e.g. <i>kotʼu-r-yo</i> ("bearded man", from <i>kotʼu</i> "beard")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Adjective-forming_suffixes">Adjective-forming suffixes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Adjective-forming suffixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following suffixes can be used to derive adjectives from other words: </p> <ul><li><i>-mu</i> (added to singular absolutive noun, adjectives or verbs): <b>simple adjective</b><br />e.g. <i>boryo-mu</i> ("sickly", from <i>boryo</i> "sore, wound"), <i>atʼi-mu</i> ("unripe", from <i>atʼiy</i> "wet"), <i>šakarya-mu</i> ("jealous", from <i>šakaryad-</i> "to be jealous")</li> <li><i>-šay</i> (added to oblique noun stems): <b>inseparable possessing</b><br />e.g. <i>čakaryo-šay čay</i> ("sweet tea", literally "sugar-containing tea")</li> <li><i>-tay</i> (added to oblique noun stems): <b>absence</b>, <b>lacking</b><br />e.g. <i>ciyo-tay</i> ("unsalted")</li> <li><i>-xu</i> (added to oblique noun stems): <b>separable possessing</b><br />e.g. <i>ciyo-xu raƛʼ</i> ("soil with salt crystals")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Verb-forming_suffixes">Verb-forming suffixes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Verb-forming suffixes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some verb-forming suffixes, like the causative and potential derivatives, have already been mentioned in the section about the verbal morphology. Other examples include: </p> <ul><li><i>-kʼ-</i> (added to qualitative adjectives, adverbs and some intransitive verbs ending in <i>-x</i>): <b>transitive verbs</b><br />e.g. <i>atʼi-kʼ-</i> ("to dampen, to soak", from <i>atʼiy</i> "wet"), <i>bito-kʼ-</i> ("to move sth.", from <i>bittay</i> "over there"), <i>łicʼo-kʼ-</i> ("to unite", from <i>łicʼox-</i> "to mix")</li> <li><i>-ł-</i> (added to qualitative adjectives and adverbs): <b>intransitive verbs</b><br />e.g. <i>atʼi-ł-</i> ("to become wet", from <i>atʼiy</i> "wet"), <i>ade-x-</i> ("to move forward", from <i>adāy</i> "in front")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compounding_and_reduplication">Compounding and reduplication</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Compounding and reduplication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Tsez it is also possible to create new words from combining existing ones; usually nouns and verbs are derived, but there also exist compound adjectives and adverbs. Only the last component of the compound inflects, as it is the head of the phrase. However, it does not necessarily govern the noun class assignment for compound nouns—if one of the two components belongs to class I, then the whole compound is of this class, otherwise it is automatically assigned to noun class II. Sometimes, the last component is truncated (see fifth example). Suffixation may also occur (see first example). The following list is not exhaustive: </p> <ul><li><i>debi-dey-łi</i> "quarrel, dividing up" (lit. "your-my" + nominalizer <i>-łi</i>)</li> <li><i>eni-obiy</i> or <i>eni-obu</i> "parents" (lit. "mother-father")</li> <li><i>ħotʼo-čʼel</i> "stirrup" (lit. "foot-place")</li> <li><i>-ikʼi-nex-</i> "to go back and forth" (lit. "go-come")</li> <li><i>ƛʼiri-ku</i> "shawl" (lit. <i>ƛʼiri</i> "above" - <i>kur</i> "throw")</li> <li><i>niga-cʼuda</i> "bruised" (lit. "red-green")</li> <li><i>rigu-žuka</i> "anything" (lit. "good-bad")</li> <li><i>taqqo-naqqo</i> "back and forth" (lit. "on that side - on this side")</li> <li><i>tʼitʼi-ečʼ-</i> "hash" (lit. "tear-cut up")</li></ul> <p>Another common way to derive new words is <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>, which can derive nouns, as well as adjectives and verbs. In reduplicating nouns, the initial syllable can often undergo a change, as in <i>xisi-basi</i> "changes" or <i>bix-mix</i> (herbs). It is used to intensify adjectives (e.g. <i>r-očʼi-r-očʼiy</i> "very cold") and verbs (e.g. <i>-okʼ-okʼ-</i> "to stab repeatedly") but is also used for <a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">onomatopoeia</a> (e.g. <i>ħi-ħi</i> "neigh"). </p><p>Another highly productive way of forming verbs is the combination of a word (often a loan from Arabic or Avar) and the Tsez verbs <i>-oq-</i> ("to stay, to become") or <i>-od-</i> ("to do"), although some combinations can also be formed with other verbs. Note that only the second word is inflected, while the first one remains uninflected. Some examples are: </p> <ul><li><i>bercin -oq-</i> "to be decorated" (from Avar <i>берцинав</i> (<i>bercinaw</i>) "beautiful")</li> <li><i>paradat -od-</i> "to sell" (from Russian <i>продать</i> (<i>prodat’</i>) "to sell")</li> <li><i>razwod b-od-</i> "to divorce" (from Russian <i>развод</i> (<i>razvod</i>) "divorce")</li> <li><i>riƛu riƛʼ-</i> "to plough" (lit. "ploughing-field plough")</li> <li><i>rokʼ-ƛʼo-r r-ay-</i> "to remember" (lit. "heart<small>-SUPER-LAT III-</small>arrive")</li> <li><i>rokʼu r-exu-</i> "to feel pity" (lit. "heart die")</li> <li><i>sapu y-od-</i> "to destroy"</li> <li><i>tʼamizi -od-</i> "to cause" (from Avar <i>тIамизе</i> (<i>tʼamize</i>) "to force")</li> <li><i>woržizi -oq-</i> "to fly" (from Avar <i>-оржизе</i> (<i>-oržize</i>) "to fly")</li> <li><i>xabar b-od-</i> "to talk" (from Arabic <i>خبر</i> (<i>xabar</i>) "news, message" via Avar <i>хабар</i> (<i>xabar</i>) "story")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun_phrase">Noun phrase</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Noun phrase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">Noun phrases</a> (NP) per definition have a nominal head, which can be a noun, a pronoun or a substantivized expression such as a participle with the nominalizer <i>-łi</i>, <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal nouns</a> (masdars) or substantivized restrictive adjectives (as in English: "the older one")—the latter one bears the suffix <i>-ni</i> directly after the adjective stem. They all inflect for case. </p><p>As Tsez is a <a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">head-last</a> language, all modifiers precede the head noun and agree with it in class. The neutral order of modifiers is usually: </p> <ol><li>relative clause</li> <li>unemphatic possessive pronoun</li> <li>emphatic possessive pronoun</li> <li>restrictive adjective</li> <li>demonstrative</li> <li>numeral / quantifier</li> <li>non-restrictive adjective</li></ol> <p>Note that the order of element number 4, 5 and 6 may vary: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sideni</p><p style="margin: 0px;">another</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʕaƛ-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">village-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IN</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">b-iči-xosi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPL</span>-be-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRSPRT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nesi-s</p><p style="margin: 0px;">he-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN1</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">b-aqʼˤu</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPL</span>-many</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">žuka-tʼa-ni</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bad-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DISTR</span>-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">RESTR</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʕagarłi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">relative</p></div><p style="display: none;">sideni ʕaƛ-ā b-iči-xosi nesi-s b-aqʼˤu žuka-tʼa-ni ʕagarłi</p><p style="display: none;">another village-IN:ESS IPL-be-PRSPRT he-GEN1 IPL-many bad-DISTR-RESTR relative</p><p style="clear: left;">"his many unpleasant relatives who live in the next village"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Modifiers can also include oblique noun phrases, which then take one of the two genitive suffixes depending on the case of the head noun: <i>-si</i> for absolutive, <i>-zo</i> for oblique head nouns. Compare: </p> <dl><dd><i>ħon-ƛʼo-si ʕadala</i> ("the fool on the hill", absolutive)</dd></dl> <p>and </p> <dl><dd><i>ħon-ƛʼo-zo ʕadala-r</i> ("to the fool on the hill", dative/lative)</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_phrase">Verb phrase</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Verb phrase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">Verb phrases</a> (VP) are phrases whose head is a verb or a copula. Verbs can have different transitivities that directly affect the case distribution for their nominal arguments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copulas">Copulas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Copulas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copulas</a> are used in the Tsez language to combine the subject with a noun phrase or with predicative adjectives and can in these cases be translated with the English copula "to be". The subject as well as the predicative noun stands in the absolutive case and is thus unmarked. If an environmental condition is described in form of an adjective, the adjective requires class IV agreement. Compare the following examples: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʕAli-s</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Ali-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN1</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">obiy</p><p style="margin: 0px;">father</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aħo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shepherd</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yoł</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ʕAli-s obiy aħo yoł</p><p style="display: none;">Ali-GEN1 father shepherd be:PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"Ali's father is a shepherd."