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cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography and definitions of the Spanish Black Legend subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_definitions_of_the_Spanish_Black_Legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_concept_of_a_Spanish_Black_Legend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_concept_of_a_Spanish_Black_Legend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Origins of the concept of a Spanish Black Legend</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_concept_of_a_Spanish_Black_Legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiographic_development_of_the_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiographic_development_of_the_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Historiographic development of the term</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiographic_development_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_basis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_basis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Historical basis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_basis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historical basis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_basis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Conquest of the Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_with_the_Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_with_the_Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>War with the Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_with_the_Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Regional perspectives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regional_perspectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon 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id="toc-England/_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sephardic_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sephardic_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Sephardic Jews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sephardic_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamophobia_and_antisemitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamophobia_and_antisemitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Islamophobia and antisemitism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamophobia_and_antisemitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Distribution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Distribution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>East Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_Legend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_Legend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>White Legend</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_Legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Black legend</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="الأسطورة السوداء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأسطورة السوداء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llegenda_negra_espanyola" title="Llegenda negra espanyola – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llegenda negra espanyola" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cern%C3%A1_legenda" title="Černá legenda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Černá legenda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorte_Legende" title="Sorte Legende – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sorte Legende" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyenda_negra" title="Leyenda negra – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Leyenda negra" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyenda_negra_espa%C3%B1ola" title="Leyenda negra española – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Leyenda negra española" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espainiar_elezahar_beltza" title="Espainiar elezahar beltza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espainiar elezahar beltza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gende_noire_espagnole" title="Légende noire espagnole – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Légende noire espagnole" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%80%EC%9D%80_%EC%A0%84%EC%84%A4" title="검은 전설 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="검은 전설" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sv%C3%B6rtu_munnm%C3%A6lin" title="Svörtu munnmælin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Svörtu munnmælin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leggenda_nera_spagnola" title="Leggenda nera spagnola – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Leggenda nera spagnola" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lejenda_negra_espaniol" title="Lejenda negra espaniol – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lejenda negra espaniol" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwarte_legende" title="Zwarte legende – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zwarte legende" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%92%E3%81%84%E4%BC%9D%E8%AA%AC" title="黒い伝説 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="黒い伝説" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_sorte_legende" title="Den sorte legende – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den sorte legende" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legenda_negra_espanh%C3%B2la" title="Legenda negra espanhòla – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Legenda negra espanhòla" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czarna_legenda_Hiszpanii" title="Czarna legenda Hiszpanii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Czarna legenda Hiszpanii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenda_negra_espanhola" title="Lenda negra espanhola – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lenda negra espanhola" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legenda_Neagr%C4%83" title="Legenda Neagră – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Legenda Neagră" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%87%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Испанская чёрная легенда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Испанская чёрная легенда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Crna_legenda" title="Črna legenda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Črna legenda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musta_legenda" title="Musta legenda – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Musta legenda" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svarta_legenden" title="Svarta legenden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Svarta legenden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itim_na_Alamat" title="Itim na Alamat – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Itim na Alamat" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0_(%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Чорна легенда (Іспанія) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чорна легенда (Іспанія)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1501447#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the black legend concerning Spain and its empire. For the black legend concerning the Spanish inquisition, see <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Leyenda Negra" redirects here. For the film, see <a href="/wiki/La_Leyenda_Negra_(film)" title="La Leyenda Negra (film)">La Leyenda Negra (film)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustrations_de_Narratio_regionum_Indicarum_per_Hispanos_quosdam_devastattarum_%E2%80%94_Jean_Th%C3%A9odore_de_Bry_%E2%80%94_14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Illustrations_de_Narratio_regionum_Indicarum_per_Hispanos_quosdam_devastattarum_%E2%80%94_Jean_Th%C3%A9odore_de_Bry_%E2%80%94_14.jpg/260px-Illustrations_de_Narratio_regionum_Indicarum_per_Hispanos_quosdam_devastattarum_%E2%80%94_Jean_Th%C3%A9odore_de_Bry_%E2%80%94_14.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Illustrations_de_Narratio_regionum_Indicarum_per_Hispanos_quosdam_devastattarum_%E2%80%94_Jean_Th%C3%A9odore_de_Bry_%E2%80%94_14.jpg/390px-Illustrations_de_Narratio_regionum_Indicarum_per_Hispanos_quosdam_devastattarum_%E2%80%94_Jean_Th%C3%A9odore_de_Bry_%E2%80%94_14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Illustrations_de_Narratio_regionum_Indicarum_per_Hispanos_quosdam_devastattarum_%E2%80%94_Jean_Th%C3%A9odore_de_Bry_%E2%80%94_14.jpg/520px-Illustrations_de_Narratio_regionum_Indicarum_per_Hispanos_quosdam_devastattarum_%E2%80%94_Jean_Th%C3%A9odore_de_Bry_%E2%80%94_14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1015" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>A 1598 engraving by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_de_Bry" title="Theodor de Bry">Theodor de Bry</a> depicting a Spaniard feeding slain <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous American</a> women and children to his dogs. De Bry's works are characteristic of anti-Spanish <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> which resulted from the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Black Legend</b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">Leyenda negra</i>) or the <b>Spanish Black Legend</b> (Spanish: <i lang="es">Leyenda negra española</i>) is a purported historiographical tendency which consists of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Spanish">anti-Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Catholic">anti-Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>. Its proponents argue that its roots date back to the <a href="/wiki/16th_century" title="16th century">16th century</a>, when Spain's European rivals were seeking, by <a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">political</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological</a> means, to <a href="/wiki/Demonization" title="Demonization">demonize</a> the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, its people, and its culture, minimize Spanish discoveries and achievements, and counter its influence and power in world affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Juderías_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juderías-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keen_white_legend-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the theory, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_Reformation" title="Propaganda during the Reformation">Protestant propaganda</a> published during the <a href="/wiki/Hispano-Dutch_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispano-Dutch War">Hispano-Dutch War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_monarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic monarch">Catholic monarchs</a> of the 16th century fostered an anti-Hispanic bias among subsequent historians. Along with a distorted view of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">history of Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin_America" title="History of Latin America">history of Latin America</a>, other parts of the world in the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> were also affected as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Luso-Dutch_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Luso-Dutch War">Luso-Dutch Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this 17th-century propaganda was based in real events from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a>, which involved atrocities, the theory of the Leyenda Negra suggests that it often employed lurid and exaggerated depictions of <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>, and ignored similar behavior by other powers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wars provoked by the religious schism and the formation of new states in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries also generated a propaganda war against the then Spanish Empire, bastion of the Catholic Church. As such, the assimilation of originally Dutch and English 16th-century propaganda into mainstream history is thought to have fostered an anti-Hispanic bias against the Catholic Monarchs among later historians, along with a distorted view of the history of Spain, Latin America, and other parts of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although most scholars agree that while the term Black Legend might be useful to describe 17th and 18th century anti-Spanish propaganda, there is no consensus on whether the phenomenon persists in the present day. A number of authors have critiqued the use of the "black legend" idea in modern times to present an uncritical image of the Spanish Empire's colonial practices (the so called "white legend"). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography_and_definitions_of_the_Spanish_Black_Legend"><span class="anchor" id="Term_and_definitions"></span>Historiography and definitions of the Spanish Black Legend</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historiography and definitions of the Spanish Black Legend"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "black legend" was first used by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_L%C3%A9vy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur Lévy (page does not exist)">Arthur Lévy</a> in reference to biographies of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, and he primarily used it in the context of two opposing legends, a "golden legend" and a "black legend": two extreme, simplistic, one-dimensional approaches to a character which portrayed him as a god or a demon. "Golden" and "black legends" had been used by Spanish historians and intellectuals with the same meaning in reference to aspects of Spanish history; <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Soler" title="Antonio Soler">Antonio Soler</a> used both terms about the portrayal of Castilian and Aragonese monarchs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The use of the term <i>leyenda negra</i> to refer specifically to a biased, anti-Spanish depiction of history gained currency in the first two decades of the 20th century, and is most associated with <a href="/wiki/Juli%C3%A1n_Juder%C3%ADas" title="Julián Juderías">Julián Juderías</a>. Throughout the 20th and into the 21st century, scholars have offered divergent interpretations of the Black Legend and debated its usefulness as a historical concept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_the_concept_of_a_Spanish_Black_Legend">Origins of the concept of a Spanish Black Legend</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins of the concept of a Spanish Black Legend"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At an 18 April 1899 Paris conference, <a href="/wiki/Emilia_Pardo_Baz%C3%A1n" title="Emilia Pardo Bazán">Emilia Pardo Bazán</a> used the term "Black Legend" for the first time to refer to a general view of modern Spanish history: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Abroad, our miseries are known and often exaggerated without balance; take as an example the book by M. <a href="/wiki/Yves_Guyot" title="Yves Guyot">Yves Guyot</a>, which we can consider as the perfect model of a black legend, the opposite of a golden legend. The Spanish black legend is a strawman for those who seek convenient examples to support certain political theses ... The black legend replaces our contemporary history with a novel in the <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Alexis_Ponson_du_Terrail" title="Pierre Alexis Ponson du Terrail">Ponson du Terrail</a> style, with mines and countermines, which doesn't even deserve the honor of analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The conference had a great impact in Spain, particularly on Julián Juderías. Juderías, who worked at the Spanish Embassy in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, had noticed (and denounced) the spread of anti-Russian propaganda in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom and was interested in its possible long-term consequences. Juderías was the first historian to describe the "black legend" phenomenon, although he did not yet name it as such, in a book regarding the construction of an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Russian">anti-Russian</a> black legend. His work, initially concerned with the intentional deformation of Russia's image in Europe, led him to identify the same patterns of narration he detected in the construction of anti-Russian discourse in the dominant historical narrative regarding Spain. Juderías investigated the original sources supporting centuries old claims of Spanish atrocities and other misdeeds, tracing the origin or propagation of the majority to rival emerging powers. In his 1914 book, <i>La leyenda negra y la verdad histórica</i> (<i>The Black Legend and Historical Truth</i>), <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstructs</a> aspects of Spain's image (including those in <i><a href="/wiki/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs" title="Foxe's Book of Martyrs">Foxe's Book of Martyrs</a></i>). According to Juderías, this biased <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> was marked by acceptance of propagandistic and politically motivated historical sources and has consistently presented Spanish history in a negative light, purposefully ignoring Spanish achievements and advances. In <i>La leyenda Negra</i>, he defines the Spanish black legend as: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... the environment created by the fantastic stories about our homeland that have seen the light of publicity in all countries, the grotesque descriptions that have always been made of the character of Spaniards as individuals and collectively, the denial or at least the systematic ignorance of all that is favorable and beautiful in the various manifestations of culture and art, the accusations that in every era have been flung against Spain."