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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Diagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Prevention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prevention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vaccination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaccination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Vaccination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaccination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compulsory_vaccination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compulsory_vaccination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Compulsory vaccination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compulsory_vaccination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vector_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vector_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Vector control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vector_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Treatment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Epidemiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Epidemiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Early history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_and_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_and_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Causes and transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_and_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Current status </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Yellow fever</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" > 72 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geelkoors" title="Geelkoors – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geelkoors" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%89_%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="حمى صفراء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حمى صفراء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiebre_mariello" title="Fiebre mariello – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fiebre mariello" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sar%C4%B1_q%C4%B1zd%C4%B1rma" title="Sarı qızdırma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sarı qızdırma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0" title="পীতজ্বর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পীতজ্বর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%9E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Жоўтая ліхаманка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жоўтая ліхаманка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8A%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Жълта треска – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Жълта треска" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDuta_groznica" title="Žuta groznica – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Žuta groznica" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Febre_groga" title="Febre groga – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Febre groga" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDlut%C3%A1_zimnice" title="Žlutá zimnice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Žlutá zimnice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gul_feber" title="Gul feber – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gul feber" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelbfieber" title="Gelbfieber – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gelbfieber" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%83%DE%A9%DE%82%DE%8B%DE%AB_%DE%80%DE%AA%DE%82%DE%B0" title="ރީނދޫ ހުން – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ރީނދޫ ހުން" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollapalavik" title="Kollapalavik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kollapalavik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%AF%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%80%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Κίτρινος πυρετός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κίτρινος πυρετός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiebre_amarilla" title="Fiebre amarilla – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fiebre amarilla" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flava_febro" title="Flava febro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Flava febro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukar_hori" title="Sukar hori – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sukar hori" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="تب زرد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تب زرد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C3%A8vre_jaune" title="Fièvre jaune – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fièvre jaune" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiabhras_bu%C3%AD" title="Fiabhras buí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fiabhras buí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Febre_amarela" title="Febre amarela – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Febre amarela" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%A9%EC%97%B4" title="황열 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="황열" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4" title="Դեղին տենդ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դեղին տենդ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0" title="पीतज्वर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पीतज्वर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDuta_groznica" title="Žuta groznica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Žuta groznica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flava_febro" title="Flava febro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Flava febro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demam_kuning" title="Demam kuning – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Demam kuning" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulus%C3%B3tt" title="Gulusótt – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gulusótt" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Febbre_gialla" title="Febbre gialla – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Febbre gialla" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%97%D7%AA_%D7%A6%D7%94%D7%95%D7%91%D7%94" title="קדחת צהובה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קדחת צהובה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BB%C3%B4%C5%82t%C3%B4_%C3%B2gr%C3%B4%C5%BCka" title="Żôłtô ògrôżka – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Żôłtô ògrôżka" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B_%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Сары қызба – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сары қызба" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homa_ya_manjano" title="Homa ya manjano – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Homa ya manjano" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafy%C3%A8v_j%C3%B2n" title="Lafyèv jòn – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lafyèv jòn" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzeltenais_drudzis" title="Dzeltenais drudzis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dzeltenais drudzis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geltonasis_drugys" title="Geltonasis drugys – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Geltonasis drugys" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C3%A8vre_jaune" title="Fièvre jaune – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Fièvre jaune" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enkaka" title="Enkaka – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Enkaka" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1rgal%C3%A1z" title="Sárgaláz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sárgaláz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Жолта треска – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Жолта треска" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" 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data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9D_%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A" title="යෙලෝ ෆීවර් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යෙලෝ ෆීවර්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Yellow fever" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumena_mrzlica" title="Rumena mrzlica – Slovenian" 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"American Plague" and "Yellow plague" redirect here. For the rock band, see <a href="/wiki/The_American_Plague" title="The American Plague">The American Plague</a>. For the Yellow Plague of Rhos in medieval Wales, see <a href="/wiki/Maelgwn_Gwynedd" title="Maelgwn Gwynedd">Maelgwn Gwynedd</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Yellow fever (disambiguation)">Yellow fever (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Yellow fever</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Yellow jack, yellow plague,<a href="#cite_note-Old2009-1">[1]</a> bronze john<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:YellowFeverVirus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/YellowFeverVirus.jpg/250px-YellowFeverVirus.