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>and </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ciq-qo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">forest-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>r</b>-očʼiy</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IV</span></b>-cold</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zow-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ciq-qo <b>r</b>-očʼiy zow-si</p><p style="display: none;">forest-POSS:ESS <b>IV</b>-cold be-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"It was cold in the forest."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intransitive_verbs">Intransitive verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Intransitive verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The only argument of intransitive verbs stands in the unmarked absolutive case. The verb agrees with the noun in class. </p><p>An example phrase would be: <i>is b-exu-s</i> ("the bull died"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monotransitive_verbs">Monotransitive verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Monotransitive verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Monotransitive verbs are verbs that take two arguments. As Tsez is an absolutive–ergative language, the subject, or—to be more precise—the agent, requires the ergative case, while the direct object (or patient) requires the absolutive case. The direct object of a transitive verb is thus marked in the same way as the subject of an intransitive verb. Again, the verb agrees in class with the absolutive (i.e. the direct object). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">žekʼ-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gulu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">horse:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>b</b>-okʼ-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">III</span></b>-hit-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">žekʼ-ā gulu <b>b</b>-okʼ-si</p><p style="display: none;">man-ERG horse:ABS <b>III</b>-hit-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"The man hit the horse."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Both arguments, the agent as well as the patient, can be omitted if they are clear from the context. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ditransitive_verbs">Ditransitive verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Ditransitive verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ditransitive verbs are verbs that require 3 arguments: a subject (or agent), a direct object (or patient, sometimes also called theme) and an indirect object (or recipient). In English "to give" and "to lend" are typical ditransitive verbs. In Tsez the agent takes the ergative and the patient takes the absolutive case. The recipient's case depends on the <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> nature of the transfer of possession or information: if it's a permanent transfer (e.g. "to give (as a present)"), the recipient takes the dative/lative case (ending in <i>-(e)r</i>), if it's a non-permanent transfer (e.g. "to lend") or if it's incomplete, the recipient takes any of the locative cases. Two examples illustrate the difference: </p><p>Permanent transfer: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʕAl-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Ali-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kidbe-r</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">surat</p><p style="margin: 0px;">picture:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">teƛ-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ʕAl-ā kidbe-r surat teƛ-si</p><p style="display: none;">Ali-ERG girl-DAT picture:ABS give-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"Ali gave the girl a picture (for good, e.g. as a gift)."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Temporary transfer: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʕAl-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Ali-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kidbe-qo-r</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</span>-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">surat</p><p style="margin: 0px;">picture:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">teƛ-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ʕAl-ā kidbe-qo-r surat teƛ-si</p><p style="display: none;">Ali-ERG girl-POSS-DAT picture:ABS give-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"Ali lent the girl a picture."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Affective_clauses">Affective clauses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Affective clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Affective clauses have either verbs of perception or psychological verbs as predicate. Those verbs are for example: "be bored/bother", "become known", "find", "forget", "hate", "hear", "know", "love/like", "miss", "see", etc. The experiencer (which would be the subject in the corresponding English sentence) is usually in the dative case, while the stimulus (the object in the English sentence) takes the absolutive case. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʕAli-r</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Ali-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Patʼi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Fatima:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">y-eti-x</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">II</span>-love-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ʕAli-r Patʼi y-eti-x</p><p style="display: none;">Ali-DAT Fatima:ABS II-love-PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"Ali loves Fatima."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Potential_clauses">Potential clauses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Potential clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Potential clauses are the equivalent to English clauses involving the words "can" or "be able to". In Tsez this is expressed by the verbal suffix <i>-ł</i>; the subject of the clause then takes the possessive case (<i>-q(o)</i>) instead of the ergative, while the object of the verb is in the absolutive. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kʼetʼu-q</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cat-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣˤay</p><p style="margin: 0px;">milk:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ħaƛu-<b>ł</b>-xo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">drink-<b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POT</span></b>-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">kʼetʼu-q ɣˤay ħaƛu-<b>ł</b>-xo</p><p style="display: none;">cat-POSS:ESS milk:ABS drink-<b>POT</b>-PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"The cat can drink milk."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Causativization">Causativization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Causativization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">Causative</a> constructions ("to make/let someone do something") are formed by the causative suffix <i>-r</i>. It increases the <a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">valency</a> of any verb by 1. If a ditransitive verb is formed from a transitive one, the causee (i.e. the argument that is subject and object at the same time) appears in the possessive case (<i>-q(o)</i>); see the example below (the <i>e</i> before the causative suffix is an epenthetic vowel): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">aħ-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shepherd-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">čanaqan-qo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hunter-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zey</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bear:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">žekʼ-e<b>r</b>-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hit-<b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</span></b>-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">aħ-ā čanaqan-qo zey žekʼ-e<b>r</b>-si</p><p style="display: none;">shepherd-ERG hunter-POSS:ESS bear:ABS hit-<b>CAUS</b>-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"The shepherd made the hunter hit the bear."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order">Word order</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Word order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tsez is a head-final language, which means that – apart from postpositions – modifiers like relative clauses, adjectives, genitives and numerals always precede the main clauses. The neutral order in clauses with more than one modifier is: </p><p>Agent/Experiencer—Recipient—Patient—Locative—Instrument </p><p>The order can be changed to emphasize single noun phrases. </p><p>Although in general, the underlying word order is <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">SOV</a> (subject–object–verb), the predicate tends to be in the middle of the sentence rather than at the end of it. This word order seems to become increasingly common in daily speech. For narrative use, a VSO word order is sometimes used as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interrogative_sentences">Interrogative sentences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Interrogative sentences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The interrogative suffix <i>-ā</i> (<i>-yā</i> after vowels) is used to mark yes/no-questions. It is added to the word focused by the question: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kʼetʼu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cat:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣˤutk-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IN</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yoł-<b>ā</b>?</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span>-<b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</span></b></p></div><p style="display: none;">kʼetʼu ɣˤutk-ā yoł-<b>ā</b>?