<sup id="cite_ref-Juderías_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juderías-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (November 2020)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiographic_development_of_the_term">Historiographic development of the term</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historiographic development of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Later writers supported and developed Juderías's critique. In <i>Tree of Hate</i> (1971),<sup id="cite_ref-Powell_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibson_(historian)" title="Charles Gibson (historian)">Charles Gibson</a> described it as "the accumulated tradition of propaganda and hispanophobia according to which the Spanish Empire is considered cruel, intolerant, degenerate, exploitative and sanctimonious above reality."<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Philip_Wayne_Powell" title="Philip Wayne Powell">Philip Wayne Powell</a> argued that the Black Legend was still active in modern history, and plays an active role in shaping <a href="/wiki/Latin_America%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Latin America–United States relations">Latin America–United States relations</a>. His book provides examples of what he viewed as divergent treatment of Spain and other powers, and illustrates how this allows for a double narrative that taints Americans' view of Hispanic America as a whole: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Spaniards who came to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> seeking opportunities beyond the prospects of their European environment, are contemptuously called cruel and greedy "goldseekers," or other opprobrious epithets virtually synonymous with "Devils"; but <a href="/wiki/English_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="English colonization of the Americas">Englishmen who sought New World opportunities</a> are more respectfully called "colonists," or "homebuilders," or "seekers after liberty." ... When Spaniards expelled or punished religious dissidents, this came to be known as "bigotry," "intolerance," "fanaticism," and a cause of their decline. When Englishmen, Dutchmen, or Frenchmen did the same thing, it is known as "unifying the nation," or safeguarding it against treason or foreign conspiracy.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Tree of Hate</i> (2008 edition), page 11</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In his book <i>Inquisition</i>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Peters_(scholar)" title="Edward Peters (scholar)">Edward Peters</a> wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>An image of Spain circulated through late sixteenth-century Europe, borne by means of political and religious propaganda that blackened the characters of Spaniards and their ruler to such an extent that Spain became the symbol of all forces of repression, brutality, religious and political intolerance, and intellectual and artistic backwardness for the next four centuries. Spaniards and Hispanophiles have termed this process and the image that resulted from it as "The Black Legend," <i>la leyenda negra</i>.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Inquisition</i> (1989 edition), p.131</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In his 2002 book <i>Spain in America: The Origins of Hispanism in the United States</i>, American historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kagan" title="Richard Kagan">Richard Kagan</a> defined the Spanish black legend: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Compounding this perception of Spain as an inferior 'other' was the Black Legend, the centuries-old cluster of Protestant beliefs that the United States inherited from the British and, to a certain extent, from the Dutch. The Black Legend equated Spain with <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">the Inquisition</a>, religious bigotry, and the bloody persecution of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Spain" title="Protestantism in Spain">Protestants</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Jews</a>. It also conjured up images of despotic monarchs who denied their subjects access to any semblance of economic and political freedom and who had consequently set <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Spain" title="Economic history of Spain">Spain onto the road of economic weakness</a> and political decline. Such a reading of Spanish history was overly simplistic but promoters of <a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">American exceptionalism</a> found it useful to see Spain as an example of what would happen to a country whose fundamental values were antithetical to those of the United States."</p></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Juli%C3%A1n_Mar%C3%ADas" title="Julián Marías">Julián Marías</a>, the creation of the Spanish black legend was not an exceptional phenomenon -similar disinformation and fabrication campaigns have affected most global powers of the past, such as Ottoman Turkey or Russia- but its persistence and integration into mainstream historiography is. For Marías the causes of its durability are: </p> <ol><li>Overlap of the Spanish Empire with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in England and Germany, which enabled the printing of hundreds of pamphlets daily</li> <li>Religious factors and identification</li> <li>Substitution of the Spanish intellectual class by another favorable to its former rival (France) after the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, which established a French narrative in Spain</li> <li>The unique characteristics of the early modern era's colonial wars and the need for new colonial powers to legitimize claims in now-independent Spanish colonies and the unique, new characteristics of the succeeding empire: the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p><a href="/wiki/Walter_Mignolo" title="Walter Mignolo">Walter Mignolo</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Margaret_Greer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Margaret Greer (page does not exist)">Margaret Greer</a> view the Black Legend as a development of Spain's racialisation of <a href="/wiki/Jewishness" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewishness">Jewishness</a> in the 15th century. The accusations of <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">mixed blood</a> and loose religiosity of the 15th century, first levelled at Jewish and Moorish <a href="/wiki/Conversos" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversos">conversos</a> both inside Spain and abroad, developed into 16th century hispanophobic views of Spaniards as religious fanatics tainted by association with Judaism. The only stable element they see in this hispanophobia is an element of "otherness" marked by interaction with the Eastern and African worlds, of "complete others", cruelty and lack of moral character, in which the same narratives are re-imagined and reshaped.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Espino_L%C3%B3pez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonio Espino López (page does not exist)">Antonio Espino López</a> suggests that the prominence of the Black Legend in Spanish historiography has meant that the real atrocities and brutal violence of the Spanish conquest of the Americas have not received the attention they deserve within Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believes that some Hispanicists: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...make an effort to justify the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the best way possible, as they were very conscious of the excesses committed by the "Black Legend", a set of ideas that are characterised by their intellectual coarseness.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to historian <a href="/wiki/Elvira_Roca_Barea" title="Elvira Roca Barea">Elvira Roca Barea</a>, the formation of a black legend and its assimilation by a nation is a phenomenon observed in all multicultural empires (not just the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>). For Roca Barea, a black legend about an empire is the cumulative result of the propaganda attacks launched by different groups: smaller rivals, allies within its political sphere and defeated rivals, and propaganda created by rival factions inside the imperial system; alongside self-criticism by the intellectual elite, and the needs of new powers consolidated during (or after) the empire's existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Roca_Barea_2016_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roca_Barea_2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In response to Roca Barea, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Luis_Villaca%C3%B1as" title="José Luis Villacañas">José Luis Villacañas</a> states that the "black legend" was primarily a factor related to the geopolitical situation of the 16th and 17th centuries. He argues that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> After 1648 [the Black Legend] was not particularly current in European intellectual circles. To the contrary, [Spain's] old enemies, England and Holland, became the greatest defenders of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> at the end of the 17th century, in order to avoid it falling into the hands of [the French]."<sup id="cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Villacanas1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The conceptual validity of a Spanish black legend is widely but not universally accepted by academics. Benjamin Keen expressed doubt about its usefulness as a historical concept,<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ricardo_Garc%C3%ADa_C%C3%A1rcel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ricardo García Cárcel (page does not exist)">Ricardo García Cárcel</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lourdes_Mateo_Bretos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lourdes Mateo Bretos (page does not exist)">Lourdes Mateo Bretos</a> denied its existence in their 1991 book, <i>The Black Legend</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> It is neither a legend, insofar as the negative opinions of Spain have genuine historical foundations, nor is it black, as the tone was never consistent nor uniform. Gray abounds, but the color of these opinions was always viewed in contrast [to what] we have called the white legend.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_basis"><span class="anchor" id="Others"></span>Historical basis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Historical basis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite having a vast empire stretching from Mexico to Peru across the Pacific to the Philippines and beyond, which required many Spaniards to travel overseas and deal with foreigners, eighteenth-century philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> wrote, "The Spaniard's bad side is that he does not learn from foreigners; that he does not travel in order to get acquainted with other nations; that he is centuries behind in the sciences. He resists any reform; he is proud of not having to work; he is of a romantic quality of spirit, as the <a href="/wiki/Bullfight" class="mw-redirect" title="Bullfight">bullfight</a> shows; he is cruel, as the former <a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">auto-da-fé</a> shows; and he displays in his taste an origin that is partly non-European."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotician</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Mignolo" title="Walter Mignolo">Walter Mignolo</a> argues that the Spanish black legend was closely tied to race in using Spain's <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> history to portray Spaniards as racially tainted and its treatment of <a href="/wiki/African_people" class="mw-redirect" title="African people">Africans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> during Spanish colonization to symbolize the country's moral character. That notwithstanding, there is general agreement that the wave of anti-Spanish propaganda of the 16th and 17th centuries was linked to undisputed events and phenomena which occurred at the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">apogee of Spanish power</a> between 1492 and 1648.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reverte_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reverte-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keen_white_legend-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Villacanas1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_the_Americas"><span class="anchor" id="The_conquest_of_the_Americas"></span>Conquest of the Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Conquest of the Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the three-century <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, atrocities and crimes were committed by all European nations according to both contemporary opinion and modern moral standards. Spain's colonization involved genocide, massacres, murders, slavery, sexual slavery, torture, rape, forced removals, forced religious conversion, cultural genocide and other atrocities, especially in the early years, following the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Villacanas1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keen_white_legend-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a> was the first in recorded history to pass laws for the protection of indigenous peoples. As early as 1512, the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Burgos" title="Laws of Burgos">Laws of Burgos</a> attempted to regulate the behavior of Europeans in the New World forbidding the ill-treatment of indigenous people and limiting the power of <i><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomenderos</a></i>—landowners who received royal grants to indigenous communities and their labor. In return, the laws established a regulated regime of work, provisioning, living quarters, hygiene, and care for the natives. The regulation prohibited the use of any form of punishment by the landowners and required that the huts and cabins of the Indians be built together with those of the Spanish. The laws also ordered that the natives be taught the <a href="/wiki/Christian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian religion">Christian religion</a> and outlawed bigamy.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 1513, four more laws were added in what is known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leyes_Complementarias_de_Valladolid_1513&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leyes Complementarias de Valladolid 1513 (page does not exist)">Leyes Complementarias de Valladolid 1513</a>, three related to Indian women and Indian children and another more related to Indian males. In 1542 the <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a> expanded, amended and corrected the previous body of laws in order to ensure their application. These New Laws represented an effort to prevent abuse and de facto enslavement of natives that was not enough to dissuade rebellions by the <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">encomenderos</i></span>, like that of <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Pizarro" title="Gonzalo Pizarro">Gonzalo Pizarro</a> in Perú. However, this body of legislation represents one of the earliest examples of humanitarian laws of modern history.