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/YellowFeverVirus.jpg/375px-YellowFeverVirus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/YellowFeverVirus.jpg/500px-YellowFeverVirus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2328" data-file-height="2760" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">A <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission electron microscope">TEM</a> <a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">micrograph</a> of yellow fever virus (234,000× magnification)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">Fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chills" title="Chills">chills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muscle_pain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle pain">muscle pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">yellow skin</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Liver_failure" title="Liver failure">Liver failure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">bleeding</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Usual onset</th><td class="infobox-data">3–6 days post exposure<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Duration</th><td class="infobox-data">3–4 days<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data">Yellow fever virus spread by <a href="/wiki/Mosquitoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosquitoes">mosquitoes</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">Blood test</a><a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prevention</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine" title="Yellow fever vaccine">Yellow fever vaccine</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Supportive_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Supportive care">Supportive care</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">~130,000 severe cases in Africa alone (2013)<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-garskeetal2014-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">~78,000 in Africa alone (2013)<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-garskeetal2014-5">[5]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Yellow fever is a <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viral</a> <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> of typically <a href="/wiki/Acute_(medicine)" title="Acute (medicine)">short duration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> In most cases, symptoms include <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chills" title="Chills">chills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)" title="Anorexia (symptom)">loss of appetite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nausea" title="Nausea">nausea</a>, muscle pains—particularly in the back—and <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headaches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> Symptoms typically improve within five days.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> In about 15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> damage begins causing <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">yellow skin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney problems</a> is increased.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The disease is caused by the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_virus_(flavivirus)_protease" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow fever virus (flavivirus) protease">yellow fever virus</a> and is spread by the bite of an infected <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquito</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-mayoclinic-8">[8]</a> It infects humans, other <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> and several types of mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> In cities, it is spread primarily by <a href="/wiki/Aedes_aegypti" title="Aedes aegypti">Aedes aegypti</a>, a type of mosquito found throughout the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subtropics" title="Subtropics">subtropics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> The virus is an <a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA virus</a> of the genus <a href="/wiki/Flavivirus" title="Flavivirus">Flavivirus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindenbach2007-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The disease may be difficult to tell apart from other illnesses, especially in the early stages.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> To confirm a suspected case, blood-sample testing with a <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> is required.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> A safe and effective <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine" title="Yellow fever vaccine">vaccine against yellow fever</a> exists, and some countries require vaccinations for travelers.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> Other efforts to prevent infection include reducing the population of the transmitting mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> In areas where yellow fever is common, early diagnosis of cases and immunization of large parts of the population are important to prevent <a href="/wiki/Outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbreak">outbreaks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> Once a person is infected, management is symptomatic; no specific measures are effective against the virus.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> Death occurs in up to half of those who get severe disease.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In 2013, yellow fever was estimated to have caused 130,000 severe infections and 78,000 deaths in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-garskeetal2014-5">[5]</a> Approximately 90 percent of an estimated 200,000 cases of yellow fever per year occur in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17304460-13">[13]</a> Nearly a billion people live in an area of the world where the disease is common.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> It is common in tropical areas of the continents of South America and Africa,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> but not in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2011-15">[15]</a> Since the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barr2007-16">[16]</a> This is believed to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving frequently, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">changing climate</a> increasing the habitat for mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-3">[3]</a> The disease originated in Africa and spread to the Americas starting in the 17th century with the European trafficking of <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">enslaved Africans</a> from sub-Saharan Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Old2009-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Since the 17th century, several major <a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of epidemics">outbreaks</a> of the disease have occurred in the Americas, Africa, and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Old2009-1">[1]</a> In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was considered one of the most dangerous <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious diseases</a>; numerous epidemics swept through major cities of the US and in other parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Old2009-1">[1]</a> In 1927, yellow fever virus became the first human virus to be isolated.<a href="#cite_note-lindenbach2007-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> Yellow fever begins after an incubation period of three to six days.<a href="#cite_note-urlFact_Sheet_|_CDC_Yellow_Fever-19">[19]</a> Most cases cause only mild infection with fever, headache, chills, back pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, muscle pain, nausea, and vomiting.