</p><p style="display: none;">cat:ABS house-IN:ESS be:PRS-<b>INT</b></p><p style="clear: left;">"Is the cat in the house?"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kʼetʼu-<b>yā</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">cat:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span>-<b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</span></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣˤutk-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IN</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yoł?</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">kʼetʼu-<b>yā</b> ɣˤutk-ā yoł?</p><p style="display: none;">cat:ABS-<b>INT</b> house-IN:ESS be:PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"Is it the cat that is in the house?"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kʼetʼu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cat:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣˤutk-ā-<b>yā</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">house-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IN</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span>-<b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INT</span></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yoł?</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">kʼetʼu ɣˤutk-ā-<b>yā</b> yoł?</p><p style="display: none;">cat:ABS house-IN:ESS-<b>INT</b> be:PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"Is it the house that the cat is in?"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negation_2">Negation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The negative particle <i>ānu</i> follows the negated constituent; if the entire sentence is to be negated, verb suffixes are used (see above in the section about the verb morphology). </p><p>For the imperative, prohibitive and optative form, see the same section on verb morphology above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coordination">Coordination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Coordination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coordination of clauses (as in English with the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical conjunction">conjunction</a> "and") is rare in the Tsez language. Noun phrases are coordinated by adding the suffix <i>-n</i> (after vowels) or <i>-no</i> (after consonants) to <u>all</u> items of the enumeration, thus "the hen and the rooster" is <i>onuču-<b>n</b> mamalay-<b>no</b></i>. In conditional sentences the conjunction "then" may be expressed by the word <i>yołi</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tatanu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">warm</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣudi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">day:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">r-oq-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IV</span>-become-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>yołi</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</span></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eli</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1PL</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ker-āɣor</p><p style="margin: 0px;">river-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IN</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ALL</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">esanad-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bathe-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">b-ikʼ-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPL</span>-go-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INF</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zow-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">tatanu ɣudi r-oq-si <b>yołi</b> eli ker-āɣor esanad-a b-ikʼ-a zow-si</p><p style="display: none;">warm day:ABS IV-become-PSTWIT <b>COND</b> 1PL:ABS river-IN:ALL bathe-INF IPL-go-INF be-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"If the day had become warm, (<b>then</b>) we would have gone to bathe in the river."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subordination">Subordination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Subordination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relative_clauses">Relative clauses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Relative clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Any argument or adjunct of a sentence can be made the head of a relative clause, even indirect objects and adverbials. The predicate of such a clause is always a participle and the relative construction precedes the head noun. Constituents can also be taken from embedded clauses. However, it is not possible to raise the possessor in a possessive phrase to the head position of a relative construction. </p><p>The following examples show how different arguments (examples 2, 3 and 4) and an adverbial adjunct (example 5) are relativized from the underlying sentence in example 1: </p><p>Example 1 (standard): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">už-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kidb-er</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gagali</p><p style="margin: 0px;">flower:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">teƛ-si<i>/</i>teƛ-xo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span>/give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">už-ā kidb-er gagali teƛ-si<i>/</i>teƛ-xo</p><p style="display: none;">boy-ERG girl-DAT flower:ABS give-PSTWIT/give-PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">"The boy gave/gives a flower to the girl."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Example 2 (relativized agent): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kidb-er</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gagali</p><p style="margin: 0px;">flower:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTPRT</span>/give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRSPRT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">uži</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">kidb-er gagali tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi uži</p><p style="display: none;">girl-DAT flower:ABS give-PSTPRT/give-PRSPRT boy:ABS</p><p style="clear: left;">"the boy who gave/gives a flower to the girl"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Example 3 (relativized patient): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">už-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kidb-er</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTPRT</span>/give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRSPRT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gagali</p><p style="margin: 0px;">flower:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">už-ā kidb-er tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi gagali</p><p style="display: none;">boy-ERG girl-DAT give-PSTPRT/give-PRSPRT flower:ABS</p><p style="clear: left;">"the flower that the boy gave/gives to the girl"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Example 4 (relativized recipient): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">už-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gagali</p><p style="margin: 0px;">flower:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTPRT</span>/give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRSPRT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kid</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">už-ā gagali tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi kid</p><p style="display: none;">boy-ERG flower:ABS give-PSTPRT/give-PRSPRT girl:ABS</p><p style="clear: left;">"the girl to whom the boy gave/gives the flowers"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Example 5 (relativized adjunct): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">už-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kidb-er</p><p style="margin: 0px;">girl-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gagali</p><p style="margin: 0px;">flower:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTPRT</span>/give-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRSPRT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ɣudi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">day:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">už-ā kidb-er gagali tāƛ-ru<i>/</i>teƛ-xosi ɣudi</p><p style="display: none;">boy-ERG girl-DAT flower:ABS give-PSTPRT/give-PRSPRT day:ABS</p><p style="clear: left;">"the day on which the boy gave/gives the flowers to the girl"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adverbial_clauses">Adverbial clauses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Adverbial clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several different kinds of adverbial clauses. </p><p><b>Temporal adverbial clauses</b> describe a chronological sequence of two actions, as in English "Before it started to rain, we were home." or "We talked, while we were going.". In Tsez this relation is marked by verbal suffixes that turn one verb into a converb. See the table for converb suffixes in the "Non-finite forms" part of the verb morphology section. </p><p><b>Local adverbial clauses</b> use locative converbs, which are also formed by adding a suffix to the verb. This suffix is <i>-z-ā-</i> and the vowel before the last consonant of the verb itself is lengthened to <i>ā</i>. This converb forms the head of the local phrase and can thus receive a locative suffix that is normally used on nouns. </p><p><b>Causal adverbial clauses</b>, which in English are usually expressed using "because", "as", "when", "since" or "that", receive the converb suffix <i>-xoy</i>, <i>-za-ƛʼ</i> or <i>-za-q</i>. </p><p>There are more kinds of adverbial clauses, see the part "Non-finite forms" in the verb morphology section for more example