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas_Regionum_355385740_MG_8829_A3-f1.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas_Regionum_355385740_MG_8829_A3-f1.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas_Regionum_355385740_MG_8829_A3-f1.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas_Regionum_355385740_MG_8829_A3-f1.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas_Regionum_355385740_MG_8829_A3-f1.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas_Regionum_355385740_MG_8829_A3-f1.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas_Regionum_355385740_MG_8829_A3-f1.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="3570" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of Spanish atrocities by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_de_Bry" title="Theodor de Bry">Theodor de Bry</a>. Theodor de Bry's work is characteristic of the anti-Spanish propaganda that emerged in Protestant countries such as the United Provinces and England at the end of the 16th century as a result of the strong commercial and military rivalry with the Spanish Empire.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although these laws were not always followed, they reflect the conscience of the 16th century Spanish monarchy about native rights and well-being, and its will to protect the inhabitants of Spain's territories. These laws came about in the early period of colonization, following abuses reported by Spaniards themselves traveling with Columbus. Spanish colonization methods included the forceful conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity. The "Orders to the Twelve" Franciscan friars in 1523, urged that the natives be converted using military force if necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On par with this sentiment, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Gin%C3%A9s_de_Sep%C3%BAlveda" title="Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda">Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda</a> argued that the Indian's inferiority justified using war to civilize and Christianize them. He encouraged enslavement and violence in order to end the barbarism of the natives. <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a>, on the other hand, was strictly opposed to this viewpoint—claiming that the natives could be peacefully converted.<sup id="cite_ref-Borah_691_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borah_691-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such reports of Spanish abuses led to an institutional debate in Spain about the colonization process and the rights and protection of indigenous peoples of the Americas. <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> friar Bartolomé de las Casas published <i>Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_Short_Account_of_the_Destruction_of_the_Indies" title="A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies">A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies</a></i>), a 1542 account of the alleged atrocities committed by landowners and officials during the early period of colonization of <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (particularly on <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-WDL_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WDL-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>Short Account</i>, de las Casas underscores the innocence of the indigenous peoples while comparing the Spanish conquistadors to "ravening wild beasts, wolves, tigers, or lions that had been starved for many days."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De las Casas, son of the merchant Pedro de las Casas (who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage), described Columbus's treatment of the natives in his <i>History of the Indies</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His description of Spanish actions was used as a basis for attacks on Spain, including in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>. The accuracy of de las Casas's descriptions of Spanish colonization is still debated by some scholars due to supposed exaggerations. Although historian <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hanke" title="Lewis Hanke">Lewis Hanke</a> thought that de las Casas exaggerated atrocities in his accounts,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Keen" title="Benjamin Keen">Benjamin Keen</a> found them more or less accurate.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibson_(historian)" title="Charles Gibson (historian)">Charles Gibson</a>'s 1964 monograph <i>The Aztecs under Spanish Rule</i> (the first comprehensive study of sources about relations between Indians and Spaniards in <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>), concludes that the demonization of Spain "builds upon the record of deliberate sadism. It flourishes in an atmosphere of indignation which removes the issue from the category of objective understanding. It is insufficient in its understanding of institutions of colonial history."<sup id="cite_ref-Valley_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valley-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However this view has been broadly criticised by other scholars such as Keen, who view Gibson's focus on legal codes rather than the copious documentary evidence of Spanish atrocities and abuses as problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keen_white_legend-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1550, Charles I tried to end this debate by halting forceful conquest. Philip II tried to follow in his footsteps with the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine Islands">Philippine Islands</a>, but previous violent conquest had shaped colonial relations irreversibly. This was one of the lasting consequences that led to the dissemination of the Black legend by Spain's enemies.<sup id="cite_ref-Borah_691_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Borah_691-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The treatment of indigenous peoples during Spanish colonization was used in propaganda works of rival European powers in order to foster animosity towards the Spanish Empire. De las Casas' work was first cited in <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern English language">English</a> in the 1583 work [The Spanish Colonie, or Brief Chronicle of the Actes and Gestes of the Spaniards in the West Indies] <span style="color:#d33">Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |ital= (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>)</span>, at a time when England was preparing to join the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> on the side of the anti-Spanish rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-Maltby,_William_B_pp._346_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maltby,_William_B_pp._346-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians have noted that the mistreatment and exploitation of indigenous peoples was committed by all European powers which colonized the Americas, and such acts were never exclusive to the Spanish Empire. The revaluation of the Black Legend on contemporary <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> has led to a reassessment of non-Spanish European colonial records in recent years as the historiographical evaluation of the <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation">Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation</a> continues to evolve. According to scholar William B. Maltby, "At least three generations of scholarship have produced a more balanced appreciation of Spanish conduct in both the Old World and the New, while the dismal records of other imperial powers have received a more objective appraisal."<sup id="cite_ref-Maltby,_William_B_pp._346_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maltby,_William_B_pp._346-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_with_the_Netherlands">War with the Netherlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: War with the Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spain's war with the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a> and, in particular, the victories and atrocities of the Castilian nobleman <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba</a>, contributed to anti-Spanish sentiment. Sent in August 1567 to counter political unrest in a part of Europe where printing presses encouraged a variety of opinions (especially against the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>), Alba seized control of the publishing industry; several printers were banished, and at least one was executed. Booksellers and printers were prosecuted and arrested for publishing <a href="/wiki/Ban_(law)" title="Ban (law)">banned</a> books, many of which were part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Index Librorum Prohibitorum</a></i>. </p><p>After years of unrest in the Low Countries, the summer of 1567 saw renewed <a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">violence</a> in which Dutch <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinists</a> defaced statues and decorations in Catholic monasteries and churches. The March 1567 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oosterweel" title="Battle of Oosterweel">Battle of Oosterweel</a> was the first Spanish military response to the unrest, and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>. In 1568 Alba had prominent Dutch nobles executed in Brussels' <a href="/wiki/Grand-Place" title="Grand-Place">central square</a>, sparking anti-Spanish sentiment. In October 1572, after <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">Orange</a> forces captured the city of <a href="/wiki/Mechelen" title="Mechelen">Mechelen</a>, its lieutenant attempted to surrender when he heard that a larger Spanish army was approaching. Despite efforts to placate the troops, <a href="/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_4th_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba">Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo</a> (son of the governor of the Netherlands and commander of the duke's troops) allowed his men three days to <a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">pillage</a> the city; Alba reported to <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">King Philip II</a> that "not a nail was left in the wall". A year later, magistrates were still attempting to retrieve church artifacts which Spanish soldiers had sold elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-SF-M_1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-M_1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SF-M_2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-M_2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This sack of Mechelen was the first of a series of events known as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury" title="Spanish Fury">Spanish Fury</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SF-UiE-Me1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-UiE-Me1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SF-UiE-Me2_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-UiE-Me2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SF-UiE-Ma1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-UiE-Ma1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> several others occurred over the next several years.<sup id="cite_ref-SF-MNZHA_1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-MNZHA_1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November and December 1572, with the duke's permission, Fadrique had residents of <a href="/wiki/Zutphen" title="Zutphen">Zutphen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naarden" title="Naarden">Naarden</a> locked in churches and burnt to death.<sup id="cite_ref-SF-M_2_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-M_2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SF-N_1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-N_1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1573, after <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Haarlem" title="Siege of Haarlem">a six-month siege</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a> surrendered. The garrison's men (except for the German soldiers) were drowned or had their throats cut by the duke's troops, and eminent citizens were executed.<sup id="cite_ref-SF-M_2_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SF-M_2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 10,000 Haarlemers were killed on the ramparts, nearly 2,000 burned or tortured, and double that number drowned in the river.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After numerous complaints to the Spanish court, Philip II decided to change policy and relieve the Duke of Alba. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's <a href="/wiki/Flemish_people" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a> victims can not have fallen short of 50,000.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:304px;max-width:304px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SpaanseFurie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/SpaanseFurie.jpg/300px-SpaanseFurie.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/SpaanseFurie.jpg/450px-SpaanseFurie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/SpaanseFurie.jpg/600px-SpaanseFurie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="577" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Contemporary, anonymous painting of the 4 November 1576 <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">Spanish Fury in Antwerp</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:302px;max-width:302px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:De_stadt_Maastricht,_door_den_prins_van_Parma_(Alexander_Farnese)_met_storm_verovert,_den_29_july_des_jaars_1579_(Jan_Luyken,_1679).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/De_stadt_Maastricht%2C_door_den_prins_van_Parma_%28Alexander_Farnese%29_met_storm_verovert%2C_den_29_july_des_jaars_1579_%28Jan_Luyken%2C_1679%29.jpg/300px-De_stadt_Maastricht%2C_door_den_prins_van_Parma_%28Alexander_Farnese%29_met_storm_verovert%2C_den_29_july_des_jaars_1579_%28Jan_Luyken%2C_1679%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/De_stadt_Maastricht%2C_door_den_prins_van_Parma_%28Alexander_Farnese%29_met_storm_verovert%2C_den_29_july_des_jaars_1579_%28Jan_Luyken%2C_1679%29.jpg/450px-De_stadt_Maastricht%2C_door_den_prins_van_Parma_%28Alexander_Farnese%29_met_storm_verovert%2C_den_29_july_des_jaars_1579_%28Jan_Luyken%2C_1679%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/De_stadt_Maastricht%2C_door_den_prins_van_Parma_%28Alexander_Farnese%29_met_storm_verovert%2C_den_29_july_des_jaars_1579_%28Jan_Luyken%2C_1679%29.jpg/600px-De_stadt_Maastricht%2C_door_den_prins_van_Parma_%28Alexander_Farnese%29_met_storm_verovert%2C_den_29_july_des_jaars_1579_%28Jan_Luyken%2C_1679%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1617" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Fury" title="Spanish Fury">Spanish Fury</a> at Maastricht in 1579</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> spread to the south in the mid-1570s after the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a> mutinied for lack of pay and went on the rampage in several cities, most notably <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> in 1576. Soldiers rampaged through the city, killing, looting, extorting money from residents and burning the homes of those who did not pay. <a href="/wiki/Christophe_Plantin" title="Christophe Plantin">Christophe Plantin</a>'s printing establishment was threatened with destruction three times, but was spared each time with payment of a ransom. Antwerp was economically devastated by the attack; 1,000 buildings were torched, and as many as 17,000 civilians were raped, tortured and murdered.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parents were tortured in their children's presence, infants were slain in their mother's arms, wives were flogged to death before their husbands' eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a> was besieged, sacked and destroyed twice by the <i><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercios</a> de Flandes</i> (in 1576 and 1579), and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)" title="Siege of Maastricht (1579)">1579 siege</a> ended with a Spanish Fury which killed 10,000 men, women and children.