<a href="#cite_note-urlWHO_|_Yellow_fever-20">[20]</a> In these cases, the infection lasts only three to six days.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> But in 15% of cases, people enter a second, toxic phase of the disease characterized by recurring fever, this time accompanied by <a href="/wiki/Jaundice" title="Jaundice">jaundice</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">liver damage</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pain" title="Abdominal pain">abdominal pain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Bleeding in the mouth, nose, eyes, and the <a href="/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Human gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> cause <a href="/wiki/Hematemesis" title="Hematemesis">vomit containing blood</a>, hence one of the names in Spanish for yellow fever, vómito negro ("black vomit").<a href="#cite_note-pmid14582304-23">[23]</a> There may also be kidney failure, hiccups, and delirium.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Among those who develop jaundice, the fatality rate is 20 to 50%, while the overall <a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">fatality rate</a> is about 3 to 7.5%.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18061688-26">[26]</a> Severe cases may have a mortality rate greater than 50%.<a href="#cite_note-Tomori2004-27">[27]</a> Surviving the infection provides lifelong <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immunity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and normally results in no permanent organ damage.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16647971-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complication">Complication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Complication">edit</a>]</div> Yellow fever can lead to death for 20% to 50% of those who develop severe disease. Jaundice, fatigue, heart rhythm problems, seizures and internal bleeding may also appear as complications of yellow fever during recovery time.<a href="#cite_note-mayoclinic-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cause">Cause</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cause">edit</a>]</div> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)">Yellow fever virus </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Ijms-20-04657-g002.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ijms-20-04657-g002.webp/220px-Ijms-20-04657-g002.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ijms-20-04657-g002.webp/330px-Ijms-20-04657-g002.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Ijms-20-04657-g002.webp/440px-Ijms-20-04657-g002.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="2593" data-file-height="1339" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Flavivirus structure and genome </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(250,250,190)"><a href="/wiki/Virus_classification" title="Virus classification">Virus classification</a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Flavivirus" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>(unranked): </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Realm: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Riboviria" title="Riboviria">Riboviria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Orthornavirae" title="Orthornavirae">Orthornavirae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kitrinoviricota" title="Kitrinoviricota">Kitrinoviricota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flasuviricetes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Amarillovirales</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Family: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flaviviridae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genus: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Flavivirus" title="Flavivirus">Flavivirus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Species: </td> <td><div style="display:inline" class="species">Yellow fever virus</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> Yellow fever is caused by yellow fever virus (YFV), an enveloped <a href="/wiki/RNA_virus" title="RNA virus">RNA virus</a> 40–50 <abbr title="nanometer">nm</abbr> in width, the type species and namesake of the family <a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flaviviridae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindenbach2007-10">[10]</a> It was the first illness shown to be transmissible by filtered human serum and transmitted by mosquitoes, by American doctor <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a> around 1900.<a href="#cite_note-staples2008-32">[32]</a> The positive-<a href="/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)" title="Sense (molecular biology)">sense</a>, single-stranded <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> is around 10,862 <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a> long and has a single <a href="/wiki/Open_reading_frame" title="Open reading frame">open reading frame</a> encoding a <a href="/wiki/Polyprotein" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyprotein">polyprotein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a> <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a> cut this polyprotein into three structural (C, prM, E) and seven nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5); the enumeration corresponds to the arrangement of the protein coding <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18796313-34">[34]</a> Minimal YFV 3′UTR region is required for stalling of the host 5′-3′ exonuclease XRN1.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The UTR contains PKS3 pseudoknot structure, which serves as a molecular signal to stall the exonuclease and is the only viral requirement for subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) production.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The sfRNAs are a result of incomplete degradation of the viral genome by the exonuclease and are important for viral pathogenicity.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Yellow fever belongs to the group of <a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">hemorrhagic fevers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The viruses infect, amongst others, <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwann cells">Schwann cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a>. They attach to the cell surfaces via specific <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a> and are taken up by an endosomal <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Inside the <a href="/wiki/Endosome" title="Endosome">endosome</a>, the decreased pH induces the fusion of the endosomal membrane with the <a href="/wiki/Virus_envelope" class="mw-redirect" title="Virus envelope">virus envelope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Capsid" title="Capsid">capsid</a> enters the <a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">cytosol</a>, decays, and releases the genome.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Receptor binding, as well as membrane fusion, are <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalyzed</a> by the protein E, which changes its conformation at low pH, causing a rearrangement of the 90 homo<a href="/wiki/Protein_dimer" title="Protein dimer">dimers</a> to 60 homo<a href="/wiki/Protein_trimer" title="Protein trimer">trimers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18796313-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> After entering the host cell, the viral genome is replicated in the rough <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> (ER) and in the so-called vesicle packets.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> At first, an immature form of the virus particle is produced inside the ER, whose M-protein is not yet cleaved to its mature form, so is denoted as precursor M (prM) and forms a complex with protein E.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The immature particles are processed in the <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a> by the host protein <a href="/wiki/Furin" title="Furin">furin</a>, which cleaves prM to M.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> This releases E from the complex, which can now take its place in the mature, infectious <a href="/wiki/Virion" class="mw-redirect" title="Virion">virion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18796313-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission">Transmission</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transmission">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aedes_aegypti_bloodfeeding_CDC_Gathany.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aedes_aegypti_bloodfeeding_CDC_Gathany.jpg/220px-Aedes_aegypti_bloodfeeding_CDC_Gathany.