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href="#Greek_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Greek inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Greek_inscriptions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Greek inscriptions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Greek_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_and_social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_and_social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Political and social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_and_social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Codes_of_law_and_regulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Codes_of_law_and_regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Codes of law and regulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Codes_of_law_and_regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decrees_of_people_and_rulers,_later_of_kings_and_emperors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decrees_of_people_and_rulers,_later_of_kings_and_emperors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Decrees of people and rulers, later of kings and emperors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decrees_of_people_and_rulers,_later_of_kings_and_emperors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_accounts,_treasure_lists,_building_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_accounts,_treasure_lists,_building_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Public accounts, treasure lists, building inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_accounts,_treasure_lists,_building_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ephebic_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ephebic_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Ephebic inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ephebic_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaties_and_political_and_commercial_agreements;_arbitration,_etc." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties_and_political_and_commercial_agreements;_arbitration,_etc."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.5</span> <span>Treaties and political and commercial agreements; arbitration, etc.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaties_and_political_and_commercial_agreements;_arbitration,_etc.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proxenia_decrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proxenia_decrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.6</span> <span>Proxenia decrees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proxenia_decrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honours_and_privileges_given_to_individuals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours_and_privileges_given_to_individuals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.7</span> <span>Honours and privileges given to individuals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours_and_privileges_given_to_individuals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signatures_of_artists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signatures_of_artists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.8</span> <span>Signatures of artists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signatures_of_artists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_records" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_records"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.9</span> <span>Historical records</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_records-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tombs_and_epitaphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tombs_and_epitaphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.10</span> <span>Tombs and epitaphs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tombs_and_epitaphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Latin inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Latin_inscriptions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Latin inscriptions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Latin_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Religious</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dedications_and_foundations_of_temples,_etc." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dedications_and_foundations_of_temples,_etc."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Dedications and foundations of temples, etc.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dedications_and_foundations_of_temples,_etc.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Priests_and_officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Priests_and_officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Priests and officials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Priests_and_officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations_as_to_religion_and_cult" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations_as_to_religion_and_cult"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Regulations as to religion and cult</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulations_as_to_religion_and_cult-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colleges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colleges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Colleges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colleges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_and_social_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_and_social_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Political and social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_and_social_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Codes_of_law_and_regulations_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Codes_of_law_and_regulations_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Codes of law and regulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Codes_of_law_and_regulations_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_and_plebiscites,_senatus_consulta,_decrees_of_magistrates_or_later_of_emperors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_and_plebiscites,_senatus_consulta,_decrees_of_magistrates_or_later_of_emperors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Laws and plebiscites, senatus consulta, decrees of magistrates or later of emperors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_and_plebiscites,_senatus_consulta,_decrees_of_magistrates_or_later_of_emperors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Records_of_buildings,_etc." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Records_of_buildings,_etc."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>Records of buildings, etc.</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Records_of_buildings,_etc.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.4</span> <span>Military documents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaties_and_agreements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties_and_agreements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.5</span> <span>Treaties and agreements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaties_and_agreements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proxeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proxeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.6</span> <span>Proxeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proxeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honorary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honorary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.7</span> <span>Honorary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honorary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signatures_of_artists_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signatures_of_artists_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.8</span> <span>Signatures of artists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signatures_of_artists_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_records_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_records_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.9</span> <span>Historical records</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_records_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inscriptions_on_tombs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inscriptions_on_tombs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.10</span> <span>Inscriptions on tombs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inscriptions_on_tombs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milestones_and_boundaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milestones_and_boundaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.11</span> <span>Milestones and boundaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milestones_and_boundaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanskrit_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskrit_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sanskrit inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskrit_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_fields_of_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_fields_of_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Related fields of study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_fields_of_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_inscription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_inscription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Types of inscription</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_inscription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Notable inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Epigraphy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 69 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-69" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">69 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B4" title="علم النقوش – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النقوش" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraf%C3%ADa" title="Epigrafía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Epigrafía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiqrafika" title="Epiqrafika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Epiqrafika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%89%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE" title="সূত্র-লিপি উৎকিরণবিদ্যা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সূত্র-লিপি উৎকিরণবিদ্যা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эпиграфика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Эпиграфика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эпіграфіка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эпіграфіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эпіграфіка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эпіграфіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Епиграфика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епиграфика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эпиграфика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Эпиграфика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafika" title="Epigrafika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Epigrafika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafik" title="Epigrafik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Epigrafik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D9%BE%D9%8A%DD%A3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="إيپيݣرافيا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إيپيݣرافيا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphik" title="Epigraphik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Epigraphik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraf%C3%ADa" title="Epigrafía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Epigrafía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafio" title="Epigrafio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epigrafio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%87" title="سنگ‌نوشته – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سنگ‌نوشته" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89pigraphie" title="Épigraphie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Épigraphie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eipeagrafa%C3%ADocht" title="Eipeagrafaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eipeagrafaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraf%C3%ADa" title="Epigrafía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Epigrafía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%88%EC%84%9D%ED%95%99" title="금석학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="금석학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Վիմագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիմագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96" title="अभिलेख – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अभिलेख" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafika" title="Epigrafika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Epigrafika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafi" title="Epigrafi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Epigrafi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="אפיגרפיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפיגרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಶಾಸನಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶಾಸನಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ეპიგრაფიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეპიგრაფიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эпиграфика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эпиграфика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ep%C3%AEgraf%C3%AE" title="Epîgrafî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Epîgrafî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эпиграфика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эпиграфика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphia" title="Epigraphia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Epigraphia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigr%C3%A1fia" title="Epigráfia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Epigráfia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Епиграфика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Епиграфика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%BF" title="എപ്പിഗ്രഫി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="എപ്പിഗ്രഫി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="शिलालेखशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शिलालेखशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasasti" title="Prasasti – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Prasasti" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafie" title="Epigrafie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Epigrafie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A2%91%E6%96%87%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="碑文研究 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="碑文研究" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafikk" title="Epigrafikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Epigrafikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafika" title="Epigrafika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Epigrafika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafika" title="Epigrafika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Epigrafika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafie" title="Epigrafie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epigrafie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Эпиграфика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпиграфика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%83" title="शिलालेखः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="शिलालेखः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%9B%E0%B6%B1" title="අභිලේඛන – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අභිලේඛන" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Epigraphy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafia" title="Epigrafia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Epigrafia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafika" title="Epigrafika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Epigrafika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Епиграфика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Епиграфика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafika" title="Epigrafika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Epigrafika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafiikka" title="Epigrafiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Epigrafiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafik" title="Epigrafik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Epigrafik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கல்வெட்டியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கல்வெட்டியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%82" title="శిలాశాసనం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శిలాశాసనం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1t_bilimi" title="Yazıt bilimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yazıt bilimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrafika" title="Epigrafika – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Epigrafika" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Епіграфіка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Епіграфіка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_th%E1%BA%A1ch_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Kim thạch học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kim thạch học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrapiya" title="Epigrapiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Epigrapiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E7%9F%B3%E5%AD%A6" title="金石学 – Wu" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/300px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/450px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/600px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3665" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michel_Ney-Statue_Avenue_de_lObservatoire_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Michel_Ney-Statue_Avenue_de_lObservatoire_Paris.jpg/300px-Michel_Ney-Statue_Avenue_de_lObservatoire_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Michel_Ney-Statue_Avenue_de_lObservatoire_Paris.jpg/450px-Michel_Ney-Statue_Avenue_de_lObservatoire_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Michel_Ney-Statue_Avenue_de_lObservatoire_Paris.jpg/600px-Michel_Ney-Statue_Avenue_de_lObservatoire_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1827" data-file-height="1517" /></a><figcaption>Inscription on the pedestal of the statue of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Ney" title="Michel Ney">Michel Ney</a> from Paris</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanskrit_written_on_the_Brihadisvara_Temple,_Thanjavur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Sanskrit_written_on_the_Brihadisvara_Temple%2C_Thanjavur.jpg/301px-Sanskrit_written_on_the_Brihadisvara_Temple%2C_Thanjavur.jpg" decoding="async" width="301" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Sanskrit_written_on_the_Brihadisvara_Temple%2C_Thanjavur.jpg/452px-Sanskrit_written_on_the_Brihadisvara_Temple%2C_Thanjavur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Sanskrit_written_on_the_Brihadisvara_Temple%2C_Thanjavur.jpg/602px-Sanskrit_written_on_the_Brihadisvara_Temple%2C_Thanjavur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2211" data-file-height="1579" /></a><figcaption>Tamil to inscribe on <a href="/wiki/Brihadisvara_Temple,_Thanjavur" class="mw-redirect" title="Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur">Brihadeshwara temple, Thanjavur</a>, India.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes,_Van,_1973.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG/300px-Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG/450px-Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG/600px-Trilingual_inscription_of_Xerxes%2C_Van%2C_1973.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="972" /></a><figcaption>Trilingual <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I%27s_inscription_at_Van" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I's inscription at Van">inscription of Xerxes I at Van Fortress</a> in Turkey</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Epigraphy</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%90%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἐπιγραφή">ἐπιγραφή</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>epigraphḗ</i></span>)</i> 'inscription') is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>; it is the science of identifying <a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">graphemes</a>, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers. Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a <a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">document</a> and the artistic value of a <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literary</a> composition. A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an <i>epigrapher</i> or <i>epigraphist</i>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Behistun_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Behistun inscription">Behistun inscription</a> is an official <a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">document</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> engraved on native rock at a location in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and finding any relevant circumstances. It is the work of <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historians</a>, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practised by the same person. Epigraphy is a primary tool of <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> when dealing with literate cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/US_Library_of_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Library of Congress">US Library of Congress</a> classifies epigraphy as one of the <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences of history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epigraphy also helps identify a <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forgery</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the <a href="/wiki/James_Ossuary" title="James Ossuary">James Ossuary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <b>epigraph</b> (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigram</a>) is any sort of text, from a single grapheme (such as marks on a pot that abbreviate the name of the merchant who shipped commodities in the pot) to a lengthy document (such as a treatise, a work of literature, or a <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographic</a> inscription). Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as <a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">numismatics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">palaeography</a>. When compared to books, most inscriptions are short. The media and the forms of the graphemes are diverse: <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engravings</a> in stone or metal, scratches on rock, impressions in wax, <a href="/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing" title="Repoussé and chasing">embossing</a> on cast metal, <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameo</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(jewellery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio (jewellery)">intaglio</a> on precious stones, painting on <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a>. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, such as the baking of a <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablet</a> in a conflagration. </p><p>The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a matter quite separate from the nature of the text, which is studied in itself. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are essentially different from the written texts of each culture. Not all inscribed texts are public, however: in <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a> the deciphered texts of "<a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a>" were revealed to be largely used for economic and administrative record keeping. Informal inscribed texts are "<a href="/wiki/Graffito_(archaeology)" title="Graffito (archaeology)">graffiti</a>" in its original sense. </p><p>The study of <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideographic inscriptions</a>, that is inscriptions representing an <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">idea</a> or concept, may also be called <b>ideography</b>. The German equivalent <i>Sinnbildforschung</i> was a scientific discipline in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Reich">Third Reich</a>, but was later dismissed as being highly ideological.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epigraphic research overlaps with the study of <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">petroglyphs</a>, which deals with specimens of <a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">pictographic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideographic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logographic</a> writing. The study of ancient <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwriting</a>, usually in ink, is a separate field, <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">palaeography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epigraphy also differs from <a href="/wiki/Iconography" title="Iconography">iconography</a>, as it confines itself to meaningful symbols containing messages, rather than dealing with images. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_scripts_Alhambra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Arabic_scripts_Alhambra.jpg/220px-Arabic_scripts_Alhambra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Arabic_scripts_Alhambra.jpg/330px-Arabic_scripts_Alhambra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Arabic_scripts_Alhambra.jpg/440px-Arabic_scripts_Alhambra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3045" data-file-height="2553" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a> epigraphy with various <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a> Arabic scripts in the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_the_Myrtles" title="Court of the Myrtles">Myrtle Court</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a>.</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiroft_culture_inscriptions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Jiroft_culture_inscriptions.jpg/220px-Jiroft_culture_inscriptions.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Jiroft_culture_inscriptions.jpg/330px-Jiroft_culture_inscriptions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Jiroft_culture_inscriptions.jpg/440px-Jiroft_culture_inscriptions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="956" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a> inscriptions</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg/220px-Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg/330px-Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg/440px-Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2823" /></a><figcaption>The high medieval <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%BCfening_dedicatory_inscription" title="Prüfening dedicatory inscription">Prüfening dedicatory inscription</a>, composed in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and stamped in <a href="/wiki/Roman_square_capitals" title="Roman square capitals">Roman square capitals</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in Europe initially concentrated on Latin inscriptions. Individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as <a href="/wiki/Georg_Fabricius" title="Georg Fabricius">Georg Fabricius</a> (1516–1571); <a href="/wiki/Stefano_Antonio_Morcelli" title="Stefano Antonio Morcelli">Stefano Antonio Morcelli</a> (1737–1822); <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Gaetano_Marini" title="Luigi Gaetano Marini">Luigi Gaetano Marini</a> (1742–1815); <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Zumpt" title="August Wilhelm Zumpt">August Wilhelm Zumpt</a> (1815–1877); <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a> (1817–1903); <a href="/wiki/Emil_H%C3%BCbner" title="Emil Hübner">Emil Hübner</a> (1834–1901); <a href="/wiki/Franz_Cumont" title="Franz Cumont">Franz Cumont</a> (1868–1947); <a href="/wiki/Louis_Robert_(historian)" title="Louis Robert (historian)">Louis Robert</a> (1904–1985). </p><p>The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a></i></span>, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has been published in Berlin since 1863, with wartime interruptions. It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions. New <a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">fascicles</a> are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Corpus</i></span> is arranged geographically: all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6. This volume has the greatest number of inscriptions; volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published (2000). Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, not unlike the biologists' <i><a href="/wiki/Zoological_Record" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoological Record">Zoological Record</a></i> – the raw material of history. </p><p>Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different <a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">corpora</a>. There are two. The first is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i></span> of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin, 1825–1877. This marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world. Only advanced students still consult it, for better editions of the texts have superseded it. The second, modern corpus is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Inscriptiones_Graecae" title="Inscriptiones Graecae">Inscriptiones Graecae</a></i></span> arranged geographically under categories: decrees, catalogues, honorary titles, funeral inscriptions, various, all presented in Latin, to preserve the international neutrality of the field of <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a>. </p><p>Other such series include the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Etruscarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum</a></i></span> (Etruscan inscriptions), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Corpus Inscriptionum Crucesignatorum Terrae Sanctae</i></span> (Crusaders' inscriptions), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum</i></span> (Celtic inscriptions), <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum</i></span> (Iranian inscriptions), "Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia" and "Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period" (Sumerian and Akkadian inscriptions) and so forth. </p><p>Egyptian hieroglyphs were solved using the <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a>, which was a multilingual stele in Classical Greek, Demotic Egyptian and Classical Egyptian hieroglyphs. The work was done by the French scholar, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion" title="Jean-François Champollion">Jean-François Champollion</a>, and the British scientist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a>. </p><p>The interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Maya_hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya hieroglyphs">Maya hieroglyphs</a> was lost as a result of the Spanish Conquest of Central America. However, recent work by Maya epigraphers and linguists has yielded a considerable amount of information on this complex writing system.