<sup id="cite_ref-Nolan_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nolan-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 247">: 247 </span></sup> Spanish troops who breached the city walls first raped the women, then massacred the population, reputedly tearing people limb from limb.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soldiers drowned hundreds of civilians by throwing them off the bridge over the river Maas in an episode similar to earlier events in Zutphen. Military terror defeated the Flemish movement, and restored Spanish rule in <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The propaganda created by the Dutch Revolt during the struggle against the Spanish Crown can also be seen as part of the Black Legend. The depredations against the Indians that <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">De las Casas</a> had described were compared to the depredations of Alba and his successors in the Netherlands. The <i><a href="/wiki/A_Short_Account_of_the_Destruction_of_the_Indies" title="A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies">Brevissima relación</a></i> was reprinted no less than 33 times between 1578 and 1648 in the Netherlands (more than in all other European countries combined).<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt,_p._97_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt,_p._97-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Articles and Resolutions of the Spanish Inquisition to Invade and Impede the Netherlands</i> accused the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Office">Holy Office</a> of a conspiracy to starve the Dutch population and exterminate its leading nobles, "as the Spanish had done in the Indies."<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt,_p_112_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt,_p_112-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Philips_of_Marnix,_Lord_of_Saint-Aldegonde" title="Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde">Marnix of Sint-Aldegonde</a>, a prominent propagandist for the cause of the rebels, regularly used references to alleged intentions on the part of Spain to "colonize" the Netherlands, for instance in his 1578 address to the German <a href="/wiki/Diet_(assembly)" title="Diet (assembly)">Diet</a>. </p><p>In recent years, Prof. dr. Maarten Larmuseau of <a href="/wiki/KU_Leuven" title="KU Leuven">KU Leuven</a> has used <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">genetic testing</a> to examine a prevalent belief regarding the Spanish occupation<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>War atrocities committed by the Spanish army in the Low Countries during the 16th century are so ingrained in the collective memory of Belgian and Dutch societies that they generally assume a signature of this history to be present in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of the Netherlands">their genetic ancestry</a>. Historians claim this assumption is a consequence of the so‐called "Black Legend" and negative propaganda portraying and remembering Spanish soldiers as extreme sexual aggressors.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Prof. dr. Maarten Larmuseau, The black legend on the Spanish presence in the low countries: Verifying shared beliefs on genetic ancestry</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The memory of the large scale rape of local women by Spanish soldiers lives on to such extent that it is popularly believed that their genetic imprint can be seen today, and that most men and women with dark hair in the area descend from children conceived during those rapes. The study found no greater Iberian genetic component in the areas occupied by the Spanish army than in surrounding areas of northern France, and concluded that the genetic impact of the Spanish occupation, if any, must have been too small to survive until the present era. However, the study makes it clear that the absence of a Spanish genetic imprint in modern populations was not incompatible with the occurrence of mass sexual violence. The frequent murder of Flemish rape victims by Spanish soldiers, the fact rape does not always lead to fertilisation, and the reduced survival possibilities of the illegitimate offspring of rape victims would all militate against significant Iberian genetic contribution to modern populations. Larmuseau considers the persistence of the belief in a Spanish <a href="/w/index.php?title=Genetic_history_of_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Genetic history of Belgium (page does not exist)">genetic contribution in Flanders</a> to be the fruit of the use of Black Legend tropes in the construction of Dutch and Flemish national identities in the 16th–19th century, giving prominence to the idea of the Spanish armies' cruelty in <a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">collective memory</a>. </p><p>In an interview with a local newspaper, Larmuseau compared the persistence in popular memory of the actions of the Spanish with the lesser attention given to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Austrian_occupation_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Austrian occupation of the Netherlands (page does not exist)">the Austrians</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=French_occupation_of_the_Netherlands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French occupation of the Netherlands (page does not exist)">the French</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of the Netherlands">the Germans</a> who also occupied the Low Countries and participated in violence against their inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regional_perspectives">Regional perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regional perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diachronic_map_of_the_Spanish_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Diachronic_map_of_the_Spanish_Empire.svg/260px-Diachronic_map_of_the_Spanish_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Diachronic_map_of_the_Spanish_Empire.svg/390px-Diachronic_map_of_the_Spanish_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Diachronic_map_of_the_Spanish_Empire.svg/520px-Diachronic_map_of_the_Spanish_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4371" data-file-height="2284" /></a><figcaption>Anachronous map of the Spanish Empire, including territorial claims</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy"><span class="anchor" id="Italian_origin"></span>Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sverker_Arnoldsson" title="Sverker Arnoldsson">Sverker Arnoldsson</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Gothenburg" title="University of Gothenburg">University of Gothenburg</a> supports Juderías' hypothesis of a Spanish black legend in European historiography and identifies its origins in medieval <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, unlike previous authors (who date it to the 16th century). In his book <i>The Black Legend: A Study of its Origins</i>, Arnoldsson cites studies by <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Benedetto Croce</a> and Arturo Farinelli to assert that Italy was hostile to Spain during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries when the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> occupied most of Italy and texts produced and distributed there were later used as a base by Protestant nations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (January 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Liberal historians such as Benedetto Croce see in the <a href="/wiki/Il_Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Il Risorgimento">Il Risorgimento</a> process the conclusion of the unifying trend that began with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>, which suffered a long interruption between the middle of the 16th century and the beginning of the 18th century that coincided with direct domination by the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Hispanic Monarchy</a> over half of Italy and indirectly over part of the other half. Croce's statements about the Italian aristocracy and their responsibility for the decline of Italy, published in 1917, when the country was in the middle of the world war, aroused reactions, accusations and even indignation on the part of historians, writers, intellectuals and politicians and <i>"...the controversy..."</i> writes a well-known contemporary Spanish historian <i>"...it has not yet died out, but there are many historians who today accept, at least in part, Croce's arguments."</i><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vision of some Italian historians continues to identify the Spanish domination of Italy with a period of decadence for the country, due, in part, to the action of the Inquisition (the traditional religious court, not to be confused with the Spanish institution, which operated with different criteria). Authors such as <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a> or <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> suffered persecution for religious reasons, as had also happened at the end of the fifteenth century and in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola" title="Girolamo Savonarola">Savonarola</a>. The identification of the occupier with oppression was part of the widely spread anti-Spanish propaganda known as the black legend, whose artistic products include <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni's</a> "<i><a href="/wiki/The_Betrothed_(Manzoni_novel)" title="The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)">The Betrothed</a></i>" (set in 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi's</a> "Don Carlos". According to one interpretation of the Risorgimento, the historical period of Spanish misrule in Milan had been chosen by Manzoni with the intention of alluding to the same oppressive rule of Austrian rule over northern Italy. Other literary critics believe instead that what Manzoni wanted to describe was the Italian society of all times, with all its defects that have remained over time.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arnoldsson's theory on the origins of Spain's black legend has been criticized as <a href="/wiki/Conflation" title="Conflation">conflating</a> the process of black-legend generation with a negative view (or critique) of a foreign power. The following objections have been raised:<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The Italian origin of the earliest writings against Spain is an insufficient reason to identify Italy as the origin of the black legend; it is a normal reaction in any society dominated by a foreign power.</li> <li>The phrase "black legend" suggests a tradition (non-existent in Italian writings) based on a reaction to the recent presence of Spanish troops (which quickly faded).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>In 15th- and 16th-century Italy, critics and Italian intellectual admirers of Spain (particularly <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a>) coexisted.</li></ol> <p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Peters_(scholar)" title="Edward Peters (scholar)">Edward Peters</a> states in his work "Inquisition":<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In Italian anti-Spanish invective, the very Christian self-consciousness that had inspired much of the drive to purify the Spanish kingdoms, including the distinctive institution of the Spanish Inquisition, was regarded outside of Spain as a necessary cleansing, since all Spaniards were accused of having Moorish and Jewish ancestry. ... First condemned for the impurity of their Christian faith, the Spaniards then came under fire for excess of zeal in defending Catholicism. Influenced by the political and religious policies of Spain, a common kind of ethnic invective became an eloquent and vicious form of description by character assassination. Thus when Bartolomé de las Casas wrote his criticism of certain governmental policies in the New World, his limited, specific rhetorical purpose was ignored.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Edward Peters, Inquisition</cite></div></blockquote><p>According to William S. Maltby, Italian writings lack a "conducting theme": a common narrative which would form the Spanish black legend in the Netherlands and England.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roca Barea agrees; although she does not deny that Italian writings may have been used by German rivals, the original Italian writings "lack the viciousness and blind deformation of black-legend writings" and are merely reactions to occupation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citation"><span title="The text near this tag needs a citation. (January 2019)">This quote needs a citation</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany"><span class="anchor" id="German_origin"></span>Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arnoldsson offered an alternative to the Italian-origin theory in its polar opposite: the <a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German humanism, deeply nationalistic, wanted to create a German identity in opposition to that of the Roman invaders. <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_von_Hutten" title="Ulrich von Hutten">Ulrich of Hutten</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, the main authors of the movement, used "Roman" in the broader concept "Latin". The Latin world, which included Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy, was perceived as "foreign, immoral, chaotic and fake, in opposition to the moral, ordered and German."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the identification of Spaniards with Jews, heretics, and "Africans", there was an increase in anti-Spanish propaganda by detractors of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>. The propaganda against Charles was nationalistic, identifying him with Spain and Rome although he was born in Flanders, spoke Dutch but little Spanish and no Italian at the time, and was often at odds with the pope. </p><p>To further the appeal of their cause, rulers opposed to Charles focused on identifying him with the pope (a view Charles had encouraged to force Spanish troops to accept involvement in his German wars, which they had resisted). The fact that troops and supporters of Charles included German and Protestant princes and soldiers was an extra reason to reject the Spanish elements attached to them. It was necessary to instill fear of Spanish rule, and a certain image had to be created. Among published points most often highlighted were the identification of Spaniards with Moors and Jews (due to the frequency of intermarriage), the number of <i>conversos</i> (Jews or Muslims who converted to Christianity) in their society, and the "natural cruelty of those two."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England/_Britain"><span id="England.2F_Britain"></span>England/ Britain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: England/ Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spanish statesman <a href="/wiki/Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_(statesman)" title="Antonio Pérez (statesman)">Antonio Pérez del Hierro</a>, who served as the secretary to <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> before fleeing to France and then England after being arrested, wrote <i>Pedacos de Historia o Relaciones</i>, which was published in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> by English printer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Field_(printer)" title="Richard Field (printer)">Richard Field</a> in 1594. The work, which was read widely in England, heavily denounced the Spanish monarchy and further contributed to pre-existing anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic sentiments among the English. A violently hispanophobic preacher and pamphleteer, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Scott_(preacher)" title="Thomas Scott (preacher)">Thomas Scott</a>, would echo this sort of epithet a generation later, in the 1620s, when he urged England to go to war against "those wolvish Antichristians" instead of accepting the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_match" title="Spanish match">Spanish match</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_S._Maltby&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William S. Maltby (page does not exist)">William S. Maltby</a>, regarding Spain in the Netherlands, said that:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>As part of an Elizabethan campaign against Spain and the Catholic Church ...Literally hundreds of anti-Spanish publications appeared in English, Dutch, French, and German in the sixteenth century. New editions, and new works restating old accusations, would appear in the Thirty Years War and in other occasions when it seemed useful to excite anti-Spanish sentiment. Given the pervasiveness of such material, it is not surprising that the authors of scholarly histories absorbed anti-hispanism and transmitted it to later generations.