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aedes_aegypti_bloodfeeding_CDC_Gathany.jpg/330px-Aedes_aegypti_bloodfeeding_CDC_Gathany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Aedes_aegypti_bloodfeeding_CDC_Gathany.jpg/440px-Aedes_aegypti_bloodfeeding_CDC_Gathany.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>Aedes aegypti feeding</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aedes_aegypti_E-A-Goeldi_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aedes_aegypti_E-A-Goeldi_1905.jpg/220px-Aedes_aegypti_E-A-Goeldi_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aedes_aegypti_E-A-Goeldi_1905.jpg/330px-Aedes_aegypti_E-A-Goeldi_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aedes_aegypti_E-A-Goeldi_1905.jpg/440px-Aedes_aegypti_E-A-Goeldi_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2924" data-file-height="2132" /></a><figcaption>Adults of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti: The male is on the left, females are on the right. Only the female mosquito bites humans to transmit the disease.</figcaption></figure> Yellow fever virus is mainly transmitted through the bite of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti, but other mostly <a href="/wiki/Aedes" title="Aedes">Aedes</a> mosquitoes such as the tiger mosquito (<a href="/wiki/Aedes_albopictus" title="Aedes albopictus">Aedes albopictus</a>) can also serve as a <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a> for this virus.<a href="#cite_note-Yellow_fever-46">[46]</a> Like other <a href="/wiki/Arbovirus" title="Arbovirus">arboviruses</a>, which are transmitted by mosquitoes, yellow fever virus is taken up by a female mosquito when it ingests the blood of an infected human or another primate.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-47">[47]</a> Viruses reach the stomach of the mosquito, and if the virus concentration is high enough, the virions can infect <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial cell">epithelial cells</a> and replicate there. From there, they reach the <a href="/wiki/Haemocoel" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemocoel">haemocoel</a> (the blood system of mosquitoes) and from there the <a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">salivary glands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> When the mosquito next sucks blood, it injects its saliva into the wound, and the virus reaches the bloodstream of the bitten person.<a href="#cite_note-Monath_Encyclopedia_of_Insects_Yellow_Fever-49">[49]</a> Transovarial transmissionial and <a href="/wiki/Transstadial_transmission" title="Transstadial transmission">transstadial transmission</a> of yellow fever virus within A. aegypti, that is, the transmission from a female mosquito to its eggs and then larvae, are indicated.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> This infection of vectors without a previous blood meal seems to play a role in single, sudden breakouts of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Three epidemiologically different infectious cycles occur<a href="#cite_note-Barr2007-16">[16]</a> in which the virus is transmitted from mosquitoes to humans or other primates.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In the "urban cycle", only the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is involved. It is well adapted to urban areas, and can also transmit other diseases, including <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The urban cycle is responsible for the major outbreaks of yellow fever that occur in Africa. Except for an outbreak in Bolivia in 1999, this urban cycle no longer exists in South America.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Besides the urban cycle, both in Africa and South America, a <a href="/wiki/Sylvatic_cycle" title="Sylvatic cycle">sylvatic cycle</a> (forest or jungle cycle) is present, where <a href="/wiki/Aedes_africanus" title="Aedes africanus">Aedes africanus</a> (in Africa) or mosquitoes of the genus <a href="/wiki/Haemagogus" title="Haemagogus">Haemagogus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabethes" title="Sabethes">Sabethes</a> (in South America) serve as vectors.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In the jungle, the mosquitoes infect mainly nonhuman primates; the disease is mostly asymptomatic in African primates.<a href="#cite_note-Monath_Encyclopedia_of_Insects_Yellow_Fever-49">[49]</a> In South America, the sylvatic cycle is currently the only way unvaccinated humans can become infected, which explains the low incidence of yellow fever cases on the continent.<a href="#cite_note-Yellow_fever-46">[46]</a> People who become infected in the jungle can carry the virus to urban areas, where A. aegypti acts as a vector. Because of this sylvatic cycle, yellow fever cannot be eradicated except by completely eradicating the mosquitoes that serve as vectors.<a href="#cite_note-Barr2007-16">[16]</a> In Africa, a third infectious cycle known as "savannah cycle" or intermediate cycle, occurs between the jungle and urban cycles.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Different mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are involved. In recent years, this has been the most common form of transmission of yellow fever in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2001-57">[57]</a> Concern exists about yellow fever spreading to southeast Asia, where its vector A. aegypti already occurs.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathogenesis">Pathogenesis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pathogenesis">edit</a>]</div> After transmission from a mosquito, the viruses replicate in the <a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">lymph nodes</a> and infect <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a> in particular. From there, they reach the liver and infect <a href="/wiki/Hepatocyte" title="Hepatocyte">hepatocytes</a> (probably indirectly via <a href="/wiki/Kupffer_cell" title="Kupffer cell">Kupffer cells</a>), which leads to <a href="/wiki/Eosinophil_granulocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Eosinophil granulocyte">eosinophilic degradation</a> of these cells and to the release of <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a>. Apoptotic masses known as <a href="/wiki/Councilman_body" title="Councilman body">Councilman bodies</a> appear in the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> of hepatocytes.<a href="#cite_note-Sherris-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Quaresma_2006-60">[60]</a> Fatality may occur when <a href="/wiki/Cytokine_storm" title="Cytokine storm">cytokine storm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">shock</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Multiple_organ_dysfunction_syndrome" title="Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome">multiple organ failure</a> follow.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18061688-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> Yellow fever is most frequently a clinical <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/Symptomatology" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptomatology">symptomatology</a> and travel history. Mild cases of the disease can only be confirmed virologically.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-47">[47]</a> Since mild cases of yellow fever can also contribute significantly to regional outbreaks, every suspected case of yellow fever (involving symptoms of fever, pain, nausea, and vomiting 6–10 days after leaving the affected area) is treated seriously.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-47">[47]</a> If yellow fever is suspected, the virus cannot be confirmed until 6–10 days following the illness. A direct confirmation can be obtained by <a href="/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction">reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction</a>, where the genome of the virus is amplified.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> Another direct approach is the isolation of the virus and its growth in cell culture using <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a>; this can take 1–4 weeks.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid17304460-13">[13]</a> Serologically, an <a href="/wiki/ELISA" title="ELISA">enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay</a> during the acute phase of the disease using specific <a href="/wiki/IgM" class="mw-redirect" title="IgM">IgM</a> against yellow fever or an increase in specific <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G" title="Immunoglobulin G">IgG</a> <a href="/wiki/Titer" title="Titer">titer</a> (compared to an earlier sample) can confirm yellow fever.