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Form">Form</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Epigraphy" title="Special:EditPage/Epigraphy">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Materials_and_technique">Materials and technique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Materials and technique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:41_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Ostracism_against_Megakles_(487_BC)_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_Nov_9_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/41_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Ostracism_against_Megakles_%28487_BC%29_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg/220px-41_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Ostracism_against_Megakles_%28487_BC%29_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/41_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Ostracism_against_Megakles_%28487_BC%29_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg/330px-41_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Ostracism_against_Megakles_%28487_BC%29_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/41_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Ostracism_against_Megakles_%28487_BC%29_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg/440px-41_-_Sto%C3%A0_of_Attalus_Museum_-_Ostracism_against_Megakles_%28487_BC%29_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_Nov_9_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1880" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ostrakon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostrakon">Ostrakon</a> of <a href="/wiki/Megacles" title="Megacles">Megacles</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> (inscription: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΜΕΓΑΚΛΕΣ ΗΙΠΠΟΚΡΑΤΟΣ</span></span>), 487 BC. On display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the <a href="/wiki/Stoa_of_Attalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoa of Attalus">Stoa of Attalus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trencin-Roman2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Trencin-Roman2.JPG/220px-Trencin-Roman2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Trencin-Roman2.JPG/330px-Trencin-Roman2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Trencin-Roman2.JPG/440px-Trencin-Roman2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A Roman inscription at the castle hill of <a href="/wiki/Tren%C4%8D%C3%ADn" title="Trenčín">Trenčín</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> (178–179 AD). Text: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Victoriae Augustorum exercitus, qui Laugaricione sedit, mil(ites) l(egiones) II DCCCLV. (Maximi)anus leg(atus leg)ionis II Ad(iutricis) cur(avit) f(aciendum)</i></span> ("Done by 855 Legionaries of the Augustus victorious army, who are stationed in Laugaricio. Done under supervision of Maximus legatus of II legion.")</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Content">Content</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Content"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Epigraphy" title="Special:EditPage/Epigraphy">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-mosaic-know-thyself.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Roman-mosaic-know-thyself.jpg/220px-Roman-mosaic-know-thyself.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Roman-mosaic-know-thyself.jpg/330px-Roman-mosaic-know-thyself.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Roman-mosaic-know-thyself.jpg/440px-Roman-mosaic-know-thyself.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="780" /></a><figcaption> Inscription on a Roman <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> from excavations in the <a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a>, Rome. The Greek motto <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">gnōthi sauton</i></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Know_thyself" title="Know thyself">know thyself</a>", <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nosce te ipsum</i></span>) combines with the image to convey the warning: remember death.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greek_inscriptions">Greek inscriptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Greek inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek inscriptions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inscriptiones_Graecae" title="Inscriptiones Graecae">Inscriptiones Graecae</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Epigraphy" title="Special:EditPage/Epigraphy">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_and_social">Political and social</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Political and social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Codes_of_law_and_regulations">Codes of law and regulations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Codes of law and regulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ancient writers state that the earliest laws of Athens were inscribed upon tablets of wood, put together in a pyramidal shape. These, owing to their material, have perished; but we have some very early <a href="/wiki/Codes_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Codes of law">codes of law</a> preserved on stone, notably at <a href="/wiki/Gortyna" title="Gortyna">Gortyna</a> in Crete. Here an inscription of great length is incised on the slabs of a theatre-shaped structure in 12 columns of 50 lines each; it is mainly concerned with the law of inheritance, adoption, etc. Doubtless similar inscriptions were set up in many places in Greece. An interesting series of inscriptions deals with the conditions under which colonists were sent out from various cities, and the measures that were taken to secure their rights as citizens. A bronze tablet records in some detail the arrangements of this sort made when <a href="/wiki/Locrians" title="Locrians">Locrians</a> established a colony in <a href="/wiki/Naupactus" class="mw-redirect" title="Naupactus">Naupactus</a>; another inscription relates to the Athenian colonisation of <a href="/wiki/Salamis_Island" title="Salamis Island">Salamis</a>, in the 6th century BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decrees_of_people_and_rulers,_later_of_kings_and_emperors"><span id="Decrees_of_people_and_rulers.2C_later_of_kings_and_emperors"></span>Decrees of people and rulers, later of kings and emperors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Decrees of people and rulers, later of kings and emperors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A very large number of inscriptions are in the form of decrees of various cities and peoples, even when their subject matter suggests that they should be classified under other headings. Almost all legislative and many administrative measures take this form; often a decree prescribes how and where the inscription should be set up. The formulae and preambles of such decrees vary considerably from place to place, and from period to period. Those of Athens are by far the most exactly known, owing to the immense number that have been discovered; and they are so strictly stereotyped that can be classified with the precision of algebraic formulae, and often dated to within a few years by this test alone. Very full lists for this purpose have been drawn up by epigraphist Wilhelm Larfeld, in his work on the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is usual to record the year (by the name of the eponymous archon), the day of the month and of the <a href="/wiki/Prytany" class="mw-redirect" title="Prytany">prytany</a> (or presiding commission according to tribes), various secretaries, the presiding officials and the proposer of the decree. It is also stated whether the resolution is passed by the senate (<a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a>) or the assembly of the people (<a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a>), or both. The circumstances or the reason of the resolution are then given, and finally the decision itself. Some other cities followed Athens in the form of their decrees, with such local variations as were required; others were more independent in their development, and different magistracies or forms of government had various results. In the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic Age">Hellenistic Age</a>, and later, the forms of independent government were, to a great extent, kept up, though little real power remained with the people. On the other hand, it is common thing to find letters from kings, and later from <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman emperors">Roman emperors</a>, inscribed and set up in public places. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_accounts,_treasure_lists,_building_inscriptions"><span id="Public_accounts.2C_treasure_lists.2C_building_inscriptions"></span>Public accounts, treasure lists, building inscriptions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Public accounts, treasure lists, building inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It was customary to inscribe on stone all records of the receipt, custody and expenditure of public money or treasure, so that citizens could verify for themselves the safety and due control of the State in all financial matters. As in the case of temple accounts, it was usual for each temporary board of officials to render to their successors an account of their stewardship, and of the resources and treasures which they handed over. In all cases of public works, the expenditure was ordered by the State, and detailed reports were drawn up and inscribed on stone at intervals while the work was being carried out. In many cases there is a detailed specification of building work which makes it possible, not only to realise all the technical details and processes employed, but also the whole plan and structure of a building. A notable instance is the <a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">arsenal</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philon" title="Philon">Philon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Peiraeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peiraeus">Peiraeus</a> which has been completely reconstructed on paper by architects from the building specification.<sup id="cite_ref-Phil_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phil-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of the <a href="/wiki/Erechtheum" class="mw-redirect" title="Erechtheum">Erechtheum</a>, we have not only a detailed report on the unfinished state of the building in 409 BC, but also accounts of the expenditure and payments to the workmen employed in finishing it. Similar accounts have been preserved of the building of the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, spread over 15 years; in the case of both the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, there are included the payments made to those who made the sculptures.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenkins2006_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenkins2006-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Naval and military expenditure is also fully accounted for; among other information there are records of the <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galley</a>-slips at the different harbours of the Piraeus, and of the ships of the Athenian navy, with their names and condition. In short, there is no department of state economy and financial administration that is not abundantly illustrated by the record of inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Phil_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phil-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A set of records of high historical value are the <i>"tribute lists"</i>, recording the quota paid to Athens by her <a href="/wiki/Members_of_the_Delian_League" title="Members of the Delian League">subject allies</a> during the 5th century BC. These throw much light on her relations with them at various periods.(Cf. <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_with_an_ephebic_list_NAMA_1484_(DerHexer).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Stele_with_an_ephebic_list_NAMA_1484_%28DerHexer%29.JPG/220px-Stele_with_an_ephebic_list_NAMA_1484_%28DerHexer%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Stele_with_an_ephebic_list_NAMA_1484_%28DerHexer%29.JPG/330px-Stele_with_an_ephebic_list_NAMA_1484_%28DerHexer%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Stele_with_an_ephebic_list_NAMA_1484_%28DerHexer%29.JPG/440px-Stele_with_an_ephebic_list_NAMA_1484_%28DerHexer%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1984" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">Stele</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Ephebos" title="Ephebos">ephebic</a> list, Athens, 4th century BC</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ephebic_inscriptions">Ephebic inscriptions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ephebic inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An institution as to which our knowledge is mainly derived from inscriptions is the <a href="/wiki/Ephebos" title="Ephebos">ephebic system</a> at Athens. There are not only records of lists of <a href="/wiki/Ephebos" title="Ephebos">ephebi</a> and of their guardians and instructors, but also decrees in honour of their services, especially in taking their due part in religious and other ceremonies, and resolutions of the ephebi themselves in honour of their officials. It is possible to trace in the inscriptions, which range over several centuries, how what was originally a system of physical and military training for Athenian youths from age of 18 to 20, with outpost and police duties, was gradually transformed. In later times there were added to the instructors in military exercises others who gave lectures on what we should now call arts and science subjects; so that in the Hellenistic and Roman times, when youths from all parts of the civilised world flocked to Athens as an intellectual centre, the ephebic system became a kind of cosmopolitan university.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treaties_and_political_and_commercial_agreements;_arbitration,_etc."><span id="Treaties_and_political_and_commercial_agreements.3B_arbitration.2C_etc."></span>Treaties and political and commercial agreements; arbitration, etc.</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Treaties and political and commercial agreements; arbitration, etc."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to inscriptions which are concerned with the internal affairs of various cities, there are many others recording treaties or other agreements of an international character between various cities and states. These were incised on bronze or stone, and set up in places of public resort in the cities concerned, or in common religious centres such as Olympia and Delphi. The simplest form of treaty is merely an alliance for a certain term of years, usually with some penalty for any breach of the conditions. Often an oath was prescribed, to be taken by representatives on each side; it was also not unusual to appeal to the god in whose temple the treaty was exhibited. In other cases a list of gods by whom the two parties must swear is prescribed. Commercial clauses were sometimes added to treaties of alliance, and commercial treaties are also found, agreeing as to the export and import of merchandise and other things. In later days, especially in the time of the Hellenistic kings, treaties tend to become more complicated and detailed in their provisions.<sup id="cite_ref-GEpi_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GEpi-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another series of records of great historical interest is concerned with arbitration between various states on various questions, mainly concerned with frontiers. In cases of dispute it was not uncommon for the two disputants to appoint a third party as arbitrator. Sometimes this third party was another State, sometimes a specified number of individuals. Thus, in a frontier dispute between Corinth and <a href="/wiki/Epidaurus" title="Epidaurus">Epidaurus</a>, 151 citizens of <a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a> were appointed by name to arbitrate, and when the decision was disputed, 31 from among them revised and confirmed it. In all such cases it was the custom for a full record to be preserved on stone and set up in the places concerned. In this case the initiative in referring the matter to arbitration came from the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proxenia_decrees">Proxenia decrees</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Proxenia decrees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A very large class of inscriptions deals with the institution of <i><a href="/wiki/Proxenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Proxenia">proxenia</a></i>. According to this a citizen of any State might be appointed <i>proxenos</i> of another State; his duties would then be to offer help and hospitality to any citizen of that other State who might be visiting his city, and to assist him in any dispute or in securing his legal rights. The office has been compared to the modern appointment of <a href="/wiki/Consul_(representative)" title="Consul (representative)">consuls</a>, with the essential difference that the <i>proxenos</i> is always a citizen of the state in which he resides, not of that whose citizens and interests he assists. The decrees upon this matter frequently record the appointment of a <i>proxenos</i>, and the conferring on him of certain benefits and privileges in return for his services; they also contain resolutions of thanks from the city served by the <i>proxenos</i>, and record honours consequently conferred upon him.