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>William S. Maltby, <i>The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire</i></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sephardic_Jews"><span class="anchor" id="Other_origins"></span>Sephardic Jews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sephardic Jews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Philip_Wayne_Powell" title="Philip Wayne Powell">Philip Wayne Powell</a>, the criticism which was spread by the Jews who were expelled by Spain's Catholic monarchs was an important factor in the spread of anti-Spanish sentiment (particularly religious stereotypes). Powell places the beginning of the criticism of the Jewish populations against Spain in 1480, with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a>, which was directed mainly against crypto-Jews and false converts. But it was from <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">the expulsion of 1492</a> that this opinion became general. Despite the fact that they had previously been expelled from almost all European countries, in no other had they had such deep roots during the Middle Ages, coming to live what has been called a <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a>, giving special relevance to this expulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-Powell,_pp._50_ss_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powell,_pp._50_ss-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The persecution of Jews, crypto-Jews, Muslims and converts was viewed favorably in the rest of Europe and even applauded in the case of "a country so mixed with Jews and Moors" like Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies by <a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3_%D7%A7%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%9F" class="extiw" title="he:יוסף קפלן">Kaplan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yosef_Hayim_Yerushalmi" title="Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi">Yerushalmi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Mechoulan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Mechoulan (page does not exist)">Mechoulan</a> and <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaime_Contreras" class="extiw" title="es:Jaime Contreras">Jaime Contreras</a> show that many expelled Jewish intellectuals collaborated in spreading the negative image of Spain. The largest <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic</a> community was in Amsterdam, in the Netherlands, with two synagogues. His activity, "little affected to the service of his Majesty", came to provoke the protest of the Spanish ambassadors before the archduke in Brussels. Especially hated was the Inquisition, considered the "fourth beast spoken of by the <a href="/wiki/Daniel_(biblical_figure)" title="Daniel (biblical figure)">prophet Daniel</a>", a denatured justification, an accumulation of evil, which had corrupted society. Criticism spread to Flanders and Venice, where Sephardim had also settled. Thus, the communities publicized the executions of the Inquisition, such as the one that occurred in 1655 in Córdoba.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sephardim were grateful to their new homeland during the Eighty Years' War: just as Spain was a "land of idolatry" and slavery, like Egypt, whose rulers suffer the curse of Yahweh; The Netherlands, on the other hand, is the land of freedom, on which the God of Israel will bring down all the blessings, as <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Levi_de_Barrios" class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel Levi de Barrios">Daniel Levi de Barrios</a> or <a href="/wiki/Menasseh_Ben_Israel" title="Menasseh Ben Israel">Menasseh Ben Israel</a> (previously called Manoel Soeiro) wrote.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also used their power within the publishing industry, both to support the Dutch in their struggle and to spread criticism of Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-Powell,_pp._50_ss_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powell,_pp._50_ss-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamophobia_and_antisemitism"><span class="anchor" id="Anti-Islamic_and_anti-Semitic_origin"></span>Islamophobia and antisemitism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Islamophobia and antisemitism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Outside Spain the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> was regarded as a necessary cleansing which needed to be performed in Spain, since all Spaniards were accused of having <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Jewish</a> ancestry ... First condemned by the impurity of their beliefs, the Spanish then came under fire for their excess of zeal in defending Catholicism. Influenced by the political and religious policies of Spain, a common type of ethnic inventive became an eloquent form of description by <a href="/wiki/Character_assassination" title="Character assassination">character assassination</a>. So, when <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> wrote his criticism of certain governmental policies in the New World, his limited, persuasive, specific purpose was ignored.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Edward_Peters_(scholar)" title="Edward Peters (scholar)">Edward Peters</a>, <i>Inquisition</i> (1985)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (January 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to Elvira Roca Barea, the Spanish Black Legend is a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic narratives</a> which had already been circulated in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval-era</a> Northern, Central and Southern European nations since the 13th century, critical of the perceived tolerance of Jews and heretics in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-Roca_Barea_2016_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roca_Barea_2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1555, after the expulsion of the Spanish Jews, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_IV" title="Pope Paul IV">Pope Paul IV</a> described Spaniards as "heretics, schismatics, accursed of God, the offspring of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Jews</a> and Moors, the very scum of the earth".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This climate would facilitate the transfer of antisemitic and <a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">anti-Muslim</a> stereotypes to Spaniards.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This case has three main sources of proof, the texts of German Renascence Intellectuals, the existence of the black legend narrative in Europe prior to the conquest of America, and the similarity of the stereotypes to other stereotypes which were attributed to Judaism by anti-Semitic Europeans and the stereotypes which the Black Legend attributed to the Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-Elvira_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elvira-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> correlated "the Jew" (who was detested in Germany at the time) with "the Spanish", whose power was increasing in the region. According to Sverker Arnoldsson, Luther: </p> <ul><li>Identified Italy and Spain with the papacy, even though the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifical States">Pontifical States</a> and Spain were enemies at the time</li> <li>Ignored the coexistence (including intermarriage) of Christians and Jews in Spain</li> <li>Conflated Spain and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Turkey</a> out of fear of an invasion by either power.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul><p> In 1566, Luther's conversations were published. Among many other similar affirmations, he is quoted as saying: </p><div style="padding:1em 3em 1em 3em"><div style="display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap; gap:3em"><div style="flex: 1 0 300px;"><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">... Spaniern ..., die essen gern weiss Brot vnd küssen gern weisse Meidlein, vnd sind sie stiffelbraun vnd pechschwartz wie König Balthasar mit seinem Affen.</i></span></div><div style="flex: 1 0 300px;">The Spanish eat white bread with pleasure and kiss white women with pleasure, but they are as dirt-brown and tar-black as King Balthasar and his monkeys".</div></div><p style="clear:left;margin:1em 0 1em 6em;align-self:flex-end">—Johann Fischart, Geschichtklitterung (1575).</p></div> <div style="padding:1em 3em 1em 3em"><div style="display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap; gap:3em"><div style="flex: 1 0 300px;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Ideo prophetatum est Hispanos velle subigere Germaniam aut per se aut per alios, scilicet Turcam ... Et ita Germania vexabitur et viribus ac bonis suis exhausta Hispanico regno subiugabitur. Eo tendit Sathan, quod Germaniam liberam perturbare tentat</i></span> </div><div style="flex: 1 0 300px;">Thus, it is prophesied that the Spaniards want to subjugate Germany, by itself or through others, such as the Turks. And so Germany will be humiliated and stripped of its men and property, will be submitted to the kingdom of Spain. Satan tries this because he tries to prevent a free Germany </div></div><p style="clear:left;margin:1em 0 1em 6em;align-self:flex-end">—Luther<sup id="cite_ref-Elvira_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elvira-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proponents such as Powell,<sup id="cite_ref-Powell_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Powell-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mignolo<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Roca Barea<sup id="cite_ref-Roca_Barea_2016_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roca_Barea_2016-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allege that the Spanish Black Legend prevails in most of Europe, especially Protestant nations and France, and the Americas. There is, however, no significant trace of it in the Muslim world or Turkey despite the almost seven centuries of sustained warfare in which Spain and the Islamic world were engaged. Historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Mignolo" title="Walter Mignolo">Walter Mignolo</a> has argued that the Black Legend was closely tied to ideologies of race, both in the way that it used the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> history of Spain to depict Spaniards as racially tainted, and in the way that the treatment of <a href="/wiki/African_people" class="mw-redirect" title="African people">Africans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> during Spanish colonial projects came to symbolize their moral character.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="America">America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first Puritan settlers were deeply hostile to Spain, seeing themselves as the Protestant advance guard that would free the Indians from Spanish oppression and cruelty. Prominent among these Puritan authors was <a href="/wiki/Cotton_Mather" title="Cotton Mather">Cotton Mather</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Spanish_translations_of_the_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish translations of the Bible">translated the Bible into Spanish</a> for distribution among the Indians of New Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After its independence, the United States soon became a territorial rival of Spain in America, both on the border with New Spain, and in Florida, the Mississippi or in New Orleans, a port that the Americans wanted to export their products from. The enlightened and liberal ideas that had entered the United States in the eighteenth century, joined their sympathies for <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">the new republics emerging to the south</a>, increasing anti-Spanish sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hostility reached its zenith during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish-American_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish-American War">Spanish-American War</a>, when the propaganda machine of <a href="/wiki/William_Randolph_Hearst" title="William Randolph Hearst">Hearst</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pulitzer" title="Joseph Pulitzer">Pulitzer</a>, used by their newspaper empires, had an enormous influence on public opinion in their country. The hispanophobic speeches heard in Congress during the conflict were so insulting that they led to massive protests in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tensions in <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic America</a> between the upper classes of <a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">creoles</a> and <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es"><a href="/wiki/Peninsulares" title="Peninsulares">peninsulares</a></i></span>, that is, the Spaniards from the Iberian Peninsula, predate the independence of the Latin American countries. It was a confrontation for the right to control and exploit the riches of the American lands and peoples and that, in general, did not affect the lower classes. Around 1800, the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/French_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="French Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, with its <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anticlericalism</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> to authorities, and its support by <a href="/wiki/Masonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Masonic">Masonic</a> lodges, had been enthusiastically embraced among American intellectuals. According to Powell, these ideas were mixed with the black legend, that is, with the identification of Spain as a "horrible example" of <a href="/wiki/Obscurantism" title="Obscurantism">obscurantism</a> and backwardness, as an enemy of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, he claims that the American wars of independence were to some degree civil wars, with the rebels led by minorities of Creoles. </p><p>With this background, Powell argues that the rebels were able to use the black legend as a propaganda weapon against the metropolis. Countless manifestos and proclamations were published quoting and praising Las Casas, poems and hymns describing the depraved nature of the "Spaniards", letters and pamphlets designed to advance the patriotic cause.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first was the Peruvian <a href="/wiki/Juan_Pablo_Vizcardo_y_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Juan Pablo Vizcardo y Guzmán">Juan Pablo Vizcardo y Guzmán</a> in his <i>Carta dirigida a los españoles americanos por uno de sus compatriotas</i>, accusing the metropolis of the serious exploitation suffered, summarizing the situation as «ingratitude, injustice, servitude and desolation». Another example is one of the great heroes of American independence, <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a>, an admirer of Las Casas, whose texts he would use profusely, blamed the Spanish for all the sins committed in America (by Creoles and non-Creoles) in the last 200 years, making the Creoles the victims, the "colonized". He would also be one of the first to appeal for the theft of American wealth and claim its return.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This anti-Spanish mentality was maintained during the 19th century and part of the 20th among the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> elites, who considered "de-Hispanization" the solution to national problems.