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Together with clinical symptoms, the detection of IgM or a four-fold increase in IgG titer is considered sufficient indication for yellow fever. As these tests can cross-react with other flaviviruses, such as <a href="/wiki/Dengue_virus" title="Dengue virus">dengue virus</a>, these indirect methods cannot conclusively prove yellow fever infection.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Liver <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a> can verify <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> of hepatocytes and detect viral <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a>. Because of the bleeding tendency of yellow fever patients, a biopsy is only advisable post mortem to confirm the cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In a <a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">differential diagnosis</a>, infections with yellow fever must be distinguished from other feverish illnesses such as <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>. Other <a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ebola_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebola virus">Ebola virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lassa_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lassa virus">Lassa virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus" title="Marburg virus">Marburg virus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Junin_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Junin virus">Junin virus</a>, must be excluded as the cause.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> Personal prevention of yellow fever includes vaccination and avoidance of mosquito bites in areas where yellow fever is endemic.<a href="#cite_note-Yellow_fever-46">[46]</a> Institutional measures for prevention of yellow fever include vaccination programmes and measures to control mosquitoes. Programmes for distribution of mosquito nets for use in homes produce reductions in cases of both malaria and yellow fever. Use of EPA-registered insect repellent is recommended when outdoors. Exposure for even a short time is enough for a potential mosquito bite. Long-sleeved clothing, long pants, and socks are useful for prevention. The application of larvicides to water-storage containers can help eliminate potential mosquito breeding sites. EPA-registered insecticide spray decreases the transmission of yellow fever.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <ul><li>Use insect repellent when outdoors such as those containing <a href="/wiki/DEET" title="DEET">DEET</a>, <a href="/wiki/Picaridin" class="mw-redirect" title="Picaridin">picaridin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethyl_butylacetylaminopropionate" title="Ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate">ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate</a> (IR3535), or <a href="/wiki/Oil_of_lemon_eucalyptus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil of lemon eucalyptus">oil of lemon eucalyptus</a> on exposed skin.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></li> <li>Mosquitoes may bite through thin clothing, so spraying clothes with repellent containing <a href="/wiki/Permethrin" title="Permethrin">permethrin</a> or another EPA-registered repellent gives extra protection.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Clothing treated with permethrin is commercially available. Mosquito repellents containing permethrin are not approved for application directly to the skin.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li> <li>The peak biting times for many mosquito species are dusk to dawn. However, A. aegypti, one of the mosquitoes that transmit yellow fever virus, feeds during the daytime.<a href="#cite_note-Frequently_Asked_Questions-70">[70]</a> Staying in accommodations with screened or air-conditioned rooms, particularly during peak biting times, also reduces the risk of mosquito bites.<a href="#cite_note-Frequently_Asked_Questions-70">[70]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vaccination">Vaccination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vaccination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine" title="Yellow fever vaccine">Yellow fever vaccine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_fever_certificate.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Yellow_fever_certificate.JPG/170px-Yellow_fever_certificate.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Yellow_fever_certificate.JPG/255px-Yellow_fever_certificate.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Yellow_fever_certificate.JPG/340px-Yellow_fever_certificate.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1538" data-file-height="2326" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Carte_Jaune" class="mw-redirect" title="Carte Jaune">cover of a certificate</a> that confirms the holder has been vaccinated against yellow fever</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_fever_vaccination_travel_requirements_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Yellow_fever_vaccination_travel_requirements_map.svg/400px-Yellow_fever_vaccination_travel_requirements_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Yellow_fever_vaccination_travel_requirements_map.svg/600px-Yellow_fever_vaccination_travel_requirements_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Yellow_fever_vaccination_travel_requirements_map.svg/800px-Yellow_fever_vaccination_travel_requirements_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine" title="Yellow fever vaccine">Vaccination against yellow fever</a> 10 days before entering this country/territory is required for travellers coming from...<a href="#cite_note-WHO_country_list-71">[71]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  All countries</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Risk countries (including airport transfers)<a href="#cite_note-transit_explanation-72">[note 1]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Risk countries (excluding airport transfers)<a href="#cite_note-no_transit-73">[note 2]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  No requirement (risk country)<a href="#cite_note-ArBrPe-74">[note 3]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  No requirement (non-risk country)</div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> is recommended for those traveling to affected areas, because non-native people tend to develop more severe illness when infected. Protection begins by the 10th day after vaccine administration in 95% of people,<a href="#cite_note-pmid19520559-75">[72]</a> and had been reported to last for at least 10 years. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) now states that a single dose of vaccine is sufficient to confer lifelong immunity against yellow fever disease.<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> The attenuated live vaccine stem 17D was developed in 1937 by <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19520559-75">[72]</a> The WHO recommends routine vaccination for people living in affected areas between the 9th and 12th month after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> Up to one in four people experience fever, aches, and local soreness and redness at the site of injection.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> In rare cases (less than one in 200,000 to 300,000),<a href="#cite_note-pmid19520559-75">[72]</a> the vaccination can cause yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic disease, which is fatal in 60% of cases. It is probably due to the genetic morphology of the immune system. Another possible side effect is an infection of the nervous system, which occurs in one in 200,000 to 300,000 cases, causing yellow fever vaccine-associated neurotropic disease, which can lead to <a href="/wiki/Meningoencephalitis" title="Meningoencephalitis">meningoencephalitis</a> and is fatal in less than 5%<a href="#cite_note-pmid19520559-75">[72]</a> of cases.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18061688-26">[26]</a> The Yellow Fever Initiative, launched by the WHO in 2006, vaccinated more than 105 million people in 14 countries in West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> No outbreaks were reported during 2015. The campaign was supported by the <a href="/wiki/GAVI" title="GAVI">GAVI</a> alliance and governmental organizations in Europe and Africa.<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> According to the WHO, mass vaccination cannot eliminate yellow fever because of the vast number of infected mosquitoes in urban areas of the target countries, but it will significantly reduce the number of people infected.