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Honours_and_privileges_given_to_individuals">Honours and privileges given to individuals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Honours and privileges given to individuals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This class of inscription is in form not unlike the last, except that honours recorded are given for all sorts of services, private and public, to the State and to individuals. A frequent addition is an invitation to dine in the <a href="/wiki/Prytaneum" class="mw-redirect" title="Prytaneum">Prytaneum</a> at Athens. Some are inscribed on the bases of statues set up to the recipient. In early times these inscriptions are usually brief and simple. The bust of <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a> on the Acropolis held nothing but the names of Pericles himself and of the sculptor <a href="/wiki/Kresilas" title="Kresilas">Kresilas</a>. Later it became usual to give, in some detail, the reasons for the honours awarded; and in Hellenistic and Roman times, these became more and more detailed and fulsome in laudatory detail. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Signatures_of_artists">Signatures of artists</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Signatures of artists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sophilos_me_grafsen_inscription_Lebes_BM_1971.11-1.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Sophilos_me_grafsen_inscription_Lebes_BM_1971.11-1.1.jpg/220px-Sophilos_me_grafsen_inscription_Lebes_BM_1971.11-1.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Sophilos_me_grafsen_inscription_Lebes_BM_1971.11-1.1.jpg/330px-Sophilos_me_grafsen_inscription_Lebes_BM_1971.11-1.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Sophilos_me_grafsen_inscription_Lebes_BM_1971.11-1.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="362" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption>Black-figure <a href="/wiki/Dinos" title="Dinos">dinos</a> with stand, Attic, c. 570 BC. Signed by <a href="/wiki/Sophilos" title="Sophilos">Sophilos</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΣΟΦΙΛΟΣ [...] ΜΕΓΡΑΦΣΕΝ</span></span>, "Sophilos drew me"</figcaption></figure> <p>These inscriptions are of special interest as throwing much light upon the history of art. The artist's name was usually, especially in earlier times, carved upon the base of the pedestal of a statue, and consequently was easily separated from it if the statue was carried off or destroyed. A case where both statue and pedestal are preserved is offered by the <i><a href="/wiki/Victory_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victory (mythology)">Victory</a></i>, signed on its pedestal by <a href="/wiki/Paeonius_of_Mende" title="Paeonius of Mende">Paeonius</a> at Olympia. Occasionally, and more frequently in later times, the artist's signature was carved upon some portion of the statue itself. But in later copies of well-known works, it has to be considered whether the name is that of the original artist or of the copyist who reproduced his work. (see for example, <a href="#FN1">the statue of Hercules/Heracles</a> below) </p><p>A special class of artists' signatures is offered by the names signed by <a href="/wiki/Attic_vase" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic vase">Attic</a> and other vase painters upon their vases. These have been made the basis of a minute <a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">historical and stylistic study</a> of the work of these painters, and unsigned vases also have been grouped with the signed ones, so as to make an exact and detailed record of this branch of Greek artistic production.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical_records">Historical records</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Historical records"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The great majority of these fall into one of the classes already referred to. But there are some instances in which an inscription is set up merely as a record. For instance, a victor in athletic or other contests may set up a list of his victories. The most famous historical record is the <a href="/wiki/Res_Gestae_Divi_Augusti" title="Res Gestae Divi Augusti">autobiographical account of the deeds and administration</a> of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, which was reproduced and set up in many places; it is generally known as the <a href="/wiki/Monumentum_Ancyranum" class="mw-redirect" title="Monumentum Ancyranum">Monumentum Ancyranum</a>, because the most complete copy of it was found at <a href="/wiki/Ancyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancyra">Ancyra</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Marmor_Parium" class="mw-redirect" title="Marmor Parium">Marmor Parium</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Paros" title="Paros">Paros</a>, is a chronological record of Greek history, probably made for educational purposes, and valuable as giving the traditional dates of events from the earliest time down.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tombs_and_epitaphs">Tombs and epitaphs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Tombs and epitaphs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is by far the most numerous class of inscriptions, both Greek and Latin. In early times there is often no record beyond the name of the deceased in Athens, often with the name of his father and his <a href="/wiki/Deme" title="Deme">deme</a>. Sometimes a word or two of conventional praise is added, such as "a good and wise man". Occasionally the circumstances of death are alluded to, especially if it took place in battle or at sea. Such <a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">epitaphs</a> were frequently in <a href="/wiki/Metrical_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Metrical form">metrical form</a>, usually either <a href="/wiki/Hexameter" title="Hexameter">hexameter</a> or <a href="/wiki/Elegiacs" class="mw-redirect" title="Elegiacs">elegiacs</a>. Many of them have been collected, and they form an interesting addition to the Greek anthology. In later times it becomes usual to give more elaborate praise of the deceased; but this is hardly ever so detailed and fulsome as on more modern tombstones. The age and other facts about the deceased are occasionally given, but not nearly so often as on Latin tombstones, which offer valuable statistical information in this respect.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latin_inscriptions">Latin inscriptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Latin inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inscriptiones_Latinae_Selectae" title="Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae">Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_classical_abbreviations" title="List of classical abbreviations">List of classical abbreviations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aquileia_Basilica_-_Ausgrabungen_Mosaik_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Aquileia_Basilica_-_Ausgrabungen_Mosaik_5.jpg/220px-Aquileia_Basilica_-_Ausgrabungen_Mosaik_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Aquileia_Basilica_-_Ausgrabungen_Mosaik_5.jpg/330px-Aquileia_Basilica_-_Ausgrabungen_Mosaik_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Aquileia_Basilica_-_Ausgrabungen_Mosaik_5.jpg/440px-Aquileia_Basilica_-_Ausgrabungen_Mosaik_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Aquileia" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of Aquileia">Basilica of Aquileia</a>, 4th-century mosaic with Latin inscription: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">IANUARI DEDEI DONO P * DCCCLXX</i></span> (Januarius paid for 870 square feet of mosaic)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> inscriptions may be classified on much the same lines as Greek; but certain broad distinctions may be drawn at the outset. They are generally more standardised as to form and as to content, not only in Rome and Italy, but also throughout the <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of the Roman Empire">provinces of the Roman Empire</a>. One of the chief difficulties in deciphering <a href="/wiki/Latin_Inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin Inscriptions">Latin Inscriptions</a> lies in the very extensive use of <a href="/wiki/List_of_classical_abbreviations" title="List of classical abbreviations">initials and abbreviations</a>. These are of great number and variety, and while some of them can be easily interpreted as belonging to well-known formulae, others offer considerable difficulty, especially to the inexperienced student.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often the same initial may have many different meanings according to the context. Some common formulae such as <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/w/index.php?title=V.S.L.M.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="V.S.L.M. (page does not exist)">V.S.L.M.</a></i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">votum solvit libens merito</i></span>), or <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/w/index.php?title=H.M.H.N.S.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H.M.H.N.S. (page does not exist)">H.M.H.N.S.</a></i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur</i></span>) offer little difficulty, but there are many which are not so obvious and leave room for conjecture. Often the only way to determine the meaning is to search through a list of initials, such as those given by modern Latin epigraphists, until a formula is found which fits the context. </p><p>Most of what has been said about Greek inscriptions applies to Roman also. The commonest materials in this case also are stone, marble and bronze; but a more extensive use is made of stamped bricks and tiles, which are often of historical value as identifying and dating a building or other construction. The same applies to leaden water pipes which frequently bear dates and names of officials. Terracotta lamps also frequently have their makers' names and other information stamped upon them. Arms, and especially shields, sometimes bear the name and corps of their owners. Leaden discs were also used to serve the same purpose as modern identification discs. Inscriptions are also found on sling bullets – Roman as well as Greek; there are also numerous classes of <i><a href="/wiki/Tesserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tesserae">tesserae</a></i> or tickets of admission to theatres or other shows. </p><p>As regards the contents of inscriptions, there must evidently be a considerable difference between records of a number of independent city states and an empire including almost all the civilised world; but municipalities maintained much of their independent traditions in Roman times, and consequently their inscriptions often follow the old formulas. </p><p>The classification of Roman inscriptions may, therefore, follow the same lines as the Greek, except that certain categories are absent, and that some others, not found in Greek, are of considerable importance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious">Religious</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religious"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dedications_and_foundations_of_temples,_etc."><span id="Dedications_and_foundations_of_temples.2C_etc."></span>Dedications and foundations of temples, etc.</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Dedications and foundations of temples, etc."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RMW_-_Weiheplakette_Victoria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/RMW_-_Weiheplakette_Victoria.jpg/150px-RMW_-_Weiheplakette_Victoria.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/RMW_-_Weiheplakette_Victoria.jpg/225px-RMW_-_Weiheplakette_Victoria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/RMW_-_Weiheplakette_Victoria.jpg/300px-RMW_-_Weiheplakette_Victoria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>Votive plaque for <i>Victoria</i>, set by Flavius Primus, curator of the <a href="/wiki/Turma" title="Turma">Turma</a> <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximini</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>These are very numerous; and the custom of placing the name of the dedicator in a conspicuous place on the building was prevalent, especially in the case of dedications by emperors or officials, or by public bodies. Restoration or repair was often recorded in the same manner. In the case of small objects the dedication is usually simple in form; it usually contains the name of the god or other recipient and of the donor, and a common formula is <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">D.D.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">dedit, donavit</i></span>) often with additions such as <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">L.M.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">libens merito</i></span>). Such dedications are often the result of a vow, and <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">V.S.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">votum solvit</i></span>) is therefore often added. Bequests made under the wills of rich citizens are frequently recorded by inscriptions; these might either be for religious or for social purposes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Priests_and_officials">Priests and officials</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Priests and officials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A priesthood was frequently a political office and consequently is mentioned along with political honours in the list of a man's distinctions. The priesthoods that a man had held are usually mentioned first in inscriptions before his civil offices and distinctions. Religious offices, as well as civil, were restricted to certain classes, the highest to those of senatorial rank, the next to those of <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrian status</a>; many minor offices, both in Rome and in the provinces, are enumerated in their due order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regulations_as_to_religion_and_cult">Regulations as to religion and cult</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Regulations as to religion and cult"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the most interesting of these is the ancient song and accompanying dance performed by the priests known as the <a href="/wiki/Arval_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Arval Brothers">Arval Brothers</a>. This is, however, not in the form of a ritual prescription, but a detailed record of the due performance of the rite. An important class of documents is the series of calendars that have been found in Rome and in the various Italian towns. These give notice of religious festivals and anniversaries, and also of the days available for various purposes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colleges">Colleges</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Colleges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The various colleges for religious purposes were very numerous. Many of them, both in Rome and Italy, and in provincial municipalities, were of the nature of priesthoods. Some were regarded as offices of high distinction and were open only to men of senatorial rank; among these were the <a href="/wiki/Augurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Augurs">Augurs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fetiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetiales">Fetiales</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Salii" title="Salii">Salii</a>; also the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Sodales_Augustales" title="Sodales Augustales">Sodales Divorum Augustorum</a></i></span> in imperial times. The records of these colleges sometimes give no information beyond the names of members, but these are often of considerable interest. <a href="/wiki/Haruspices" class="mw-redirect" title="Haruspices">Haruspices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#Luperci" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">Luperci</a> were of equestrian rank. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_and_social_2">Political and social</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Political and social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Codes_of_law_and_regulations_2">Codes of law and regulations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Codes of law and regulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Our information as to these is not mainly drawn from inscriptions and, therefore, they need not here be considered. On the other hand, the word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">lex</i></span> (law) is usually applied to all decrees of the senate or other bodies, whether of legislative or of administrative character. It is therefore, best to consider all together under the heading of public decrees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Laws_and_plebiscites,_senatus_consulta,_decrees_of_magistrates_or_later_of_emperors"><span id="Laws_and_plebiscites.2C_senatus_consulta.2C_decrees_of_magistrates_or_later_of_emperors"></span>Laws and plebiscites, senatus consulta, decrees of magistrates or later of emperors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Laws and plebiscites, senatus consulta, decrees of magistrates or later of emperors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A certain number of these dating from republican times are of considerable interest. One of the earliest relates to the prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Bacchanalia" title="Bacchanalia">bacchanalian orgies</a> in Italy; it takes the form of a message from the magistrates, stating the authority on which they acted. Laws all follow a fixed formula, according to the body which has passed them. First there is a statement that the legislative body was consulted by the appropriate magistrate in due form; then follows the text of the law; and finally the sanction, the statement that the law was passed. In decrees of the senate the formula differs somewhat. They begin with a preamble giving the names of the consulting magistrates, the place and conditions of the meeting; then comes the subject submitted for decision, ending with the formula <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">QDERFP</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quid de ea re fieri placeret</i></span>); then comes the decision of the senate, opening with <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">DERIC</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">de ea re ita censuerunt</i></span>). <b>C.</b> is added at the end, to indicate that the decree was passed. In imperial times, the emperor sometimes addressed a speech to the senate, advising them to pass certain resolutions, or else, especially in later times, gave orders or instructions directly, either on his own initiative or in response to questions or references. The number and variety of such orders is such that no classification of them can be given here. One of the most famous is the edict of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edict_on_Maximum_Prices" title="Edict on Maximum Prices">fixing the prices of all commodities</a>. Copies of this in Greek as well as in Latin have been found in various parts of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Records_of_buildings,_etc."><span id="Records_of_buildings.2C_etc."></span>Records of buildings, etc.</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Records of buildings, etc."><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_lutz_Pfk_bozen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Hans_lutz_Pfk_bozen.jpg/220px-Hans_lutz_Pfk_bozen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Hans_lutz_Pfk_bozen.jpg/330px-Hans_lutz_Pfk_bozen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Hans_lutz_Pfk_bozen.jpg/440px-Hans_lutz_Pfk_bozen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3111" data-file-height="2361" /></a><figcaption>German inscription recording the building of <a href="/wiki/Bozen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bozen">Bozen</a>-Bolzano's Parish Church (<a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol" title="South Tyrol">South Tyrol</a>) by Hans Lutz of Schussenried, from the early 16th century (1501–1519)</figcaption></figure> <p>A very large number of inscriptions record the construction or repair of public buildings by private individuals, by magistrates, Roman or provincial, and by emperors. In addition to the dedication of temples, we find inscriptions recording the construction of <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">aqueducts</a>, roads, especially on <a href="/wiki/Milestone" title="Milestone">milestones</a>, baths, <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portico" title="Portico">porticos</a> and many other works of public utility. In inscriptions of early period often nothing is given but the name of the person who built or restored the edifice and a statement that he had done so. But later it was usual to give more detail as to the motive of the building, the name of the emperor or a magistrate giving the date, the authority for the building and the names and distinctions of the builders; then follows a description of the building, the source of the expenditure (e.g., <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">S.P.</i></span></b>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sua pecunia</i></span>) and finally the appropriate verb for the work done, whether building, restoring, enlarging or otherwise improving. Other details are sometimes added, such as the name of the man under whose direction the work was done. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_documents">Military documents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Military documents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMG_-_Ziegel_Cohors_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/AMG_-_Ziegel_Cohors_III.jpg/120px-AMG_-_Ziegel_Cohors_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/AMG_-_Ziegel_Cohors_III.jpg/180px-AMG_-_Ziegel_Cohors_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/AMG_-_Ziegel_Cohors_III.jpg/240px-AMG_-_Ziegel_Cohors_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1566" data-file-height="1992" /></a><figcaption>Brick stamp with military record: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">C(ohors) III BR(acaraugustanorum)</i></span>, from <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>These vary greatly in content, and are among the most important documents concerning the administration of the Roman Empire. "They are numerous and of all sorts – tombstones of every degree, lists of soldiers' burial clubs, certificates of discharge from service, schedules of time-expired men, dedications of altars, records of building or of engineering works accomplished. The facts directly commemorated are rarely important."<sup id="cite_ref-Haverf_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haverf-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But when the information from hundreds of such inscriptions is collected together, "you can trace the whole policy of the Imperial Government in the matter of recruiting, to what extent and till what date legionaries were raised in Italy; what contingents for various branches of the service were drawn from the provinces, and which provinces provided most; how far provincials garrisoned their own countries, and which of them, like the British recruits, were sent as a measure of precaution to serve elsewhere; or, finally, at what epoch the empire grew weak enough to require the enlistment of barbarians from beyond its frontiers."<sup id="cite_ref-Haverf_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haverf-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treaties_and_agreements">Treaties and agreements</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Treaties and agreements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There were many treaties between Rome and other states in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">republican times</a>; but we do not, as a rule, owe our knowledge of these to inscriptions, which are very rare in this earlier period. In imperial times, to which most Latin inscriptions belong, international relations were subject to the universal domination of Rome, and consequently the documents relating to them are concerned with reference to the central authority, and often take the form of orders from the emperor. </p> <div id="FN1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:398px;max-width:398px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg/130px-Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg/195px-Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg/260px-Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="4025" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n07.jpg/260px-Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n07.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n07.jpg/390px-Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n07.jpg/520px-Herakles_Farnese_MAN_Napoli_Inv6001_n07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Roman copy of <a href="/wiki/Lysippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysippus">Lysippus</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a></i> (left) and copyist's signature (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Glykon Athenaios epoiei</i></span>, "Glycon the Athenian made [me]") on statue (right)</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Proxeny">Proxeny</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Proxeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage in ancient Rome</a></div> <p>This custom belonged to Greece. What most nearly corresponded to it in Roman times was the adoption of some distinguished Roman as its <i><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">patron</a></i>, by a city or state. The relation was then recorded, usually on a bronze tablet placed in some conspicuous position in the town concerned. The patron probably also kept a copy in his house, or had a portable tablet which would ensure his recognition and reception. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Honorary">Honorary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Honorary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Honorary inscriptions are extremely common in all parts of the Roman world. Sometimes they are placed on the bases of statues, sometimes in documents set up to record some particular benefaction or the construction of some public work. The offices held by the person commemorated, and the distinctions conferred upon him are enumerated in a regularly established order (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a></i></span>), either beginning with the lower and proceeding step by step to the higher, or in reverse order with the highest first. Religious and priestly offices are usually mentioned before civil and political ones. These might be exercised either in Rome itself, or in the various municipalities of the empire. There was also a distinction drawn between offices that might be held only by persons of senatorial rank, those that were assigned to persons of equestrian rank, and those of a less distinguished kind. It follows that when only a portion of an inscription has been found, it is often possible to restore the whole in accordance with the accepted order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Signatures_of_artists_2">Signatures of artists</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Signatures of artists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When these are attached to statues, it is sometimes doubtful whether the name is that of the man who actually made the statue, or of the master whose work it reproduces. Thus there are two well-known copies of a statue of <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a> by <a href="/wiki/Lysippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysippus">Lysippus</a>, of which one is said to be the work of Lysippus, and the other states that it was <a href="#FN1">made by Glycon (see images)</a>. Another kind of artist's or artificer's signature that is commoner in Roman times is to be found in the signatures of potters upon lamps and various kinds of vessels; they are usually impressed on the mould and stand out in relief on the terracotta or other material. These are of interest as giving much information as to the commercial spread of various kinds of handicrafts, and also as to the conditions under which they were manufactured. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MCR_-_colonna_rostrata_di_C_Duilio_1150130.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MCR_-_colonna_rostrata_di_C_Duilio_1150130.JPG/220px-MCR_-_colonna_rostrata_di_C_Duilio_1150130.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MCR_-_colonna_rostrata_di_C_Duilio_1150130.JPG/330px-MCR_-_colonna_rostrata_di_C_Duilio_1150130.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/MCR_-_colonna_rostrata_di_C_Duilio_1150130.JPG/440px-MCR_-_colonna_rostrata_di_C_Duilio_1150130.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Reproduction of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Rostral_column" title="Rostral column">Columna Rostrata</a></i></span> of <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Duilius" title="Gaius Duilius">Gaius Duilius</a> (c. 260 BC) at the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Roman_Civilization" title="Museum of Roman Civilization">Museum of Roman Civilization</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historical_records_2">Historical records</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Historical records"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many of these inscriptions might well be assigned to one of the categories already considered. But there are some which were expressly made to commemorate an important event, or to preserve a record. Among the most interesting is the inscription of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Rostral_column" title="Rostral column">Columna Rostrata</a></i></span> in Rome, which records the great naval victory of <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Duilius" title="Gaius Duilius">Gaius Duilius</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a>; this, however, is not the original, but a later and somewhat modified version. A document of high importance is a summary of the life and achievements of Augustus, already mentioned, and known as the <a href="/wiki/Monumentum_Ancyranum" class="mw-redirect" title="Monumentum Ancyranum">Monumentum Ancyranum</a>. The various sets of <a href="/wiki/Fasti" title="Fasti">Fasti</a> constituted a record of the names of consuls, and other magistrates or high officials, and also of the triumphs accorded to conquering generals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inscriptions_on_tombs">Inscriptions on tombs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Inscriptions on tombs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scipio-tomb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Scipio-tomb.jpg/220px-Scipio-tomb.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Scipio-tomb.jpg/330px-Scipio-tomb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Scipio-tomb.jpg/440px-Scipio-tomb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tomb" title="Tomb">tomb</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Scipio_Barbatus" title="Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus">Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus</a>, erected around 150 BC, contains an <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> inscription in <a href="/wiki/Saturnian_Metre" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturnian Metre">Saturnian Metre</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>These are probably the most numerous of all classes of inscriptions; and though many of them are of no great individual interest, they convey, when taken collectively, much valuable information as to the distribution and transference of population, as to trades and professions, as to health and longevity, and as to many other conditions of ancient life. The most interesting early series is that on the tombs of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scipios&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scipios (page does not exist)">Scipios</a> at Rome, recording, mostly in <a href="/wiki/Saturnian_Metre" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturnian Metre">Saturnian Metre</a>, the exploits and distinctions of the various members of that family.<sup id="cite_ref-Cour_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cour-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About the end of the republic and the beginning of the empire, it became customary to head a tombstone with the letters <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">D.M.