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian Powell affirms that as a consequence of denigrating Spanish culture, it has been possible to denigrate their own, of which the first is a part, both in their own eyes and in foreign eyes. In addition, the fact would have produced a certain lack of roots among the American peoples, by rejecting part of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the same time, on the beginning of the 19th century, a school of liberal historians appeared in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> who began to speak of the Spanish decline, considering <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">the Inquisition</a> responsible for this economic and cultural decline and for all the ills that afflicted the country. Other European historians would take up the subject later, maintaining this position in some authors until today. The reasoning stated that the expulsion of the Jews and the persecution of the converts would have led to the impoverishment and decline of Spain, in addition to the destruction of the middle class.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1867 <a href="/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Costa" title="Joaquín Costa">Joaquín Costa</a> had also raised the issue of Spanish decline. Both he and <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Mallada" class="extiw" title="es:Lucas Mallada">Lucas Mallada</a> wondered if the fact was due to the Spanish character. He was joined by French and Italian sociologists, anthropologists and criminologists, who spoke more of "degeneration" than decadence, and later other Spaniards such as <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Salillas" class="extiw" title="es:Rafael Salillas">Rafael Salillas</a> or <a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Pulido" title="Ángel Pulido">Ángel Pulido</a>. <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeyo_Gener" class="extiw" title="es:Pompeyo Gener">Pompeu Gener</a> blamed Spanish decadence on religious intolerance and <a href="/wiki/Juan_Valera_y_Alcal%C3%A1-Galiano" title="Juan Valera y Alcalá-Galiano">Juan Valera</a> on Spanish pride. These ideas passed into literature with the <a href="/wiki/Generation_of_%2798" title="Generation of '98">Generation of '98</a>, in texts by <a href="/wiki/P%C3%ADo_Baroja" title="Pío Baroja">Pío Baroja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mart%C3%ADnez_Ruiz" title="José Martínez Ruiz">Azorín</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Machado" title="Antonio Machado">Antonio Machado</a>: «[Castilla...] a piece of the planet crossed by the wandering shadow of Caín»; reaching in some extremes to masochism and the inferiority complex. Joseph Pérez relates this rejection of one part of his own history (the expulsion of the Jews, the Inquisition, the conquest of America) and the idealization of another (<a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>) with similar movements in Portugal and France.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also, after the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a>, many Italian historians tended to narrate in a negative way the time when part of the Italian peninsula had formed a dynastic union with Spain. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_Pepe" title="Gabriele Pepe">Gabriele Pepe</a> denounced what in his eyes had been the plunder and corruption of southern Italy "under the Spanish".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view only began to change in the last third of the 20th century, thanks to a series of congresses and authors such as Rosario Villari and Elena Fasano Guarini.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The works of <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Alessandro Manzoni</a><sup id="cite_ref-:3_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Giuseppe Verdi</a><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also propagated anti-Spanish propaganda on Italian literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: East Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period of Spanish rule in the Philippines is often presented negatively in the present day.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Although the Philippine Islands were occupied by both <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>, only the Spaniards were considered as the oppressors who kept the society in feudal backwardness, along with the development of a servile mentality and the cause of the ignorance through religious fanaticism, while the Americans were portrayed as liberators of the nation in the process of building a national identity against the interference of other powers (the Spanish Catholics and the Islamic sultanates), who, with their defects, were able to bring Modernization in the Islands with its liberal policies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A lot of investigators mention that <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands">United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands</a> has an important role in the construction of anti-Spanish propaganda on Philippines' education.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anti-Spanish propaganda has endured in historiography to this day, since scholars used to copy from the same standard books that have distorted the images of the Philippines with such tropes of the black legend.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That being the case, it has been denounced that "official" historiography in the Philippines, from the nationalist and liberal school, has lacked objectivity by assuming long-repeated misconceptions regarding the early modern history of the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Phillip Powell, the leading historians of the United States in the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Parkman" title="Francis Parkman">Francis Parkman</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Bancroft" title="George Bancroft">George Bancroft</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Prescott" title="William H. Prescott">William H. Prescott</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Lothrop_Motley" title="John Lothrop Motley">John Lothrop Motley</a>, would also write History tinged with the black legend, texts that remain important in later American historiography.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this is <i><a href="/wiki/The_Philippine_Islands,_1493%E2%80%931898" title="The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898">The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898</a></i>, important source of Philippine history for non-Spanish speakers that has been criticized by modern historians, notably <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gl%C3%B2ria_Cano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glòria Cano (page does not exist)">Glòria Cano</a>, for deliberately distorting the original Spanish documents to portray the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> in a negative light.<sup id="cite_ref-Cano_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cano-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, after the <a href="/wiki/American_occupation_of_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="American occupation of the Philippines">United States Occupation of the Philippines</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Schurman_Commission" title="Schurman Commission">Schurman Commission</a> was carried out, with the purpose of preparing the conditions for the government of the Philippine islands, and in which the Philippine upper class of the <a href="/wiki/Principal%C3%ADa" title="Principalía">Principalía</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ilustrado" title="Ilustrado">Ilustrado</a> intellectuals participated. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Gould_Schurman" title="Jacob Gould Schurman">Jacob Schurman</a> built and shaped a discourse that emphasized a negative view of the <a href="/wiki/First_Philippine_Republic" title="First Philippine Republic">Philippine Republic</a> (while declaring that the Filipinos are not ready for independence) and outlined an <a href="/wiki/Obscurantism" title="Obscurantism">obscurantist</a> image of the Spanish regime, for which they appealed typical dichotomies between <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">tradition</a>, where the Spanish regime represented an apparent <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> backwardness, while the US administration presented itself as <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressive</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thus, the Americans in the Philippines developed a narrative with they belittled Spain, following the traditional lines of the Black Legend, as a <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a>, exploitative and oppressive power, while also praising the Hispanic legacy in the Filipino (on a more social than political level), especially their conversion of "savages" to Christianity, but at the cost of underestimating <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Philippines" title="Culture of the Philippines">Filipino customs</a> (many of Hispanic origin by Catholic tradition, which the Americans considered a mistake for the Spanish to seek to achieve cultural syncretism with the barbaric and pagan).<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American works such as <i>The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898</i>, by Blair and Robertson, or <i>The Americans in the Philippines</i>, by James LeRoy, have been accused of having presented a caricatural image of Spanish history in the islands, as well as giving an erroneous image of the Catholic Church and its power as opposed to any possibility of social reforms in the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US administration invoked negative views of Spanish colonialism to legitimize its occupation of the islands during the next decades, as a benevolent, modern and democratic colonization against a tyrannical and backward malevolent colonizer who had not been able to develop a national identity to the Filipinos.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Confusing plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-confusing" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">confusing or unclear</a> to readers</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarify the section</a>. There might be a discussion about this on <a href="/wiki/Talk:Black_legend" title="Talk:Black legend">the talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_Black_Legend_-_The_Spanish_Brute.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Spanish_Black_Legend_-_The_Spanish_Brute.jpg/220px-Spanish_Black_Legend_-_The_Spanish_Brute.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Spanish_Black_Legend_-_The_Spanish_Brute.jpg/330px-Spanish_Black_Legend_-_The_Spanish_Brute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Spanish_Black_Legend_-_The_Spanish_Brute.jpg/440px-Spanish_Black_Legend_-_The_Spanish_Brute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption><i>The Spanish Brute</i>, US cartoon, 1898</figcaption></figure> <p>Historians disagree on whether the Black Legend exists as a genuine factor in current discourse around Spain and its history.In recent years a group of historians including <a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Alvar" title="Alfredo Alvar">Alfredo Alvar</a>, Ricardo García Cárcel and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lourdes_Mateo_Bretos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lourdes Mateo Bretos (page does not exist)">Lourdes Mateo Bretos</a> have argued that the Black Legend does not currently exist beyond Spanish society's own perception of how the world views Spain's legacy.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Carmen_Iglesias" title="Carmen Iglesias">Carmen Iglesias</a>, the Black Legend consists of negative traits which the Spanish people see in themselves and is shaped by political propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The view of the group around García Cárcel is echoed by Benjamin Keen, writing in 1969. He argues that the concept of the Black Legend cannot be considered valid, given that the negative depiction of Spanish behavior in the Americas was largely accurate. He further claims that whether a concerted campaign of anti-Spanish propaganda based on imperial rivalry ever existed is at least open to question.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Henry Kamen argues that the Black Legend existed during the 16th century but has disappeared in contemporary perceptions of Spain. However, other authors, like Elvira Roca Barea, Tony Horowitz and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Wayne_Powell" title="Philip Wayne Powell">Philip Wayne Powell</a>, have argued that it still affects the manner in which Spain is perceived, and that it is brought up strategically during diplomatic conflicts of interest as well as in popular culture to draw attention away from the negative actions of other nations. Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Tate_Lanning" title="John Tate Lanning">John Tate Lanning</a> argued that the most detrimental impact of the Black Legend was to reduce the Spanish colonization of the Americas (and the resulting culture that emerged) to "three centuries of theocracy, obscurantism, and barbarism."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, Tony Horowitz argued in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> that the Spanish Black Legend affected current <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">U.S. immigration policy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Venezuelan case has been studied by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilberto_Ram%C3%B3n_Quintero_Lugo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilberto Ramón Quintero Lugo (page does not exist)">Gilberto Ramón Quintero Lugo</a> in his book «La Leyenda Negra y su influjo en la historiografía venezolana de la Independencia» (April 2004).<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In her 2016 book exploring “empire-phobia” as a recurring sociopolitical phenomenon in human history, <a href="/wiki/Elvira_Roca_Barea" title="Elvira Roca Barea">Elvira Roca Barea</a> argues that the unique persistence of the Spanish Black Legend beyond the end of the Spanish Empire is tied to a continued anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic sentiment in traditionally Protestant European countries: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If we deprive Europe of its hispanophobia and anti-Catholicism, its modern history becomes incomprehensible.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>José Luis Villacañas, in his 2019 response to Roca Barea, labels her work as "populist national-Catholic propaganda" and accuses her of minimising Spanish atrocities in the Americas along with those of the Inquisition. He argues that, for all intents and purposes, the Black Legend has no meaning outside the context of 17th century propaganda, although he recognises that certain negative stereotypes of Spain may have persisted during the <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Franco regime</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Villacanas1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>García Cárcel criticises Roca Barea's position as adding to a long tradition of Spanish society's insecurities about how other countries perceive it. On the other hand, he also criticizes Villacañas's discourse as being heavily ideological in the opposite direction and systematically indulging in <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">presentism</a>. García Cárcel calls for an analysis of Spain's history that renounces both “narcissism and masochism” in favor of nuanced awareness of its “lights and shadows”.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other proponents of the continuity theory include musicologist Judith Etzion<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Fernandez_Retamar" class="mw-redirect" title="Roberto Fernandez Retamar">Roberto Fernandez Retamar</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Samuel Amago who, in his essay "Why Spaniards Make Good Bad Guys" analyzes the persistence of the legend in contemporary European cinema.<sup id="cite_ref-Amago_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amago-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="White_Legend">White Legend</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: White Legend"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The label "White Legend" (<i>Leyenda Blanca</i>) is used to describe a historiographic approach which presents an uncritical or idealized image of Spanish colonial practices.