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_vaccination-80">[77]</a> Demand for yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine immunization programmes.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-81">[78]</a> Recent upsurges in yellow fever outbreaks in Angola (2015), the Democratic Republic of Congo (2016), Uganda (2016), and more recently in Nigeria and Brazil in 2017 have further increased demand, while straining global vaccine supply.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> Therefore, to vaccinate susceptible populations in preventive mass immunization campaigns during outbreaks, <a href="/wiki/Fractional_dose_vaccination" title="Fractional dose vaccination">fractional dosing</a> of the vaccine is being considered as a dose-sparing strategy to maximize limited vaccine supplies.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-81">[78]</a> Fractional dose yellow fever vaccination refers to administration of a reduced volume of vaccine dose, which has been reconstituted as per manufacturer recommendations.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid28596091-83">[80]</a> The first practical use of fractional dose yellow fever vaccination was in response to a large yellow fever outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in mid-2016.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-81">[78]</a> Available evidence shows that fractional dose yellow fever vaccination induces a level of immune response similar to that of the standard full dose.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31859201-84">[81]</a> In March 2017, the WHO launched a vaccination campaign in Brazil with 3.5 million doses from an emergency stockpile.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> In March 2017 the WHO recommended vaccination for travellers to certain parts of Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-Yellow_fever_–_Brazil-86">[83]</a> In March 2018, Brazil shifted its policy and announced it planned to vaccinate all 77.5 million currently unvaccinated citizens by April 2019.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compulsory_vaccination">Compulsory vaccination</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Compulsory vaccination">edit</a>]</div> Some countries in Asia are considered to be potentially in danger of yellow fever epidemics, as both mosquitoes with the capability to transmit yellow fever as well as susceptible monkeys are present.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> The disease does not yet occur in Asia. To prevent introduction of the virus, some countries demand previous vaccination of foreign visitors who have passed through yellow fever areas.<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> Vaccination has to be proved by a vaccination certificate, which is valid 10 days after the vaccination and lasts for 10 years. Although the WHO on 17 May 2013 advised that subsequent booster vaccinations are unnecessary, an older (than 10 years) certificate may not be acceptable at all border posts in all affected countries. A list of the countries that require yellow fever vaccination is published by the WHO.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_country_list-71">[71]</a> If the vaccination cannot be given for some reason, dispensation may be possible. In this case, an exemption certificate issued by a WHO-approved vaccination center is required. Although 32 of 44 countries where yellow fever occurs endemically do have vaccination programmes, in many of these countries, less than 50% of their population is vaccinated.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vector_control">Vector control</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vector control">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luchemos_todos_contra_el_dengue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Luchemos_todos_contra_el_dengue.jpg/220px-Luchemos_todos_contra_el_dengue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Luchemos_todos_contra_el_dengue.jpg/330px-Luchemos_todos_contra_el_dengue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Luchemos_todos_contra_el_dengue.jpg/440px-Luchemos_todos_contra_el_dengue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="1287" /></a><figcaption>Information campaign for prevention of <a href="/wiki/Dengue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue">dengue</a> and yellow fever in <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a></figcaption></figure> Control of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is of major importance, especially because the same mosquito can also transmit <a href="/wiki/Dengue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue">dengue</a> fever and <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a> disease.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> A. aegypti breeds preferentially in water, for example, in installations by inhabitants of areas with precarious drinking water supplies, or in domestic refuse, especially tires, cans, and plastic bottles. These conditions are common in urban areas in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a> Two main strategies are employed to reduce A. aegypti populations.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> One approach is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water accumulations in which the larvae develop. <a href="/wiki/Larvicide" title="Larvicide">Larvicides</a> are used, along with larvae-eating fish and <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a>, which reduce the number of larvae.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> For many years, copepods of the genus <a href="/wiki/Mesocyclops" title="Mesocyclops">Mesocyclops</a> have been used in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> for preventing dengue fever.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> This eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may prove effective against yellow fever. <a href="/wiki/Pyriproxyfen" title="Pyriproxyfen">Pyriproxyfen</a> is recommended as a chemical larvicide, mainly because it is safe for humans and effective in small doses.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> The second strategy is to reduce populations of the adult yellow fever mosquito. <a href="/wiki/Lethal_ovitrap" title="Lethal ovitrap">Lethal ovitraps</a> can reduce Aedes populations, using lesser amounts of pesticide because it targets the pest directly.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> Curtains and lids of water tanks can be sprayed with insecticides, but application inside houses is not recommended by the WHO.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> Insecticide-treated <a href="/wiki/Mosquito_net" title="Mosquito net">mosquito nets</a> are effective, just as they are against the <a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles</a> mosquito that carries malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> As with other Flavivirus infections, no cure is known for yellow fever. Hospitalization is advisable and intensive care may be necessary because of rapid deterioration in some cases. Certain acute treatment methods lack efficacy: <a href="/wiki/Passive_immunization" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive immunization">passive immunization</a> after the emergence of symptoms is probably without effect; <a href="/wiki/Ribavirin" title="Ribavirin">ribavirin</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antiviral drugs</a>, as well as treatment with <a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">interferons</a>, are ineffective in yellow fever patients.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18061688-26">[26]</a> Symptomatic treatment includes rehydration and pain relief with drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Paracetamol" title="Paracetamol">paracetamol</a> (acetaminophen). However, <a href="/wiki/Acetylsalicylic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetylsalicylic acid">aspirin</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Nonsteroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug" title="Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug">non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs</a> (NSAIDs) are often avoided because of an increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding due to their anticoagulant effects.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> Yellow fever is <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">common</a> in tropical and subtropical areas of South America and Africa.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Worldwide, about 600 million people live in endemic areas. The WHO estimates 200,000 cases of yellow fever worldwide each year.