</i></span></b> or <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">D.M.S.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Dis Manibus sacrum</i></span>), thus consecrating the tomb to the deceased as having become members of the <a href="/wiki/Manes" title="Manes">body of ghosts or spirits of the dead</a>. These are followed by the name of the deceased, usually with his father's name and his tribe, by his honours and distinctions, sometimes by a record of his age. The inscription often concludes with <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">H.I.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Hic iacet</i></span>), or some similar formula, and also, frequently, with a statement of boundaries and a prohibition of violation or further use – for instance, <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">H.M.H.N.S.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur</i></span>, this monument is not to pass to the heir). The person who has erected the monument and his relation to the deceased are often stated; or if a man has prepared the tomb in his lifetime, this also may be stated, <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">V.S.F.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vivus sibi fecit</i></span>). But there is an immense variety in the information that either a man himself or his friend may wish to record.<sup id="cite_ref-Cour_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cour-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Milestones_and_boundaries">Milestones and boundaries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Milestones and boundaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Milliarium" class="mw-redirect" title="Milliarium">milliarium</a></div> <p>Milliarium (milestones) have already been referred to, and may be regarded as records of the building of roads. Boundary stones (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Boundary_marker" title="Boundary marker">termini</a></i></span>) are frequently found, both of public and private property. A well-known instance is offered by those set up by the commissioners called <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">III. viri A.I.A.</i></span></b> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">agris iudicandis adsignandis</i></span>) in the time of the <a href="/wiki/Gracchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gracchi">Gracchi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sanskrit_inscriptions">Sanskrit inscriptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sanskrit inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_epigraphy" title="Sanskrit epigraphy">Sanskrit epigraphy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable relarticle mainarticle selfreference noprint">This section is <a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">transcluded</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_epigraphy" title="Sanskrit epigraphy">Sanskrit epigraphy</a>. <span class="plainlinks" style="font-style: normal; font-size:85%;">(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_epigraphy&action=edit">edit</a> | <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanskrit_epigraphy&action=history">history</a>)</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:203px;max-width:203px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:56px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2nd_century_BCE_Hindu_Sanskrit_inscription_Nanaghat_cave,_I-1a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/2nd_century_BCE_Hindu_Sanskrit_inscription_Nanaghat_cave%2C_I-1a.jpg/201px-2nd_century_BCE_Hindu_Sanskrit_inscription_Nanaghat_cave%2C_I-1a.jpg" decoding="async" width="201" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/2nd_century_BCE_Hindu_Sanskrit_inscription_Nanaghat_cave%2C_I-1a.jpg/302px-2nd_century_BCE_Hindu_Sanskrit_inscription_Nanaghat_cave%2C_I-1a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/2nd_century_BCE_Hindu_Sanskrit_inscription_Nanaghat_cave%2C_I-1a.jpg/402px-2nd_century_BCE_Hindu_Sanskrit_inscription_Nanaghat_cave%2C_I-1a.jpg 2x" 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href="/wiki/File:Sarada_script_Inscription_from_Hund,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Sarada_script_Inscription_from_Hund%2C_India.jpg/132px-Sarada_script_Inscription_from_Hund%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Sarada_script_Inscription_from_Hund%2C_India.jpg/198px-Sarada_script_Inscription_from_Hund%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Sarada_script_Inscription_from_Hund%2C_India.jpg/264px-Sarada_script_Inscription_from_Hund%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2248" data-file-height="1586" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:93px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:5th_or_6th_century_Vadathika_Cave_Inscription,_Sanskrit,_Shaivism,_Anantavarman,_Gupta_script,_Ancient_Om_symbol.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/5th_or_6th_century_Vadathika_Cave_Inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaivism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script%2C_Ancient_Om_symbol.jpg/152px-5th_or_6th_century_Vadathika_Cave_Inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaivism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script%2C_Ancient_Om_symbol.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/5th_or_6th_century_Vadathika_Cave_Inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaivism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script%2C_Ancient_Om_symbol.jpg/228px-5th_or_6th_century_Vadathika_Cave_Inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaivism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script%2C_Ancient_Om_symbol.jpg 1.5x, 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width="123" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/5th_or_6th_century_Gopika_cave_inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaktism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script_2.jpg/185px-5th_or_6th_century_Gopika_cave_inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaktism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/5th_or_6th_century_Gopika_cave_inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaktism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script_2.jpg/246px-5th_or_6th_century_Gopika_cave_inscription%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Shaktism%2C_Anantavarman%2C_Gupta_script_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1512" data-file-height="1174" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:95px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription.gif/161px-Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription.gif" decoding="async" width="161" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription.gif/242px-Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription.gif/322px-Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:77px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuscript_fragment_of_the_Buddhist_Jatakamala,_Sanskrit_language_in_the_Gilgit-Bamiyan-Typ_II_Protosarada_script,_Toyuk,_probably_8th-9th_century_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_DSC01754.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Manuscript_fragment_of_the_Buddhist_Jatakamala%2C_Sanskrit_language_in_the_Gilgit-Bamiyan-Typ_II_Protosarada_script%2C_Toyuk%2C_probably_8th-9th_century_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01754.JPG/200px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Manuscript_fragment_of_the_Buddhist_Jatakamala%2C_Sanskrit_language_in_the_Gilgit-Bamiyan-Typ_II_Protosarada_script%2C_Toyuk%2C_probably_8th-9th_century_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01754.JPG/300px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Manuscript_fragment_of_the_Buddhist_Jatakamala%2C_Sanskrit_language_in_the_Gilgit-Bamiyan-Typ_II_Protosarada_script%2C_Toyuk%2C_probably_8th-9th_century_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01754.JPG/400px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5044" data-file-height="1939" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:86px;max-width:86px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:77px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1010_CE_Brihadishwara_Shiva_Temple,_inscription,_built_by_Rajaraja_I,_Thanjavur_Tamil_Nadu_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/1010_CE_Brihadishwara_Shiva_Temple%2C_inscription%2C_built_by_Rajaraja_I%2C_Thanjavur_Tamil_Nadu_India.jpg/84px-1010_CE_Brihadishwara_Shiva_Temple%2C_inscription%2C_built_by_Rajaraja_I%2C_Thanjavur_Tamil_Nadu_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/1010_CE_Brihadishwara_Shiva_Temple%2C_inscription%2C_built_by_Rajaraja_I%2C_Thanjavur_Tamil_Nadu_India.jpg/126px-1010_CE_Brihadishwara_Shiva_Temple%2C_inscription%2C_built_by_Rajaraja_I%2C_Thanjavur_Tamil_Nadu_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/1010_CE_Brihadishwara_Shiva_Temple%2C_inscription%2C_built_by_Rajaraja_I%2C_Thanjavur_Tamil_Nadu_India.jpg/168px-1010_CE_Brihadishwara_Shiva_Temple%2C_inscription%2C_built_by_Rajaraja_I%2C_Thanjavur_Tamil_Nadu_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4217" data-file-height="3890" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Starting in about the 1st century BCE, Sanskrit has been written in many South Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian scripts.</div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_epigraphy" title="Sanskrit epigraphy">Sanskrit epigraphy</a> is the study of ancient inscriptions in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. The inscriptions offer insight into the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">linguistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_South_Asia" title="Culture of South Asia">cultural</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_history" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian history">historical evolution</a> of South Asia and its neighbors. <a href="/wiki/Early_Indian_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Indian inscriptions">Early inscriptions</a>, such as those from the 1st century <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ayodhya" title="Ayodhya">Ayodhya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hathibada" class="mw-redirect" title="Hathibada">Hathibada</a>, are written in <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> and reflect the transition to <a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">classical Sanskrit</a>. The Mathura inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd centuries <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Mora_Well_Inscription" title="Mora Well Inscription">Mora Well</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasu_Doorjamb_Inscription" title="Vasu Doorjamb Inscription">Vasu Doorjamb</a> inscriptions, represent significant contributions to the early use of Sanskrit, often linked to Hindu and Jaina traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Salomon=1998_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salomon=1998-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy came with the <a href="/wiki/Rudradaman_I" title="Rudradaman I">Rudradaman I</a> inscription from the mid-2nd century CE, which established a poetic eulogy style later adopted during the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>. This era saw Sanskrit become the predominant language for royal and religious records, documenting donations, public works, and the glorification of rulers. In South India, inscriptions such as those from <a href="/wiki/Nagarjunakonda" title="Nagarjunakonda">Nagarjunakonda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amaravati" title="Amaravati">Amaravati</a> illustrate early use in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Buddhist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaivite" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaivite">Shaivite</a> contexts, transitioning to exclusive Sanskrit use from the 4th century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Salomon=1998_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salomon=1998-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89, 91–94, 110–126">: 89, 91–94, 110–126 </span></sup> </p><p>Sanskrit inscriptions extended beyond South Asia, influencing Southeast Asia from the 4th century CE onward. <a href="/wiki/Indic_scripts" class="mw-redirect" title="Indic scripts">Indic scripts</a> adapted for Sanskrit were found in regions like Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia, where they evolved into local scripts such as Khmer, Javanese, and Balinese. These inscriptions highlight the spread of <a href="/wiki/Indian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian culture">Indian cultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian religion">religious practices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 143–144">: 143–144 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Salomon=1998_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salomon=1998-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92–93">: 92–93 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_fields_of_study">Related fields of study</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Related fields of study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break" style="width: 50%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EpiDoc" title="EpiDoc">EpiDoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leiden_Conventions" title="Leiden Conventions">Leiden Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a>, the study of ancient writing</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break" style="width: 50%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrology" title="Papyrology">Papyrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">Typography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_inscription">Types of inscription</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Types of inscription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break" style="width: 50%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abecedarium" title="Abecedarium">Abecedarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronogram" title="Chronogram">Chronogram</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_copper_plate_inscriptions" title="Indian copper plate inscriptions">Copper plate inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bookplate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bookplate">Ex libris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Indian_epigraphy" title="Early Indian epigraphy">Early Indian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">Epitaph</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Headstone" class="mw-redirect" title="Headstone">headstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">Graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero_stone" title="Hero stone">Hero stone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paliya" title="Paliya">Paliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History of Latin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inscriptiones_Graecae" title="Inscriptiones Graecae">Inscriptiones Graecae</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Supplementum_Epigraphicum_Graecum" title="Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum">Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>, also known as "Maya glyphs" or "Maya hieroglyphics"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memento_mori" title="Memento mori">Memento mori</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break" style="width: 50%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_inscription" title="Monumental inscription">Monumental inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham_inscription" title="Ogham inscription">Ogham inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_inscriptions" title="Kannada inscriptions">Kannada inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Old Turkic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracon" title="Ostracon">Ostracon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_lead_pipe_inscription" title="Roman lead pipe inscription">Roman lead pipe inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runestone" title="Runestone">Runestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoichedon" title="Stoichedon">Stoichedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_inscriptions">Notable inscriptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notable inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitola_inscription" title="Bitola inscription">Bitola inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryggen_inscriptions" title="Bryggen inscriptions">Bryggen inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree_of_Themistocles" title="Decree of Themistocles">Decree of Themistocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipylon_inscription" title="Dipylon inscription">Dipylon inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duenos_Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Duenos Inscription">Duenos Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edicts of Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscription_of_Abercius" title="Inscription of Abercius">Inscription of Abercius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedukan_Bukit" class="mw-redirect" title="Kedukan Bukit">Kedukan Bukit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuntillet_Ajrud_inscriptions" title="Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions">Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laguna_Copperplate_Inscription" title="Laguna Copperplate Inscription">Laguna Copperplate Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Mojarra_Stela_1" title="La Mojarra Stela 1">La Mojarra Stela 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malia_altar_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Malia altar stone">Malia altar stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaistos_Disc" title="Phaistos Disc">Phaistos Disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_Gestae_Divi_Augusti" title="Res Gestae Divi Augusti">Res Gestae Divi Augusti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugborough_inscription" title="Shugborough inscription">Shugborough inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priene_inscription_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Priene inscription (disambiguation)">Priene Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic-Libyan_Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic-Libyan Inscription">Punic-Libyan Inscription</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism#Antikythera_Mechanism_Research_Project" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> is notable for the novel techniques used in reading the inscriptions.