suffixes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infinitival_clauses">Infinitival clauses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Infinitival clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modal verbs, phrasal verbs, verbs of motion and psychological verbs can all be accompanied by an infinitive verb. Verbal nouns or "masdars" (formed by the suffix <i>-(a)ni</i>) can be used instead of infinitive verbs; they express purpose more strongly. Those verbal nouns also occur with psychological verbs like "be afraid of" and then usually take the possessive case (ending <i>-q</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Completement_clauses">Completement clauses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Completement clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a clause is used in place of a noun, as in "The father knew [that the boy wanted bread].", the optional nominalizing suffix <i>-łi</i> can be attached to the predicate of the embedded clause. The clause belongs to noun class IV, then: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">obi-r</p><p style="margin: 0px;">father-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><i>[</i>uži-r</p><p style="margin: 0px;">[boy-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">magalu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">bread:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">b-āti-ru-<b>łi</b><i>]</i></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">III</span>-want-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTPRT</span>-<b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NMLZ</span></b>]</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">r-iy-si</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IV</span>-know-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">obi-r <i>[</i>uži-r magalu b-āti-ru-<b>łi</b><i>]</i> r-iy-si</p><p style="display: none;">father-DAT [boy-DAT bread:ABS III-want-PSTPRT-<b>NMLZ</b>] IV-know-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"The father knew [that the boy wanted bread]."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reported_speech">Reported speech</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Reported speech"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a speech act verb like "say", "ask", "shout" introduces reported speech, the reported utterance is followed by the clitical quotation particle <i>ƛin</i>, which is suffixed to verbs and stands alone in all other cases. It is remarkable that the point of view and the tense of the original utterance is maintained, hence the only difference between direct and indirect speech is the particle <i>ƛin</i>. See this example: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʕAl-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Ali-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dā-q</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</span>-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POSS</span>:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ESS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">quno</p><p style="margin: 0px;">twenty</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ocʼcʼino</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ten</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">qʼˤano</p><p style="margin: 0px;">two</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ƛeb</p><p style="margin: 0px;">year:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ABS</span></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yoł-<b>ƛin</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">be:<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</span>-<b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">QUOT</span></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">eƛi-s</p><p style="margin: 0px;">say-<span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PSTWIT</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">ʕAl-ā dā-q quno ocʼcʼino qʼˤano ƛeb yoł-<b>ƛin</b> eƛi-s</p><p style="display: none;">Ali-ERG 1SG-POSS:ESS twenty ten two year:ABS be:PRS-<b>QUOT</b> say-PSTWIT</p><p style="clear: left;">"Ali said that he was 32 years old."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Tsez_language" title="Special:EditPage/Tsez language">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Tsez lacks a literary tradition and is poorly represented in written form. <a href="/wiki/Avar_language" title="Avar language">Avar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> are used as literary languages locally, even in schools. However, attempts have been made to develop a stable orthography for the Tsez language as well as its relatives, mainly for the purpose of recording traditional folklore; thus, a <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> script based on that of Avar is often used. Fluency in Avar is usually higher among men than women, and the younger people tend to be more fluent in Russian than in Tsez, which is probably due to the lack of education in and about the language. Tsez is not taught in school and instead Avar is taught for the first five years and Russian afterwards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexicon">Lexicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Lexicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The vocabulary shows many traces of influences of Avar, <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, and Russian, mainly through loanwords and, in the case of Russian, even in grammar and style. There are also loanwords of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a> origin. These factors may eventually lead to the decline of use of the Tsez language, as it is more and more replaced by Avar and Russian, partly due to loss of traditional culture among the people and the adoption of Western clothing, technology and architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Numerals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerals come in two different forms: in the absolutive case and as an oblique stem (always ending in <i>-a</i>) to which other case endings are attached when the numerals are used nonattributively. The oblique form is also used when it refers to a non-absolutive noun, as in <i>sida ˤaƛār</i> ("to one/a village"). When counting objects, the counted objects always stay in the singular form. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Absolutive</th> <th>Oblique </th></tr> <tr> <th><b>1</b> </th> <td>sis</td> <td>sida </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>2</b> </th> <td>qʼˤano</td> <td>qʼˤuna </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>3</b> </th> <td>łˤono</td> <td>łˤora </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>4</b> </th> <td>uyno</td> <td>uyra </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>5</b> </th> <td>łeno</td> <td>łera </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>6</b> </th> <td>iłno</td> <td>iłłira </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>7</b> </th> <td>ʕoƛno</td> <td>ʕoƛƛora </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>8</b> </th> <td>biƛno</td> <td>biƛƛira </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>9</b> </th> <td>očʼčʼino</td> <td>očʼčʼira </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>10</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino</td> <td>ocʼcʼira </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>11</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino sis / siyocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira sida </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>12</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino qʼˤano / qʼˤayocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira qʼˤuna </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>13</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino łˤono / łˤoyocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira łˤora </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>14</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino uyno / uwocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira uyra </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>15</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino łeno / łewocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira łera </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>16</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino iłno / iłocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira iłłira </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>17</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino ʕoƛno / ʕoƛocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira ʕoƛƛora </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>18</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino biƛno / biƛocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira biƛƛira </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>19</b> </th> <td>ocʼcʼino očʼčʼino / ečʼocʼi</td> <td>ocʼcʼira očʼčʼira </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>20</b> </th> <td>quno</td> <td>qura </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>100</b> </th> <td>bišon</td> <td>bišonra </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>1,000</b> </th> <td>ʕazar</td> <td>ʕazarra </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>There are two ways of forming the numbers 11 through 19, but only the first way also exists in oblique form. The second form with the suffix <i>-ocʼi</i> cannot be declined.</li> <li>Above 20, numbers are formed on the basis of multiples of 20: <i>qʼˤanoqu</i> (40), <i>łˤonoqu</i> (60) and <i>uynoqu</i> (80). For the oblique forms, the suffix <i>-ra</i> is added for all items.</li> <li>The numeral for 100 has an alternative form <i>bišom</i> used before the suffix <i>-no</i> in compound numerals.</li> <li>The numeral for 1000, <i>ʕazar</i>, seems to be a loan from <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> هزار (<i>hezār</i>, thousand), probably via Avar.