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors consider this to be the result of taking attempts to counter the bias of the Black Legend too far, whereas others consider it to have developed independently. Miguel Molina Martinez describes this legend as a characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_nationalism" title="Spanish nationalism">Nationalist Spanish</a> historiography which was propagated during the <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">regime</a> of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, a regime which associated itself with the imperial past and couched it in positive terms. Molina Martinez points to the classic text of Spanish Americanists during the Franco period, Rómulo Carbia's <i>Historia de la leyenda negra hispanoamericana</i>, as a work with a strong ideological motivation which frequently fell into arguments which could be qualified as part of the White Legend, while also giving more current examples of the trope.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some, such as <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Keen" title="Benjamin Keen">Benjamin Keen</a>, have criticized the works of <a href="/wiki/John_Fiske_(philosopher)" title="John Fiske (philosopher)">John Fiske</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hanke" title="Lewis Hanke">Lewis Hanke</a> as going too far towards idealizing Spanish history.<sup id="cite_ref-Reverte_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reverte-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While recognising the general merit of Hanke's work, Keen suggests that the United States' contemporary imperial ventures in the Caribbean and the Philippines had led him to idealise the Spanish Empire as an analogy for American colonialism. He further argues that the proponents of the White Legend focus on Spanish legal codes protecting the Indigenous population, while ignoring the copious documentary evidence that they were widely ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keen_white_legend-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Luis Castellvi Laukamp accuses Elvira Roca Barea of "transforming the Black Legend into the White Legend" in her influential 2016 work, <i>Imperofobia y Leyenda Negra</i>, in which she claims that Spain confronted the <i>other</i> "not with racist theories but with [protective] laws". Castellvi Laukamp points out that not only did the Spanish Laws of the Indies include racism from the beginning, but slavery continued in Spanish colonies in the Americas until 1886. He further takes issue with claims that Spanish colonies' high level of <a href="/wiki/Mestizaje" class="mw-redirect" title="Mestizaje">mestizaje</a> (biological and cultural mixing of the European and Indigenous population) demonstrates the absence of racism in the Spanish Empire. Castellvi Laukamp quotes from contemporary sources showing that Indigenous women were treated as spoils of war and subject to racialised sexual slavery and subordination and demonstrates the discriminatory racial stereotypes deployed against black and other non-white women in the colonial period.<sup id="cite_ref-Castellvi_Laukamp_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castellvi_Laukamp-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dominican Historian Esteban Mira Caballos argues that the Black and White legends form part of a single unity, which he calls a "Great Lie".<sup id="cite_ref-Mira_C_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mira_C-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He goes on to describe the way the Black Legend is instrumentalised to support the White Legend: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The consequence of the positioning of those who allude to the Black Legend in order to, in reality, defend the White Legend, has been to silence any criticism of the past: We were marvellous, and anything negative anyone has to say about us is fruit of the Black Legend. And without the possibility of criticism, the science of History loses all meaning.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Esteban Mira Caballos, <i>Mito, realidad y actualidad de la leyenda negra</i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The "White Legend" or the "Pink Legend" (Sp: <i>Leyenda Rosa</i>) may also refer to the propaganda which was circulated within Spain by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a> and his descendants, propaganda which claimed that his actions in the Netherlands and America were religiously motivated, so his own patrimony would be preserved. This propaganda was intended to foster the image that Spain was ruled by a prudent and pious monarch, and control the unrest that was generated by his aggressive policies and his wars in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Anti-Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_trope" title="Antisemitic trope">Antisemitic trope</a> – False claims about Jews and Judaism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_propaganda" title="Atrocity propaganda">Atrocity propaganda</a> – Spreading of deliberate fabrications or exaggerations about the crimes committed by an enemy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Australian history wars</a> – Public debate in Australia over British colonialism ("black armband")</li> 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hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_cause_of_the_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Lost cause of the Confederacy">Lost cause of the Confederacy</a> – Negationist myth of the American Civil War<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States">Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Jews" title="Stereotypes of Jews">Stereotypes of Jews</a> – Generalized representations of Jewish people</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_legend&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gibson-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gibson_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="Gibson" class="citation web cs1">Gibson, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006147282">"The Colonial Period in Latin American History"</a>. <i>Hathi Trust</i>. Service Center for Teachers of History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hathi+Trust&rft.atitle=The+Colonial+Period+in+Latin+American+History&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F006147282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Juderías-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Juderías_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Juderías_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Juderías, Julián, <i>La leyenda negra</i> (2003; 1914 1st ed.) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-9718-225-1" title="Special:BookSources/84-9718-225-1">84-9718-225-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keen_white_legend-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Keen_white_legend_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeen1971" class="citation journal cs1">Keen, Benjamin (1971). "The White Legend Revisited: A Reply to Professor Hanke's 'Modest Proposal'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>51</b> (2): 336–355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2512479">10.2307/2512479</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2512479">2512479</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+White+Legend+Revisited%3A+A+Reply+to+Professor+Hanke%27s+%27Modest+Proposal%27&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=336-355&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2512479&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2512479%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Keen&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuncan1991" class="citation web cs1">Duncan, David Ewing (1 August 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A11075070/LitRC?sid=googlescholar">"The Black Legend: Spaniards hope to put an end next year to a propaganda campaign against their country that began half a millenium ago"</a>. <i>Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Black+Legend%3A+Spaniards+hope+to+put+an+end+next+year+to+a+propaganda+campaign+against+their+country+that+began+half+a+millenium+ago&rft.date=1991-08-01&rft.aulast=Duncan&rft.aufirst=David+Ewing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.galegroup.com%2Fapps%2Fdoc%2FA11075070%2FLitRC%3Fsid%3Dgooglescholar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://filosofia.org/aut/001/1899epb4.htm">"Emilia Pardo Bazán, La España de ayer y la de hoy (La muerte de una leyenda), 18 de Abril de 1899"</a>. <i>filosofia.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=filosofia.org&rft.atitle=Emilia+Pardo+Baz%C3%A1n%2C+La+Espa%C3%B1a+de+ayer+y+la+de+hoy+%28La+muerte+de+una+leyenda%29%2C+18+de+Abril+de+1899&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffilosofia.org%2Faut%2F001%2F1899epb4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Powell-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Powell_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Powell_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell1971" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Philip Wayne (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aSWbrxf1kEsC"><i>The Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices affecting US relations with the Hispanic World</i></a>. UNM Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-4576-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-4576-9"><bdi>978-0-8263-4576-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tree+of+Hate%3A+Propaganda+and+Prejudices+affecting+US+relations+with+the+Hispanic+World&rft.pub=UNM+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-4576-9&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Philip+Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaSWbrxf1kEsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marías, Julián (2006; primera edición 1985). España Inteligible. Razón Histórica de las Españas. Alianza Editorial. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-206-7725-6" title="Special:BookSources/84-206-7725-6">84-206-7725-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreerMignoloQuilligan2007" class="citation book cs1">Greer, Margaret; Mignolo, Walter; Quilligan, Maureen (2007). <i>Re-reading the Black Legend: Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Re-reading+the+Black+Legend%3A+Discourses+of+Religious+and+Racial+Difference+in+the+Renaissance+Empires&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Greer&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft.au=Mignolo%2C+Walter&rft.au=Quilligan%2C+Maureen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271377736">"Uso de prácticas aterrorizantes en la conquista de las Indias: el ejemplo de las mutilaciones en vida"</a>. <i>Jahrbuch fü Geschichte Lateinamerikas</i>. <b>49</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jahrbuch+f%C3%BC+Geschichte+Lateinamerikas&rft.atitle=Uso+de+pr%C3%A1cticas+aterrorizantes+en+la+conquista+de+las+Indias%3A+el+ejemplo+de+las+mutilaciones+en+vida&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F271377736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZurro2013" class="citation web cs1">Zurro, Javier (12 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elconfidencial.com/cultura/2013-10-12/ejecuciones-mutilaciones-violaciones-asi-fue-la-conquista-de-america_40390/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Ejecuciones, mutilaciones, violaciones', así fue la Conquista de América"</a>. <i>El Confidencial</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=El+Confidencial&rft.atitle=%27Ejecuciones%2C+mutilaciones%2C+violaciones%27%2C+as%C3%AD+fue+la+Conquista+de+Am%C3%A9rica&rft.date=2013-10-12&rft.aulast=Zurro&rft.aufirst=Javier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elconfidencial.com%2Fcultura%2F2013-10-12%2Fejecuciones-mutilaciones-violaciones-asi-fue-la-conquista-de-america_40390%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roca_Barea_2016-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roca_Barea_2016_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roca_Barea_2016_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roca_Barea_2016_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roca Barea, María Elvira (2016). Imperiofobia y leyenda negra. Roma, Rusia, Estados Unidos y el Imperio español. Madrid: Siruela. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-16854233" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-16854233">978-84-16854233</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Villacanas1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Villacanas1_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBono2019" class="citation news cs1">Bono, Ferran (4 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elpais.com/cultura/2019/06/03/actualidad/1559587359_810868.html">"La historia de la leyenda negra, un asunto político de filias y fobias"</a>. El Pais<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=La+historia+de+la+leyenda+negra%2C+un+asunto+pol%C3%ADtico+de+filias+y+fobias&rft.date=2019-06-04&rft.aulast=Bono&rft.aufirst=Ferran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felpais.com%2Fcultura%2F2019%2F06%2F03%2Factualidad%2F1559587359_810868.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jstor.org-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeen1969" class="citation journal cs1">Keen, Benjamin (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-49.4.703">"The Black Legend Revisited:Assumptions and Realities"</a>. <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>49</b> (4): 703–719. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-49.4.703">10.1215/00182168-49.4.703</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2511162">2511162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Black+Legend+Revisited%3AAssumptions+and+Realities&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=703-719&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182168-49.4.703&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2511162%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Keen&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1215%252F00182168-49.4.703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarcel_GarciaMateo_Bretos1991" class="citation book cs1">Carcel Garcia, Ricardo; Mateo Bretos, Lourdes (1991). <i>La Leyenda Negra</i>. p. 84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Leyenda+Negra&rft.pages=84&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Carcel+Garcia&rft.aufirst=Ricardo&rft.au=Mateo+Bretos%2C+Lourdes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mignolo, W. D. (2007). "What does the Black Legend Have to do with Race?" <i>Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires</i>, 312–324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reverte-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reverte_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reverte_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh,_Anne_L.2007" class="citation book cs1">Walsh, Anne L. (2007). <i>Arturo Pérez-Reverte: narrative tricks and narrative strategies</i>. Colección Támesis: Monografías (Volume 246). London: Tamesis Books. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85566-150-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85566-150-9"><bdi>978-1-85566-150-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arturo+P%C3%A9rez-Reverte%3A+narrative+tricks+and+narrative+strategies&rft.place=London&rft.series=Colecci%C3%B3n+T%C3%A1mesis%3A+Monograf%C3%ADas+%28Volume+246%29&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Tamesis+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-85566-150-9&rft.au=Walsh%2C+Anne+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2012/12/the-laws-of-burgos-500-years-of-human-rights/"><i>The Laws of Burgos: 500 Years of Human Rights</i>, In Custodia Legis, Library of Congress</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMills,_Kenneth;_Taylor,_William_B.;_Lauderdale_Graham,_Sandra2004" class="citation book cs1">Mills, Kenneth; Taylor, William B.; Lauderdale Graham, Sandra (2004) [2002]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coloniallatiname00mill_0"><i>Colonial Latin America : a documentary history</i></a></span>. SR Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8420-2997-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8420-2997-4"><bdi>0-8420-2997-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61460372">61460372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+Latin+America+%3A+a+documentary+history&rft.pub=SR+Books&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61460372&rft.isbn=0-8420-2997-4&rft.au=Mills%2C+Kenneth%3B+Taylor%2C+William+B.