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beccut_cippus" title="Beccut cippus">Beccut cippus</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=Faking+Biblical+History%3A+How+wishful+thinking+and+technology+fooled+some+scholars+%E2%80%93+and+made+fools+out+of+others&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=20-29&rft.date=2003-09%2F2003-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41658744%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Silberman&rft.aufirst=Neil+Asher&rft.au=Goren%2C+Yuval&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2F0309%2Fabstracts%2Fossuary.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShanks" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hershel_Shanks" title="Hershel Shanks">Shanks, Hershel</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110907100357/http://www.bib-arch.org/news/forgery-trial-news.asp">"Related Coverage on the James Ossuary and Forgery Trial"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Archaeology_Review" title="Biblical Archaeology Review">Biblical Archaeology Review</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bib-arch.org/news/forgery-trial-news.asp">the original</a> on 7 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=Related+Coverage+on+the+James+Ossuary+and+Forgery+Trial&rft.aulast=Shanks&rft.aufirst=Hershel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bib-arch.org%2Fnews%2Fforgery-trial-news.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mees, Bernard Thomas, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/10332771/the-science-of-the-swastika-mysteriousmannet">The Science of the Swastika</a></i>, Budapest / New York 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Julian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.umass.edu/eng3/fcd/documents/Brown_WhatIsPalaeography.pdf">"What is Palaeography?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/UMassAmherst" class="mw-redirect" title="UMassAmherst">UMassAmherst</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+is+Palaeography%3F&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.umass.edu%2Feng3%2Ffcd%2Fdocuments%2FBrown_WhatIsPalaeography.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_D._Coe1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Michael D. Coe</a> (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/breakingmayacode00coem_0"><i>Breaking the Maya Code</i></a></span>. London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-05061-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-05061-9"><bdi>0-500-05061-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26605966">26605966</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breaking+the+Maya+Code&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26605966&rft.isbn=0-500-05061-9&rft.au=Michael+D.+Coe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbreakingmayacode00coem_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. his classic work (downloadable) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/griechischeepigr00larf"><i>Griechische Epigraphik</i> (1914)</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> – Robarts Library, eBook.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phil-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Phil_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phil_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Built under the administration of <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Athens" title="Lycurgus of Athens">Lycurgus</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Sir_William1859" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Sir William, ed. (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UcwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA314">"Philon, A very eminent architect at Athens"</a>. <i>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</i>. Vol. III. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. p. 314.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Philon%2C+A+very+eminent+architect+at+Athens&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Biography+and+Mythology&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=314&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1859&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUcwPAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span>. E. A. Gardner, <i>op.cit.</i> p. 557, observes that it "is perhaps known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of antiquity." It was to hold the rigging of the <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a>; and was so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>. Philon's arsenal was destroyed by the forces of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a> in the <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War#Sulla's_siege_of_Athens,_summer_87_–_early_86_BC" title="First Mithridatic War">Roman conquest of Athens in 86 BC</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jenkins2006-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jenkins2006_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_Jenkins2006" class="citation book cs1">Ian Jenkins (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekarchitectur00jenk"><i>Greek Architecture And Its Sculpture</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekarchitectur00jenk/page/118">118</a>–126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02388-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02388-8"><bdi>978-0-674-02388-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Architecture+And+Its+Sculpture&rft.pages=118-126&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02388-8&rft.au=Ian+Jenkins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreekarchitectur00jenk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey_M._Hurwit2000" class="citation book cs1">Jeffrey M. Hurwit (2000). <i>The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42834-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42834-3"><bdi>0-521-42834-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Athenian+Acropolis%3A+History%2C+Mythology%2C+and+Archeology+from+the+Neolithic+Era+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-42834-3&rft.au=Jeffrey+M.+Hurwit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO._W._Reinmuth1971" class="citation book cs1">O. W. Reinmuth (1971). <i>The Ephebic Inscriptions of the Fourth Century B.C</i>. Leiden Brill. pp. passim.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ephebic+Inscriptions+of+the+Fourth+Century+B.C.&rft.pages=passim&rft.pub=Leiden+Brill&rft.date=1971&rft.au=O.+W.+Reinmuth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GEpi-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GEpi_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ECc9AAAAIAAJ&dq=hall+of+the+Iobacchi&pg=PA240"><i>An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy</i></a>, Cambridge University Press – (undated, no author cited) Googlebook; see also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tTUFC3S-7r4C&dq=hall+of+the+Iobacchi&pg=PA112"><i>Ancient Athens</i></a>, Haskell House Publ., 1902 (no author cited) Googlebook</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnrica_Culasso_Gastaldi2004" class="citation book cs1">Enrica Culasso Gastaldi (2004). <i>Le prossenie ateniesi del IV secolo a.C.: gli onorati asiatici (Fonti e studi di storia antica, 10)</i>. Alessandria: Edizioni dell'Orso. pp. passim.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+prossenie+ateniesi+del+IV+secolo+a.C.%3A+gli+onorati+asiatici+%28Fonti+e+studi+di+storia+antica%2C+10%29&rft.place=Alessandria&rft.pages=passim&rft.pub=Edizioni+dell%27Orso&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Enrica+Culasso+Gastaldi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <i>int. al.</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Veach_Noble1988" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Veach Noble (1988). <i>The Techniques of Painted Attic Pottery</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0500050477" title="Special:BookSources/978-0500050477"><bdi>978-0500050477</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Techniques+of+Painted+Attic+Pottery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0500050477&rft.au=Joseph+Veach+Noble&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_Robinson1992" class="citation book cs1">Martin Robinson (1992). <i>The Art of Vase-Painting in Classical Athens</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521338813" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521338813"><bdi>978-0521338813</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Vase-Painting+in+Classical+Athens&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=41-43&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0521338813&rft.au=Martin+Robinson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._BotteriG._Fangi2003" class="citation book cs1">P. Botteri; G. Fangi (2003). <i>The Ancyra Project: the Temple of Augustus and Rome</i>. Ankara: ISPRS Archives, volume XXXIV part 5/W12 Commission V. pp. 84–88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancyra+Project%3A+the+Temple+of+Augustus+and+Rome&rft.place=Ankara&rft.pages=84-88&rft.pub=ISPRS+Archives%2C+volume+XXXIV+part+5%2FW12+Commission+V&rft.date=2003&rft.au=P.+Botteri&rft.au=G.+Fangi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span>; see also <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/parianchronicle00robegoog">The Parian chronicle, or The chronicle of the Arundelian marbles; with a dissertation concerning its authenticity</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Robertson_(clergyman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Robertson (clergyman)">Joseph Robertson</a> 1788, from the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <i>int. al.</i> the interesting <i><a href="/wiki/Epitaph_of_Seikilos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epitaph of Seikilos">Epitaph of Seikilos</a></i> by C. V. Palisca & J. P. Burkholder, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A mere list of such initials and abbreviations occupies 68 pages in <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cagnat" title="René Cagnat">René Cagnat</a>'s <i>Cours d'épigraphie Latine</i> (repr. 1923). A selection is included in <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/List_of_classical_abbreviations" title="List of classical abbreviations">List of classical abbreviations</a>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It reads: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Victo(riae) Fl(avius) P/rimus cur(ator) / tur(mae) Maxi/mini</i></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE.R._Graser1940" class="citation book cs1">E.R. Graser (1940). T. Frank (ed.). <i>An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome Volume V: Rome and Italy of the Empire</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press – esp. "A text and translation of the Edict of Diocletian".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+Survey+of+Ancient+Rome+Volume+V%3A+Rome+and+Italy+of+the+Empire&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press+%E2%80%93+esp.+%22A+text+and+translation+of+the+Edict+of+Diocletian%22&rft.date=1940&rft.au=E.R.+Graser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haverf-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haverf_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haverf_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Francis Haverfield</span>, "Roman Authority" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">S. R. Driver, D. G. Hogarth, F. L. Griffith</span>, <i>et al</i>. <i>Authority and Archaeology, Sacred and Profane: Essays on the Relation of Monuments to Biblical and Classical Literature</i>, Ulan Press (repr. 2012), p. 314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cour-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cour_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cour_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Courtney1995" class="citation book cs1">Edward Courtney (1995). <i>MUSA Lapidaria: A Selection of Latin Verse Inscriptions</i>. Atlanta: Scholars Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MUSA+Lapidaria%3A+A+Selection+of+Latin+Verse+Inscriptions&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Edward+Courtney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Arthur E. Gordon, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ywI6SDUggk4C"><i>Latin Epigraphy</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 1983, Introd., pp. 3–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salomon=1998-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Salomon=1998_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salomon=1998_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salomon=1998_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalomon1998" class="citation book cs1">Salomon, Richard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC"><i>Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 86–87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535666-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-535666-3"><bdi>978-0-19-535666-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132352/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Epigraphy%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Study+of+Inscriptions+in+Sanskrit%2C+Prakrit%2C+and+the+other+Indo-Aryan+Languages&rft.pages=86-87&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-535666-3&rft.aulast=Salomon&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXYrG07qQDxkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuintanilla2007" class="citation book cs1">Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC"><i>History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE</i></a>. BRILL Academic. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15537-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15537-4"><bdi>978-90-04-15537-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230702132035/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Early+Stone+Sculpture+at+Mathura%3A+ca.