</li> <li>Higher hundreds and thousands are expressed simply by juxtaposition, the multiplier preceding the larger number.</li> <li>Compound numerals are formed by attaching the suffix <i>-no</i> (<i>and</i>) to the higher number and placing the lower one right after it. For example, 47 would be <i>qʼˤanoquno ʕoƛno</i> in Tsez. A number like 72 would be expressed as "sixty-twelve" (<i>łˤonoquno qʼˤayocʼi</i> or <i>łˤonoquno ocʼcʼino qʼˤano</i>).</li></ul> <p><b>Cardinal numbers</b> (as in English "one, two, three") precede the nouns, which then do <i>not</i> stand in their plural forms but in the singular instead; e.g.: <i>uyno is</i> ("four oxen").<br /> <b>Ordinal numbers</b> (as in English "first, second, third") are constructed by combining the cardinal numbers with the word <i>āƛiru</i>. Hence, <i>qʼˤano āƛiru ɣudi</i> means "the second day".<br /> <b>Adverbial numbers</b> (as in English "once, twice, thrice") are constructed by replacing the suffix <i>-no</i> by <i>-x</i>, thus "twice" becomes the adverb <i>qʼˤa-x</i> in Tsez. Expressions like "(for) the second time" are formed using the adverbial number suffix <i>-x</i> and ordinal forming marker <i>āƛiru</i>, thus resulting in the form <i>qʼˤax āƛiru</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_of_the_Tsez_language">Sample of the Tsez language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Sample of the Tsez language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is a Tsez tale written in the Asakh dialect using a Latin-based orthography. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157697682">.mw-parser-output .verse_translation .translated{padding-left:2em!important}@media only screen and (max-width:43.75em){.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small td{display:block;padding-left:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .verse_translation.wrap_when_small .translated{padding-left:0.5em!important}}</style> <table role="presentation" class="verse_translation" style="margin-left:1em !important"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"> <td><div style="font-style:italic;text-align:left" lang="ddo" class="poem"> <p><b>Kʼetʼus Hunar</b><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> Zewnoƛax zewčʼeyƛax bˤeƛon bocʼin zirun qayno. Sidaquł šigoħno sadaqorno boyno ħukmu: yaqułtow begira bocʼi ħonƛʼār miƛʼeł xizāz xizyo rišʷa yoł. Bˤeƛā begirno qay łˤāł xizāz, bocʼin zirun regirno ħonƛʼār miƛʼeł xizāz. Ɣudod, žedi raynosi beƛʼez reqenyoxor, ziru boqno uhi-ehƛada buq boƛāxzāzarno boqno. Zirus uhi-ehi teqxoy, ɣʷaybi kʼoƛin elār, bocʼi buq bātuzāzarno boqno bikʼin reqenyoƛer, besurno ƛʼarayaw miƛʼi. Miƛʼin bisno bocʼin zirun xizor rutin qʼayƛʼār. Rizirno cʼidoƛʼor ƛoħon begirno łāƛʼor qay. Kikxogon zewno bočʼikʼxo kʼetʼu.<br /> <br /> Qayir zewāčʼey rikʷayxo; nešuruxay nełor rikʷayxo zewčʼey. Kʼetʼu, ełor baynosi qay, boqno kʼekʼbikʼa. Kʼekʼbikʼni teqnosi, qay łikin rixerčʼeytow boxin xizor. Bˤeƛā esirno: "Šidā boxā rayirčʼey łin?" Elo didiyƛa žekʼu yoł-ƛin eƛin qayā. Aħugon rikʼin łāxor zirun qayno. Žedi raynosi kikxor žedā esirno kʼetuq: "Mi šebi?" Di žekʼu yoł-ƛin eƛin kʼetʼā. Šebi že debez ħiroƛʼ esirxo zirā. Tupi ƛin eƛix kʼetʼā. Dicce rˤuƛʼno zirun qayno, amma biyxoy kʼetʼu yāłru, xizyo łˤonon zenzi rikʼin raħira reƛ. Bˤeƛo buqełno bičin ažoz kʼodrexāzay, rołikʼno aħyabin kecno, kʼetʼu tataniłxo zewno cʼidox.<br /> <br /> Bˤeƛā kʼekʼrikʼerxo zewno aħyabi. Že rikʷayxoy, kʼetʼuz rokʼƛʼor rayno, že elo aw ƛin, hudu betʼtʼun kʼoƛin elor. Dicce bˤuƛʼzāq bˤeƛqo regin ixiytʼatow qˤaƛubin, boxin ciqxār. Bocʼezno qayizno, ziruzno rokʼƛʼor rayno baysi bāsu ixiytow ħaywan šebin, nełoq že riqičʼey kʼiriłno roxin. Cʼikʼiy reƛ miƛes ƛexun kʼetʼur. ʕoƛiran ɣˤudeł kʼetʼu bišno, racʼno baɣʷace dawla bocʼesno zirusno.<br /> </p> </div> </td> <td class="translated"><div style="font-style:roman;text-align:left" lang="" class="poem"> <p><b>The Cat's Feat</b><br /> Once upon a time there were a pig, a wolf, a fox and a hare. One day they gathered together and decided that today they would send the wolf into the mountains for a sheep and they would eat. The pig sent the hare for water and sent the wolf and the fox into the mountain for a ram. At night, when they came to the flock of sheep, the fox began to moan from the eastern side. Since they heard the fox's moaning, the dogs ran in that direction and the wolf went towards the flock from the west and found a fat ram. Having taken the ram, the wolf and the fox returned to the camp. They put the pan on the fire and sent the hare for water. At the spring the cat was freezing.<br /> <br /> The hare couldn't see; at night the hare couldn't see. When the hare arrived there, the cat began to move. When he heard the movement, the hare ran back without taking any water. The pig asked: "Why did you run away without bringing water?" The hare said that there was some man there. Again the fox and the hare went to the water. When they came to the spring, they asked the cat: "What are you?" — "I am a man", said the cat. "What is that on your shoulder?", asks the fox. "A rifle", says the cat. The fox and the hare were very frightened, but since they knew it was a cat, afterwards the three of them went together to cook meat. The pig hid behind a bunch of trees and, pushing out its ears, slept, and the cat was warming itself by the fire.<br /> <br /> The pig was moving its ears. Since the cat saw it, it thought it was a mouse and in a rush jumped there. The pig was very frightened and, emitting loud shouts, ran away to the forest. The wolf, the hare and the fox thought that a great animal or something was coming and, one running faster than the other, they ran away. All the ram's meat was left to the cat. For seven days the cat ate, ate until it was full the spoils of the wolf and the fox. </p> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab7_VPN-2020.xlsx">Том 5. «Национальный состав и владение языками». Таблица 7. Население наиболее многочисленных национальностей по родному языку</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glottopedia-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Glottopedia_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glottopedia.org/index.php/Tsez">Glottopedia article on Tsez language</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://minlang.iling-ran.ru/lang/sagadinskiy-yazyk">"Сагадинский язык | Малые языки России"</a>. <i>minlang.iling-ran.ru</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=minlang.iling-ran.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA+%7C+%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fminlang.iling-ran.ru%2Flang%2Fsagadinskiy-yazyk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jazykirf.iling-ran.ru/groups/ND.%20Tsezic.shtml">"Цезские языки"</a>. <i>jazykirf.iling-ran.ru</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jazykirf.iling-ran.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjazykirf.iling-ran.ru%2Fgroups%2FND.%2520Tsezic.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tsez_morphonology-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tsez_morphonology_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsez_morphonology_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl26.pdf">Tsez morphonology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061101222821/http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl26.pdf">Archived</a> 2006-11-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Ramazan Rajabov, retrieved June 22, 2006 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2010)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl27.pdf">The class category in Tsez: underlying principles</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926212124/http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl27.pdf">Archived</a> 2007-09-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Ramazan Rajabov, retrieved June 23, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/didos.shtml">The Didos</a> from The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire, retrieved August 12, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tsezacp.clld.org/contributions/15">"K'et'us hunar: The cat's feat"</a>. <i>The Tsez Annotated Corpus Project</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Tsez+Annotated+Corpus+Project&rft.atitle=K%27et%27us+hunar%3A+The+cat%27s+feat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftsezacp.clld.org%2Fcontributions%2F15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlekseev,_Mikhail_E.Rajabov,_Ramazan_N.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Alekseev, Mikhail E. & Rajabov, Ramazan N. (1993). "Prerequisites to the formation of Tsez writing system". <i>Caucasian Perspectives</i>: 372–376.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Caucasian+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Prerequisites+to+the+formation+of+Tsez+writing+system&rft.pages=372-376&rft.date=1993&rft.au=Alekseev%2C+Mikhail+E.&rft.au=Rajabov%2C+Ramazan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlekseev,_Mikhail_E.Rajabov,_Ramazan_N." class="citation journal cs1">Alekseev, Mikhail E. & Rajabov, Ramazan N. "Tsez language". <i>Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus</i>. <b>3</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indigenous+Languages+of+the+Caucasus&rft.atitle=Tsez+language&rft.volume=3&rft.au=Alekseev%2C+Mikhail+E.&rft.au=Rajabov%2C+Ramazan+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie,_Bernard1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Comrie" title="Bernard Comrie">Comrie, Bernard</a> (1999). "Gender affixes in Tsez". <i>The Emergence of the Modern Language Sciences: Studies on the Transition from Historical-Comparative to Structural Linguistics in Honour of E.F.K. Koerner</i>. <b>2</b>: 279–288.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Emergence+of+the+Modern+Language+Sciences%3A+Studies+on+the+Transition+from+Historical-Comparative+to+Structural+Linguistics+in+Honour+of+E.F.K.