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> About 15% of people infected with yellow fever progress to a severe form of the illness, and up to half of those will die, as there is no cure for yellow fever.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_fever_Africa_2009.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Yellow_fever_Africa_2009.jpeg/260px-Yellow_fever_Africa_2009.jpeg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Yellow_fever_Africa_2009.jpeg/390px-Yellow_fever_Africa_2009.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Yellow_fever_Africa_2009.jpeg/520px-Yellow_fever_Africa_2009.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>Areas with risk of yellow fever in Africa (2017)</figcaption></figure> An estimated 90% of yellow fever infections occur on the African continent.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> In 2016, <a href="/wiki/2016_Angola_and_DR_Congo_yellow_fever_outbreak" title="2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak">a large outbreak originated in Angola</a> and spread to neighboring countries before being contained by a massive vaccination campaign.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> In March and April 2016, 11 imported cases of the Angola genotype in unvaccinated Chinese nationals were reported in China, the first appearance of the disease in Asia in recorded history.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">Phylogenetic</a> analysis has identified seven <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotypes</a> of yellow fever viruses, and they are assumed to be differently adapted to humans and to the vector A. aegypti. Five genotypes (Angola, Central/East Africa, East Africa, West Africa I, and West Africa II) occur only in Africa. West Africa genotype I is found in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and the surrounding region.<a href="#cite_note-Mutebi2002-104">[101]</a> West Africa genotype I appears to be especially infectious, as it is often associated with major outbreaks. The three genotypes found outside of Nigeria and Angola occur in areas where outbreaks are rare. Two outbreaks, in Kenya (1992–1993) and Sudan (2003 and 2005), involved the East African genotype, which had remained undetected in the previous 40 years.<a href="#cite_note-Ellis2008-105">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_fever_South_America_2009.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Yellow_fever_South_America_2009.jpeg/260px-Yellow_fever_South_America_2009.jpeg" decoding="async" width="260" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Yellow_fever_South_America_2009.jpeg/390px-Yellow_fever_South_America_2009.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Yellow_fever_South_America_2009.jpeg/520px-Yellow_fever_South_America_2009.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Areas with risk of yellow fever in South America (2018)</figcaption></figure> In South America, two genotypes have been identified (South American genotypes I and II).<a href="#cite_note-Barr2007-16">[16]</a> Based on phylogenetic analysis these two genotypes appear to have originated in West Africa<a href="#cite_note-Mutebi2004-106">[103]</a> and were first introduced into Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-Auguste2010-107">[104]</a> The date of introduction of the predecessor African genotype which gave rise to the South American genotypes appears to be 1822 (95% confidence interval 1701 to 1911).<a href="#cite_note-Auguste2010-107">[104]</a> The historical record shows an outbreak of yellow fever occurred in Recife, Brazil, between 1685 and 1690. The disease seems to have disappeared, with the next outbreak occurring in 1849.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> It was likely introduced with the trafficking of slaves through the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slave trade</a> from Africa. Genotype I has been divided into five subclades, A through E.<a href="#cite_note-deSouza2010-109">[106]</a> In late 2016, a large outbreak began in <a href="/wiki/Minas_Gerais" title="Minas Gerais">Minas Gerais</a> state of Brazil that was characterized as a sylvatic or jungle <a href="/wiki/Epizootic" title="Epizootic">epizootic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Faria2017-110">[107]</a> Real-time phylogenetic investigations at the epicentre of the outbreak revealed that the outbreak was caused by the introduction of a virus lineage from the Amazon region into the southeast region around July 2016,<a href="#cite_note-Faria2018-111">[108]</a> spreading rapidly across several neotropical monkey species, including <a href="/wiki/Brown_howler" title="Brown howler">brown howler</a> monkeys,<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> which serve as a <a href="/wiki/Sentinel_species" title="Sentinel species">sentinel species</a> for yellow fever. No cases had been transmitted between humans by the A. aegypti mosquito, which can sustain urban outbreaks that can spread rapidly. In April 2017, the sylvatic outbreak continued moving toward the Brazilian coast, where most people were unvaccinated.<a href="#cite_note-Yellow_fever_–_Brazil-86">[83]</a> By the end of May the outbreak appeared to be declining after more than 3,000 suspected cases, 758 confirmed and 264 deaths confirmed to be yellow fever.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> The Health Ministry launched a vaccination campaign and was concerned about spread during the <a href="/wiki/Carnival" title="Carnival">Carnival</a> season in February and March. The CDC issued a <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention#Travelers'_Health" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Level 2 alert (practice enhanced precautions.)</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a> A Bayesian analysis of genotypes I and II has shown that genotype I accounts for virtually all the current infections in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a>, while genotype II accounted for all cases in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mir2017-115">[112]</a> Genotype I originated in the northern Brazilian region around 1908 (95% highest posterior density interval [HPD]: 1870–1936). Genotype II originated in Peru in 1920 (95% HPD: 1867–1958).<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> The estimated rate of mutation for both genotypes was about 5 × 10−4 substitutions/site/year, similar to that of other RNA viruses.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> The main vector (A. aegypti) also occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, the Pacific, and Australia, but yellow fever had never occurred there until jet travel introduced 11 cases from the <a href="/wiki/2016_Angola_and_DR_Congo_yellow_fever_outbreak" title="2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak">2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak</a> in Africa. Proposed explanations include:<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> <ul><li>That the strains of the mosquito in the east are less able to transmit yellow fever virus.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>That immunity is present in the populations because of other diseases caused by related viruses (for example, <a href="/wiki/Dengue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue">dengue</a>).<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a></li> <li>That the disease was never introduced because the shipping trade was insufficient.</li></ul> But none is considered satisfactory.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> Another proposal is the absence of a slave trade to Asia on the scale of that to the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-Cathey2014-121">[118]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Atlantic_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Atlantic slave trade">trans-Atlantic slave trade</a> probably introduced yellow fever into the Western Hemisphere from Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Bryant2007-122">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_yellow_fever" title="History of yellow fever">History of yellow fever</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Early history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Affinerie_des_sucres_(1).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Affinerie_des_sucres_%281%29.JPG/220px-Affinerie_des_sucres_%281%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Affinerie_des_sucres_%281%29.JPG/330px-Affinerie_des_sucres_%281%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Affinerie_des_sucres_%281%29.JPG/440px-Affinerie_des_sucres_%281%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption>Sugar curing house, 1762: Sugar pots and jars on sugar plantations served as breeding place for larvae of A. aegypti, the vector of yellow fever.