%3B+Lauderdale+Graham%2C+Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcoloniallatiname00mill_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borah_691-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Borah_691_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borah_691_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorahBurkholderJohnson1990" class="citation journal cs1">Borah, Woodrow; Burkholder, Mark A.; Johnson, Lyman L. (November 1990). "Colonial Latin America". <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>70</b> (4): 691. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2516592">10.2307/2516592</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2168">0018-2168</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2516592">2516592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Colonial+Latin+America.&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=691&rft.date=1990-11&rft.issn=0018-2168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2516592%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2516592&rft.aulast=Borah&rft.aufirst=Woodrow&rft.au=Burkholder%2C+Mark+A.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Lyman+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WDL-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WDL_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/515/">"Mirror of the Cruel and Horrible Spanish Tyranny Perpetrated in the Netherlands, by the Tyrant, the Duke of Alba, and Other Commanders of King Philip II"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a></i>. 1620<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Mirror+of+the+Cruel+and+Horrible+Spanish+Tyranny+Perpetrated+in+the+Netherlands%2C+by+the+Tyrant%2C+the+Duke+of+Alba%2C+and+Other+Commanders+of+King+Philip+II&rft.date=1620&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F515%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLas_Casas1552" class="citation book cs1">Las Casas, Bartolomé (1552). <i>A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+Account+of+the+Destruction+of+the+Indies&rft.date=1552&rft.aulast=Las+Casas&rft.aufirst=Bartolom%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stannard-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStannard1993" class="citation book cs1">Stannard, David E. (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan/page/74"><i>American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press, US. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan/page/74">74</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508557-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508557-0"><bdi>978-0-19-508557-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Holocaust%3A+The+Conquest+of+the+New+World&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+US&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508557-0&rft.aulast=Stannard&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanholocaus00stan%2Fpage%2F74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hanke" title="Lewis Hanke">Hanke, Lewis</a>, "A Modest Proposal for a Moratorium on Grand Generalizations: Some Thoughts on the Black Legend", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hispanic_American_Historical_Review" title="The Hispanic American Historical Review">The Hispanic American Historical Review</a></i> 51, No. 1 (Feb., 1971), pp. 112–127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeen1969" class="citation journal cs1">Keen, Benjamin (1969). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2011</span>. <q>... in Madrid, <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Alvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Alba</a> was accused of following his own whims rather than <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip</a>'s wishes. 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El antiguo régimen: los Reyes Católicos y los Austria” (tomo 3 de la Historia de España dirigida por Miguel Artiola), Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1988, pág. 369, tomo 3 [History of Spain. The Ancient regime: the Catholic Monarchs and the Austrias” (volume 3 of the History of Spain directed by Miguel Artiola), Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1988, p. 369, volume 3]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Otello Ciacci, Manzoni Studies, A. Signorelli, 1975 p. 3 and following [Otello Ciacci, <i>Studi manzoniani</i>, A. Signorelli, 1975 p. 3 e sgg]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alvar, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maltby, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnoldsson, pp. 104–ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnoldsson, pp. 117-ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnoldsson, pp. 123 ss.; Kamen, pp. 305 ss.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Philip Wayne. <i>Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting United States Relations with the Hispanic World</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tree+of+Hate%3A+Propaganda+and+Prejudices+Affecting+United+States+Relations+with+the+Hispanic+World&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Philip+Wayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Powell,_pp._50_ss-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Powell,_pp._50_ss_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Powell,_pp._50_ss_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Powell, pp. 50 ss.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perez, p. 85 ff</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">García Cárcel, pp. 71–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">García Cárcel, pp. 73 ss.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swart, K. 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"Why Spaniards make good bad guys: Sergi Lopez and the persistence of the Black Legend in contemporary American cinema". <i>Film Criticism</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 41–63. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24777304">24777304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Film+Criticism&rft.atitle=Why+Spaniards+make+good+bad+guys%3A+Sergi+Lopez+and+the+persistence+of+the+Black+Legend+in+contemporary+American+cinema.&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-63&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24777304%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Amago&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolina_Martínez2012" class="citation journal cs1">Molina Martínez, Miguel (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://revista.raha.es/articulo1.pdf">"La Leyenda Negra revisitada: la polémica continúa"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Revista Hispanoamericana</i> (2nd ed.). Revista Digital de la Real Academia Hispano Americana de Ciencias, Artes y Letras. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2174-0445">2174-0445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+Hispanoamericana&rft.atitle=La+Leyenda+Negra+revisitada%3A+la+pol%C3%A9mica+contin%C3%BAa&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=2174-0445&rft.aulast=Molina+Mart%C3%ADnez&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frevista.raha.es%2Farticulo1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Castellvi_Laukamp-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Castellvi_Laukamp_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastellvi_Laukamp2018" class="citation web cs1">Castellvi Laukamp, Luis (11 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elespanol.com/opinion/tribunas/20181011/repensar-hispanidad/344585540_12.html">"Repensar la Hispanidad"</a>. <i>El Español</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hispanidad+tras+la+%C3%BAltima+frontera&rft.atitle=%22Leyenda+negra+espa%C3%B1ola%2C+origen+y+desarrollo+hasta+la+actualidad%22&rft.date=2024-07-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftraslaultimafrontera.com%2Fla-leyenda-negra-espanola-origen-desarrollo-y-realidad%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosé_Presas_y_Marull1828" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Presas_y_Marull" title="José Presas y Marull">José Presas y Marull</a> (1828). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://simurg.bibliotecas.csic.es/viewer/image/CSIC000227068/9/#topDocAnchor"><i>Juicio imparcial sobre las principales causas de la revolución de la América Española y acerca de las poderosas razones que tiene la metrópoli para reconocer su absoluta independencia. (original document)</i></a> [<i>Fair judgment about the main causes of the revolution of Spanish America and about the powerful reasons that the metropolis has for recognizing its absolute independence</i>]. Burdeaux: Imprenta de D. 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"La Leyenda Negra: Estudios Sobre Sus Orígines," <i>Göteborgs Universitets Årsskrift</i>, 66:3, 1960</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDíaz,_María_Elena2004" class="citation journal cs1">Díaz, María Elena (2004). 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"Spanish Historiography and Iberian Reality". <i>History and Theory</i>. <b>24</b> (1): 23–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2504941">10.2307/2504941</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2504941">2504941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+and+Theory&rft.atitle=Spanish+Historiography+and+Iberian+Reality&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-43&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2504941&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2504941%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Hillgarth%2C+J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kamen, Henry, <i>Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763</i>. New York: HarperCollins. 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-093264-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-093264-3">0-06-093264-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keen,_Benjamin" class="mw-redirect" title="Keen, Benjamin">Keen, Benjamin</a>, "The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and Realities", <i>Hispanic American Historical Review 49</i>, no. 4 (November 1969): 703–719.</li> <li>Keen, Benjamin, "The White Legend Revisited: A Reply to Professor Hanke's 'Modest Proposal,'" <i>Hispanic American Historical Review 51</i>, no. 2 (May 1971): 336–355.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaRosa,_Michael1992–1993" class="citation journal cs1">LaRosa, Michael (1992–1993). "Religion in a Changing Latin America: A Review". <i>Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs</i>. <b>34</b> (4): 245–255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F165811">10.2307/165811</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/165811">165811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interamerican+Studies+and+World+Affairs&rft.atitle=Religion+in+a+Changing+Latin+America%3A+A+Review&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=245-255&rft.date=1992%2F1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F165811&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F165811%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=LaRosa%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lock, Julian. "'How Many Tercios Has the Pope?' The Spanish War and the Sublimation of Elizabethan <a href="/wiki/Anti-Popery" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Popery">Anti-Popery</a>," <i>History</i>, 81, 1996.</li> <li>Maltby, William S., <i>The Black Legend in England</i>. Duke University Press, Durham, 1971, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-0250-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-0250-0">0-8223-0250-0</a>.</li> <li>Maura, Juan Francisco. "La hispanofobia a través de algunos textos de la conquista de América: de la propaganda política a la frivolidad académica". <i>Bulletin of Spanish Studies</i> 83. 2 (2006): 213–240.</li> <li>Maura, Juan Francisco. ¿"Cobardía, crueldad y oportunismo español?: algunas consideraciones sobre la 'verdadera' historia de la conquista de la Nueva España". <i>Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del Renacimiento)</i> 7 (2003): 1–29. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://parnaseo.uv.es/Lemir/Revista/Revista7/NuevaEspa.pdf">[1]</a></li> <li>Mignolo, W. D. (2007). "What does the Black Legend Have to do with Race?" <i>Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires</i>, 312–324.</li> <li>Powell, Philip Wayne, <i>Tree of Hate: Propaganda and Prejudices Affecting United States Relations with the Hispanic World</i>. Basic Books, New York, 1971, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-08750-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-08750-7">0-465-08750-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabasa,_José1993" class="citation journal cs1">Rabasa, José (1993). "Aesthetics of Colonial Violence: The Massacre of Acoma in Gaspar de Villagrá's "Historia de la Nueva México"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>College Literature</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 96–114.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=College+Literature&rft.atitle=Aesthetics+of+Colonial+Violence%3A+The+Massacre+of+Acoma+in+Gaspar+de+Villagr%C3%A1%27s+%22Historia+de+la+Nueva+M%C3%A9xico%22&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=96-114&rft.date=1993&rft.au=Rabasa%2C+Jos%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sanchez, M.G., <i>Anti-Spanish Sentiment in English Literary and Political Writing, 1553–1603</i> (Phd Diss; University of Leeds, 2004)</li> <li>Schmidt, Benjamin, <i>Innocence Abroad. The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570–1670</i>, Cambridge U.P. 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02455-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02455-6">978-0-521-02455-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVigil,_Ralph_H.1994" class="citation journal cs1">Vigil, Ralph H. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002387910003538X">"Review: Inequality and Ideology in Borderlands Historiography"</a>. <i>Latin American Research Review</i>. <b>29</b> (1): 155–171. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002387910003538X">10.1017/S002387910003538X</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Research+Review&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Inequality+and+Ideology+in+Borderlands+Historiography&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=155-171&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS002387910003538X&rft.au=Vigil%2C+Ralph+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS002387910003538X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack+legend" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> 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title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italiani brava gente</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Reputation of William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations,_publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations, publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers" title="List of heritage registers">Heritage registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_society" title="Historical society">Historical society</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_societies" title="List of historical societies">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_institutes" class="extiw" title="c:History institutes">History institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals" title="List of history journals">History journals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_journals" title="Template:History journals">template</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">Commemorative plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical realism">Historical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_metafiction" title="Historiographic metafiction">Historiographic metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" 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