+Koerner&rft.atitle=Gender+affixes+in+Tsez&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=279-288&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie,_Bernard2002" class="citation journal cs1">Comrie, Bernard (2002). "Participles in Tsez: An emergent word class?". <i>Complex Sentences in Grammar and Discourse: Essays in Honor of Sandra A. Thompson</i>: 19–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fz.110.03com">10.1075/z.110.03com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Complex+Sentences+in+Grammar+and+Discourse%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Sandra+A.+Thompson&rft.atitle=Participles+in+Tsez%3A+An+emergent+word+class%3F&rft.pages=19-30&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fz.110.03com&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie,_Bernard2004" class="citation journal cs1">Comrie, Bernard (2004). "Oblique-case subjects in Tsez". <i>Non-nominative Subjects</i>. Typological Studies in Language. <b>1</b>: 113–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.60.07com">10.1075/tsl.60.07com</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2970-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2970-0"><bdi>978-90-272-2970-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Non-nominative+Subjects&rft.atitle=Oblique-case+subjects+in+Tsez&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=113-127&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.60.07com&rft.isbn=978-90-272-2970-0&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie,_BernardPolinsky,_Maria1998" class="citation journal cs1">Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria (1998). "The great Daghestanian case hoax". <i>Case, Typology and Grammar</i>: 95–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.38.09com">10.1075/tsl.38.09com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Case%2C+Typology+and+Grammar&rft.atitle=The+great+Daghestanian+case+hoax&rft.pages=95-114&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.38.09com&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Polinsky%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie,_BernardPolinsky,_Maria1999" class="citation journal cs1">Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria (1999). "Form and function in syntax: relative clauses in Tsez". <i>Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics</i>. <b>2</b>: 77–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fslcs.42.06com">10.1075/slcs.42.06com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Functionalism+and+Formalism+in+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Form+and+function+in+syntax%3A+relative+clauses+in+Tsez&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=77-92&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fslcs.42.06com&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Polinsky%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie,_BernardPolinsky,_Maria1999" class="citation journal cs1">Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria (1999). "Reflexivity in Tsez". <i>Typology and Linguistic Theory: From Description to Explanation, for the 60th Birthday of Aleksandr E. Kibrik</i>: 319–339.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Typology+and+Linguistic+Theory%3A+From+Description+to+Explanation%2C+for+the+60th+Birthday+of+Aleksandr+E.+Kibrik&rft.atitle=Reflexivity+in+Tsez&rft.pages=319-339&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Polinsky%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie,_BernardPolinsky,_Maria2003" class="citation journal cs1">Comrie, Bernard & Polinsky, Maria (2003). "Constraints on reflexivization in Tsez". <i>Current Trends in Caucasian, East European and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in Honor of Howard I. Aronson</i>: 265–289.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Trends+in+Caucasian%2C+East+European+and+Inner+Asian+Linguistics%3A+Papers+in+Honor+of+Howard+I.+Aronson&rft.atitle=Constraints+on+reflexivization+in+Tsez&rft.pages=265-289&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Polinsky%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Khalilov, Majid Sh. (1999). <i>Цезско-русский словарь</i> (Tsez-Russian dictionary). Moskva: Academia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-87444-086-0" title="Special:BookSources/5-87444-086-0">5-87444-086-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolinsky,_MariaComrie,_Bernard1999" class="citation journal cs1">Polinsky, Maria & Comrie, Bernard (1999). "Agreement in Tsez". <i>Folia Linguistica</i>. <b>33.2</b> (Studies in Agreement): 109–130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Linguistica&rft.atitle=Agreement+in+Tsez&rft.volume=33.2&rft.issue=Studies+in+Agreement&rft.pages=109-130&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Polinsky%2C+Maria&rft.au=Comrie%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolinsky,_MariaPotsdam,_Eric2001" class="citation journal cs1">Polinsky, Maria & Potsdam, Eric (2001). "Long-Distance Agreement and Topic in Tsez". <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Language_and_Linguistic_Theory" title="Natural Language and Linguistic Theory">Natural Language and Linguistic Theory</a></i>. <b>19</b> (3): 583–646. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1010757806504">10.1023/A:1010757806504</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29405608">29405608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+Language+and+Linguistic+Theory&rft.atitle=Long-Distance+Agreement+and+Topic+in+Tsez&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=583-646&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1010757806504&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29405608%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Polinsky%2C+Maria&rft.au=Potsdam%2C+Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATsez+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsez_language&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/ddo" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/ddo">Tsez language test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060830055257/http://ling.ucsd.edu/~polinsky/pubs/BLS25.pdf">A paper about the verb "to begin" in Tsez</a> (by Maria Polinsky)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061101222821/http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl26.pdf">Tsez morphophonology</a>(by Ramazan Rajabov)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926212124/http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl27.pdf">The class category in Tsez</a> (by Ramazan Rajabov)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929204635/http://www.auditorium.ru/books/2270/gl28.pdf">The double-absolutive construction in Tsez</a> (by Ramazan Rajabov)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ncc\tsz&limit=-1">Tsez (Dido) basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:North_Caucasian_languages" title="Template:North Caucasian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_Caucasian_languages" title="Template talk:North Caucasian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_Caucasian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North Caucasian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="North_Caucasian_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>The proposed <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian language</a> family comprises the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a> language families.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest</a><br />(Pontic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abazgi_languages" title="Abazgi languages">Abazgi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaza_language" title="Abaza language">Abaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_languages" title="Circassian languages">Circassian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_language" title="Adyghe language">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_language" title="Kabardian language">Kabardian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages#Connections_to_Hattic" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">proposed</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_language" title="Ubykh language">Ubykh</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Caucasic_languages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Caucasic_languages.svg/250px-Caucasic_languages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Caucasic_languages.svg/375px-Caucasic_languages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Caucasic_languages.svg/500px-Caucasic_languages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast</a><br />(Caspian)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Avar%E2%80%93Andic_languages" title="Avar–Andic languages">Avar–Andic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andic_languages" title="Andic languages">Andic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andi_language" title="Andi language">Andi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhvakh_language" title="Akhvakh language">Akhvakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagvalal_language" title="Bagvalal language">Bagvalal</a>–<a href="/wiki/Tindi_language" title="Tindi language">Tindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botlikh_language" title="Botlikh language">Botlix</a>–<a href="/wiki/Godoberi_language" title="Godoberi language">Godoberi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamalal_language" title="Chamalal language">Chamalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karata_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Karata language">Karata</a>-<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tukita_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tukita language (page does not exist)">Tukita</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Тукитинский диалект каратинского