+150+BCE+%E2%80%93+100+CE&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15537-4&rft.aulast=Quintanilla&rft.aufirst=Sonya+Rhie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX7Cb8IkZVSMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCourt1996" class="citation book cs1">Court, Christopher (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA445">"The Spread of Brahmi Script into Southeast Asia"</a>. In Daniels, Peter T. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ"><i>The World's Writing Systems</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507993-7"><bdi>978-0-19-507993-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240329150129/https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Spread+of+Brahmi+Script+into+Southeast+Asia&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Writing+Systems&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507993-7&rft.aulast=Court&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DospMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasica1993" class="citation book cs1">Masica, Colin P. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC"><i>The Indo-Aryan Languages</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29944-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29944-2"><bdi>978-0-521-29944-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230201230338/https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indo-Aryan+Languages&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29944-2&rft.aulast=Masica&rft.aufirst=Colin+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ3RSHWePhXwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigraphy&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Epigraphy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epigraphy" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:epigraphy">epigraphy</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inscription" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:inscription">inscription</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Epigraphy" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eagle-network.eu/">"EAGLE: Europeana Network of Ancient Greek and Latin Epigraphy"</a>. EAGLE project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EAGLE%3A+Europeana+Network+of+Ancient+Greek+and+Latin+Epigraphy&rft.pub=EAGLE+project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eagle-network.eu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodel1997–2009" class="citation web cs1">Bodel, John (1997–2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100407173637/http://usepigraphy.brown.edu/">"U.S. Epigraphy Project"</a>. Brown University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://usepigraphy.brown.edu/">the original</a> on 7 April 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Epigraphy+Project&rft.pub=Brown+University&rft.date=1997%2F2009&rft.aulast=Bodel&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusepigraphy.brown.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCentre_d'études_épigraphiques_et_numismatiques_de_la_faculté_de_Philosophie_de_l'Université_de_Beograd" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Centre d'études épigraphiques et numismatiques de la faculté de Philosophie de l'Université de Beograd. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090725092904/http://www.moesia-superior.rs/ims/list.html">"Inscriptions de la Mésie Supérieure"</a> (in French). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.moesia-superior.rs/ims/list.html">the original</a> on 25 July 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inscriptions+de+la+M%C3%A9sie+Sup%C3%A9rieure&rft.au=Centre+d%27%C3%A9tudes+%C3%A9pigraphiques+et+numismatiques+de+la+facult%C3%A9+de+Philosophie+de+l%27Universit%C3%A9+de+Beograd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.moesia-superior.rs%2Fims%2Flist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csad.ox.ac.uk/">"Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents"</a>. Oxford: Oxford University. 1995–2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Centre+for+the+Study+of+Ancient+Documents&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=1995%2F2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csad.ox.ac.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClauss" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Clauss, Manfred. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110825063316/http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">"Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (EDCS)"</a> (in German, Italian, Spanish, English, and French). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de:8888/epigr/epigraphik_en">the original</a> on 25 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epigraphik-Datenbank+Clauss-Slaby+%28EDCS%29&rft.aulast=Clauss&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foracle-vm.ku-eichstaett.de%3A8888%2Fepigr%2Fepigraphik_en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eagle-eagle.it/">"EAGLE: Electronic Archive of Greek and Latin Epigraphy"</a> (in Italian). Federazione Internazionale di Banche dati Epigrafiche presso il Centro Linceo Interdisciplinare "Beniamino Segre" – Roma<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EAGLE%3A+Electronic+Archive+of+Greek+and+Latin+Epigraphy&rft.pub=Federazione+Internazionale+di+Banche+dati+Epigrafiche+presso+il+Centro+Linceo+Interdisciplinare+%22Beniamino+Segre%22+%E2%80%93+Roma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eagle-eagle.it%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edh-www.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/home?&lang=en">"Epigraphische Datenbank Heidelberg (EDH)"</a>. 1986–2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epigraphische+Datenbank+Heidelberg+%28EDH%29&rft.date=1986%2F2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedh-www.adw.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fhome%3F%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Federation_of_Epigraphic_Databases" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">International Federation of Epigraphic Databases. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edr-edr.it/">"Epigraphic Database Roma (EDR)"</a> (in Italian). Association Internationale d'Épigraphie Grecque et Latine – AIEGL<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epigraphic+Database+Roma+%28EDR%29&rft.pub=Association+Internationale+d%27%C3%89pigraphie+Grecque+et+Latine+%E2%80%93+AIEGL&rft.au=International+Federation+of+Epigraphic+Databases&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edr-edr.it%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Federation_of_Epigraphic_Databases" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">International Federation of Epigraphic Databases. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100125103144/http://www.edb.uniba.it/">"Epigraphic Database Bari: Documenti epigrafici romani di committenza cristiana – Secoli III – VIII"</a> (in Italian). Association Internationale d'Épigraphie Grecque et Latine – AIEGL. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edb.uniba.it/">the original</a> on 25 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epigraphic+Database+Bari%3A+Documenti+epigrafici+romani+di+committenza+cristiana+%E2%80%93+Secoli+III+%E2%80%93+VIII&rft.pub=Association+Internationale+d%27%C3%89pigraphie+Grecque+et+Latine+%E2%80%93+AIEGL&rft.au=International+Federation+of+Epigraphic+Databases&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edb.uniba.it%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eda-bea.es/">"Hispania Epigraphica Online (HEpOl)"</a> (in Spanish and English)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hispania+Epigraphica+Online+%28HEpOl%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eda-bea.es%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreek_Epigraphy_Project,_Cornell_UniversityEpigraphical_CenterOhio_State_University2009" class="citation web cs1">Greek Epigraphy Project, Cornell University; Epigraphical Center; Ohio State University (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20091210184440/http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/">"Searchable Greek Inscriptions"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Packard_Humanities_Institute" title="Packard Humanities Institute">Packard Humanities Institute</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/">the original</a> on 10 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Searchable+Greek+Inscriptions&rft.pub=Packard+Humanities+Institute&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Greek+Epigraphy+Project%2C+Cornell+University&rft.au=Epigraphical+Center&rft.au=Ohio+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepigraphy.packhum.org%2Finscriptions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Institute_for_Ancient_History1993–2009" class="citation web cs1">The Institute for Ancient History (1993–2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epigraphik.uni-hamburg.de/">"Epigraphic database for ancient Asia Minor"</a>. Universität Hamburg<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epigraphic+database+for+ancient+Asia+Minor&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A4t+Hamburg&rft.date=1993%2F2009&rft.au=The+Institute+for+Ancient+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epigraphik.uni-hamburg.de%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynoldsRouechéBodard2007" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Joyce; Roueché, Charlotte; Bodard, Gabriel (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://insaph.kcl.ac.uk/iaph2007"><i>Inscriptions of Aphrodisias (IAph2007)</i></a>. London: King's College. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-897747-19-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-897747-19-3"><bdi>978-1-897747-19-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inscriptions+of+Aphrodisias+%28IAph2007%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=King%27s+College&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-897747-19-3&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Joyce&rft.au=Rouech%C3%A9%2C+Charlotte&rft.au=Bodard%2C+Gabriel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finsaph.kcl.ac.uk%2Fiaph2007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100330144449/http://www.case.edu/artsci/clsc/asgle/">"The American Society for Greek and Latin Epigraphy (ASGLE)"</a>. Case Western Reserve University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.case.edu/artsci/clsc/asgle/">the original</a> on 30 March 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+American+Society+for+Greek+and+Latin+Epigraphy+%28ASGLE%29&rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.case.edu%2Fartsci%2Fclsc%2Fasgle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubi-erat-lupa.org/">"Ubi Erat Lupa"</a> (in German). Universität Salzburg<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ubi+Erat+Lupa&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A4t+Salzburg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ubi-erat-lupa.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://poinikastas.csad.ox.ac.uk/">Poinikastas: Epigraphic Sources For Early Greek Writing</a>, Oxford University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.currentepigraphy.org/">Current Epigraphy</a> a journal of news and short reports on inscriptions</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epigraphy.org/">The Epigraphic Society</a> Formed in 1974 by Professor Barry Fell of Harvard University and Professor Norman Totten of Bentley College, its journal, the Epigraphic Society Occasional Papers (ESOP), is shelved by numerous universities and research institutions worldwide.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eagle-network.eu/virtual-exhibition/room0.html">Signs of Life</a> a Virtual Exhibition on Epigraphy, presenting several aspects of it with examples.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwin_Whitfield_Fay1920" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Edwin Whitfield Fay (1920). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Inscriptions"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Inscriptions">"Inscriptions" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Inscriptions&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Americana&rft.date=1920&rft.au=Edwin+Whitfield+Fay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigraphy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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(<i><a href="/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">Cyperus papyrus</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Animal skin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">Vellum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">Ink</a></li> <li>Metals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(printmaking)" title="Intaglio (printmaking)">Intaglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamping_(metalworking)" title="Stamping (metalworking)">Stamping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Photographic film</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" 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title="Category:History">history</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_history" title="Category:Theories of history">theories of history</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_source" title="Historical source">Historical sources</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">Primary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">Facsimiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">Logbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_diary" title="War diary">War diaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_record" title="Service record">Service records</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fields_of_study" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Fields of study</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By scale</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">Local history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">Microhistory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Libraries_and_library_science" title="Template:Libraries and library science">template</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">Books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorography" title="Chorography">Chorography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italiani brava gente</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Reputation of William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations,_publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations, publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers" title="List of heritage registers">Heritage registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_society" title="Historical society">Historical society</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_societies" title="List of historical societies">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_institutes" class="extiw" title="c:History institutes">History institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals" title="List of history journals">History journals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_journals" title="Template:History journals">template</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">Commemorative plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical realism">Historical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_metafiction" title="Historiographic metafiction">Historiographic metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" 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aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181260#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181260#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181260#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4152508-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85066566">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Épigraphie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12205084v">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Épigraphie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12205084v">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="epigrafika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119976&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Epigrafía"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX4349191">Spain</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX527264">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000085568&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007553130405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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