языка">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avar_language" title="Avar language">Avar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dargin_languages" title="Dargin languages">Dargic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chirag_language" title="Chirag language">Chirag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North-Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehweb_language" title="Mehweb language">Mehweb</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gapshima_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gapshima language (page does not exist)">Gapshima</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muira_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muira language (page does not exist)">Muira</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" class="extiw" title="ru:Муиринский язык">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsudaqar_language" title="Tsudaqar language">Tsudaqar</a>–<a href="/w/index.php?title=Usisha%E2%80%93Butri_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Usisha–Butri language (page does not exist)">Usisha–Butri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_Dargwa_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern Dargwa language (page does not exist)">Northern Dargwa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" class="extiw" title="ru:Севернодаргинский язык">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aqusha_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aqusha dialect (page does not exist)">Aqusha</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Акушинское наречие">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dargwa_language" title="Dargwa language">Literary Dargwa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Murego%E2%80%93Gubden_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murego–Gubden dialect (page does not exist)">Murego–Gubden</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE-%D0%93%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="uk:Мюрего-Губденська мова">uk</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadar_dialect" title="Kadar dialect">Kadar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mugi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mugi dialect (page does not exist)">Mugi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Мугинское наречие">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_Mulebki_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upper Mulebki dialect (page does not exist)">Upper Mulebki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urakhi_dialect" title="Urakhi dialect">Urakhi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ashti_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ashti language (page does not exist)">Ashti</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" class="extiw" title="ru:Аштинский язык">ru</a>]</span>–<a href="/wiki/Kubachi_language" title="Kubachi language">Kubachi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanzhi_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanzhi language (page does not exist)">Sanzhi</a>–<a href="/wiki/Itsari_language" title="Itsari language">Itsari</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amuzgi%E2%80%93Shiri_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amuzgi–Shiri language (page does not exist)">Amuzgi–Shiri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanakari%E2%80%93Chakhrizhi_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanakari–Chakhrizhi language (page does not exist)">Sanakari–Chakhrizhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Dargwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwestern Dargwa language">Southwestern Dargwa</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sirhwa_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sirhwa dialect (page does not exist)">Sirhwa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8_%D1%87%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" class="extiw" title="lez:Сирхи чӀал">lez</a>; <a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="uk:Сірхінська мова">uk</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tanti_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tanti dialect (page does not exist)">Tanti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_Vurqni_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upper Vurqni dialect (page does not exist)">Upper Vurqni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kaitag–Shari</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaitag_language" title="Kaitag language">Kaitag</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shari_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shari language (page does not exist)">Shari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tsezic_languages" title="Tsezic languages">Tsezic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bezhta_language" title="Bezhta language">Bezhta</a>–<a href="/wiki/Hunzib_language" title="Hunzib language">Hunzib</a>–<a href="/wiki/Khwarshi_language" title="Khwarshi language">Khwarshi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inkhoqwari_language" title="Inkhoqwari language">Inkhoqwari</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinuq_language" title="Hinuq language">Hinukh</a>–<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tsez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lezgic_languages" title="Lezgic languages">Lezgic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archi_language" title="Archi language">Archi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Samur</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aghul_language" title="Aghul language">Aghul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgian_language" title="Lezgian language">Lezgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabasaran_language" title="Tabasaran language">Tabasaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udi_language" title="Udi language">Udi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_language" title="Caucasian Albanian language">Caucasian Albanian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budukh_language" title="Budukh language">Budukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kryts_language" title="Kryts language">Kryts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rutul_language" title="Rutul language">Rutul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsakhur_language" title="Tsakhur language">Tsakhur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nakh_languages" title="Nakh languages">Nakh</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bats_language" title="Bats language">Bats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_languages" title="Vainakh languages">Vainakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aukh_dialect" title="Aukh dialect">Aukh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingush_language" title="Ingush language">Ingush</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khinalug_language" title="Khinalug language">Khinalug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lak_language" title="Lak language">Lak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_the_Caucasus" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Template:Languages of the Caucasus"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Template talk:Languages of the Caucasus"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of the Caucasus"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_the_Caucasus" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Languages of the</a> <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus#Families_indigenous_to_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Caucasian</a><br /><i>(areal)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">South</a><br />(Kartvelian)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karto-Zan_languages" title="Karto-Zan languages">Karto-Zan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Georgian" title="Old Georgian">Old Georgian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zan_languages" title="Zan languages">Zan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laz_language" title="Laz language">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_language" title="Mingrelian language">Mingrelian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svan_language" title="Svan language">Svan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast</a><br />(Caspian)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Avar%E2%80%93Andic_languages" title="Avar–Andic languages">Avar–Andic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andic_languages" title="Andic languages">Andic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andi_language" title="Andi language">Andi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhvakh_language" title="Akhvakh language">Akhvakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagvalal_language" title="Bagvalal language">Bagvalal</a>–<a href="/wiki/Tindi_language" title="Tindi language">Tindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botlikh_language" title="Botlikh language">Botlikh</a>–<a href="/wiki/Godoberi_language" title="Godoberi language">Godoberi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamalal_language" title="Chamalal language">Chamalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karata-Tukita_language" title="Karata-Tukita language">Karata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avar_language" title="Avar language">Avar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dargin_languages" title="Dargin languages">Dargin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chirag_language" title="Chirag language">Chirag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North-Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehweb_language" title="Mehweb language">Mehweb</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gapshima_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gapshima language (page does not exist)">Gapshima</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Muira_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muira language (page does not exist)">Muira</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" class="extiw" title="ru:Муиринский язык">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsudaqar_language" title="Tsudaqar language">Tsudaqar</a>–<a href="/w/index.php?title=Usisha%E2%80%93Butri_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Usisha–Butri language (page does not exist)">Usisha–Butri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_Dargwa_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern Dargwa language (page does not exist)">Northern Dargwa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" class="extiw" title="ru:Севернодаргинский язык">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aqusha_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aqusha dialect (page does not exist)">Aqusha</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Акушинское наречие">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dargwa_language" title="Dargwa language">Literary Dargwa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Murego%E2%80%93Gubden_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murego–Gubden dialect (page does not exist)">Murego–Gubden</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE-%D0%93%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="uk:Мюрего-Губденська мова">uk</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadar_dialect" title="Kadar dialect">Kadar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mugi_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mugi dialect (page does not exist)">Mugi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Мугинское наречие">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_Mulebki_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upper Mulebki dialect (page does not exist)">Upper Mulebki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urakhi_dialect" title="Urakhi dialect">Urakhi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ashti_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ashti language (page does not exist)">Ashti</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" class="extiw" title="ru:Аштинский язык">ru</a>]</span>–<a href="/wiki/Kubachi_language" title="Kubachi language">Kubachi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanzhi_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanzhi language (page does not exist)">Sanzhi</a>–<a href="/wiki/Itsari_language" title="Itsari language">Itsari</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amuzgi%E2%80%93Shiri_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amuzgi–Shiri language (page does not exist)">Amuzgi–Shiri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sanakari%E2%80%93Chakhrizhi_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sanakari–Chakhrizhi language (page does not exist)">Sanakari–Chakhrizhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Dargwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwestern Dargwa language">Southwestern Dargwa</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sirhwa_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sirhwa dialect (page does not exist)">Sirhwa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8_%D1%87%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" class="extiw" title="lez:Сирхи чӀал">lez</a>; <a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="uk:Сірхінська мова">uk</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tanti_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tanti dialect (page does not exist)">Tanti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_Vurqni_dialect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upper Vurqni dialect (page does not exist)">Upper Vurqni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kaitag–Shari</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaitag_language" title="Kaitag language">Kaitag</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shari_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shari language (page does not exist)">Shari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lezgic_languages" title="Lezgic languages">Lezgic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archi_language" title="Archi language">Archi</a></li> <li>Samur <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aghul_language" title="Aghul language">Aghul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgian_language" title="Lezgian language">Lezgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabasaran_language" title="Tabasaran language">Tabasaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udi_language" title="Udi language">Udi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_language" title="Caucasian Albanian language">Caucasian Albanian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Southern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budukh_language" title="Budukh language">Budukh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kryts_language" title="Kryts language">Kryts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jek_language" title="Jek language">Jek</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rutul_language" title="Rutul language">Rutul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsakhur_language" title="Tsakhur language">Tsakhur</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nakh_languages" title="Nakh languages">Nakh</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bats_language" title="Bats language">Bats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_languages" title="Vainakh languages">Vainakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aukh_dialect" title="Aukh dialect">Aukh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingush_language" title="Ingush language">Ingush</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tsezic_languages" title="Tsezic languages">Tsezic</a> (Didoic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bezhta_language" title="Bezhta language">Bezhta</a>–<a href="/wiki/Hunzib_language" title="Hunzib language">Hunzib</a>–<a href="/wiki/Khwarshi_language" title="Khwarshi language">Khwarshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinuq_language" title="Hinuq language">Hinukh</a>–<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tsez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khinalug_language" title="Khinalug language">Khinalug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lak_language" title="Lak language">Lak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest</a><br />(Pontic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abazgi_languages" title="Abazgi languages">Abazgi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaza_language" title="Abaza language">Abaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_languages" title="Circassian languages">Circassian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_language" title="Adyghe language">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_language" title="Kabardian language">Kabardian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_language" title="Ubykh language">Ubykh</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg/250px-Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg/375px-Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg/500px-Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="977" data-file-height="1111" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-<br />European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurmanji" title="Kurmanji">Kurmanji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_language" title="Ossetian language">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talysh_language" title="Talysh language">Talysh</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kilit_dialect" title="Kilit dialect">Kilit</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tat_language_(Caucasus)" title="Tat language (Caucasus)">Tat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Armenian" title="Eastern Armenian">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Armenian" title="Western Armenian">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Germans" title="Caucasus Germans">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic Greek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kipchak_languages" title="Kipchak languages">Kipchak</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karachay-Balkar" title="Karachay-Balkar">Karachay-Balkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumyk_language" title="Kumyk language">Kumyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_language" title="Nogai language">Nogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urum_language" title="Urum language">Urum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_languages" title="Oghuz languages">Oghuz</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Oirat" title="Kalmyk Oirat">Kalmyk Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomavren_language" title="Lomavren language">Lomavren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern Neo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suret" class="mw-redirect" title="Suret">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Armenia" title="Languages of Armenia">Languages of Armenia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Azerbaijan" title="Languages of Azerbaijan">Languages of Azerbaijan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Georgia (country)">Languages of Georgia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Russia" title="Languages of Russia">Languages of Russia</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    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