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_Fever_Deaths_Lafayette_Cemetery_1_New_Orleans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Yellow_Fever_Deaths_Lafayette_Cemetery_1_New_Orleans.jpg/220px-Yellow_Fever_Deaths_Lafayette_Cemetery_1_New_Orleans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Yellow_Fever_Deaths_Lafayette_Cemetery_1_New_Orleans.jpg/330px-Yellow_Fever_Deaths_Lafayette_Cemetery_1_New_Orleans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Yellow_Fever_Deaths_Lafayette_Cemetery_1_New_Orleans.jpg/440px-Yellow_Fever_Deaths_Lafayette_Cemetery_1_New_Orleans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Headstones of people who died in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_yellow_fever#Lower_Mississippi_Valley:_1878" title="History of yellow fever">yellow fever epidemic of 1878</a> can be found in New Orleans' cemeteries</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Biddle_to_Sec_Nav_Thompson_re_deaths_aboard_USS_Macedonian_3_August_1822_p_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/James_Biddle_to_Sec_Nav_Thompson_re_deaths_aboard_USS_Macedonian_3_August_1822_p_1.jpg/170px-James_Biddle_to_Sec_Nav_Thompson_re_deaths_aboard_USS_Macedonian_3_August_1822_p_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/James_Biddle_to_Sec_Nav_Thompson_re_deaths_aboard_USS_Macedonian_3_August_1822_p_1.jpg/255px-James_Biddle_to_Sec_Nav_Thompson_re_deaths_aboard_USS_Macedonian_3_August_1822_p_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/James_Biddle_to_Sec_Nav_Thompson_re_deaths_aboard_USS_Macedonian_3_August_1822_p_1.jpg/340px-James_Biddle_to_Sec_Nav_Thompson_re_deaths_aboard_USS_Macedonian_3_August_1822_p_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1348" data-file-height="2456" /></a><figcaption>A page from Commodore James Biddle's list of the 76 dead (74 of yellow fever) aboard the USS Macedonian, dated 3 August 1822</figcaption></figure> The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission of the disease from nonhuman primates to humans.<a href="#cite_note-pmid14696332-123">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> The virus is thought to have originated in East or Central Africa and spread from there to West Africa. As it was endemic in Africa, local populations had developed some immunity to it. When an outbreak of yellow fever would occur in an African community where colonists resided, most Europeans died, while the indigenous Africans usually developed nonlethal symptoms resembling <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Old2009-1">[1]</a> This phenomenon, in which certain populations develop immunity to yellow fever due to prolonged exposure in their childhood, is known as <a href="/wiki/Acquired_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Acquired immunity">acquired immunity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> The virus, as well as the vector A. aegypti, were probably transferred to North and South America with the trafficking of <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slaves</a> from Africa, part of the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a> following European exploration and colonization.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30158957-126">[123]</a> However, some researchers have argued that yellow fever might have existed in the Americas during the pre-Columbian period as mosquitoes of the genus Haemagogus, which is indigenous to the Americas, have been known to carry the disease.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> The first definitive outbreak of yellow fever in the New World was in 1647 on the island of <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mcneill-128">[125]</a> An outbreak was recorded by Spanish colonists in 1648 in the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous</a> <a href="/wiki/Mayan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan people">Mayan people</a> called the illness xekik ("blood vomit"). In 1685, Brazil suffered its first epidemic in <a href="/wiki/Recife" title="Recife">Recife</a>. The first mention of the disease by the name "yellow fever" occurred in 1744.<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> <ul><li>(John Mitchell) (1805) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ21Uy4-lb0C&pg=PA1">(Mitchell's account of the Yellow Fever in Virginia in 1741–2)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170223052443/https://books.google.com/books?id=kJ21Uy4-lb0C&pg=PA1">Archived</a> 2017-02-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Philadelphia Medical Museum, 1 (1) : 1–20.</li> <li>(John Mitchell) (1814) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_EZJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA181">"Account of the Yellow fever which prevailed in Virginia in the years 1737, 1741, and 1742, in a letter to the late Cadwallader Colden, Esq. of New York, from the late John Mitchell, M.D.F.R.S. of Virginia,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170223052456/https://books.google.com/books?id=_EZJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA181">Archived</a> 2017-02-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> American Medical and Philosophical Register, 4 : 181–215. The term "yellow fever" appears on p. 186. On p. 188, Mitchell mentions "... the distemper was what is generally called yellow fever in America." However, on pages 191–192, he states "... I shall consider the cause of the yellowness which is so remarkable in this distemper, as to have given it the name of the Yellow Fever. Unfortunately, Mitchell misidentified the cause of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pocketsinfo.com/yellow-fever/">yellow fever</a>, believing it was transmitted through "putrid miasma" in the air."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> However, Dr. Mitchell misdiagnosed the disease that he observed and treated, and the disease was probably Weil's disease or hepatitis.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> McNeill argues that the environmental and ecological disruption caused by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/History_of_sugar" title="History of sugar">sugar plantations</a> created the conditions for mosquito and viral reproduction, and subsequent outbreaks of yellow fever.<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> Deforestation reduced populations of insectivorous birds and other creatures that fed on mosquitoes and their eggs.<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a> In <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">Colonial times</a> and during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the West Indies were known as a particularly dangerous posting for soldiers due to yellow fever being endemic in the area.<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> The mortality rate in British garrisons in <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> was seven times that of garrisons in Canada, mostly because of yellow fever and other tropical diseases.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> Both English and French forces posted there were seriously affected by the "yellow jack."<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> Wanting to regain control of the lucrative sugar trade in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> (Hispaniola), and with an eye on regaining France's New World empire, Napoleon sent an army under the command of his brother-in-law General <a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">Charles Leclerc</a> to Saint-Domingue to seize control after a slave revolt.<a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> The historian J. R. McNeill asserts that yellow fever accounted for about 35,000 to 45,000 casualties of these forces during the fighting.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> Only one-third of the French troops survived for withdrawal and return to France. Napoleon gave up on the island and his plans for North America, selling the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> to the US in 1803. In 1804, <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> proclaimed its independence as the second republic in the Western Hemisphere.<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a> Considerable debate exists over whether the number of deaths caused by disease in the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> was exaggerated.<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a> Although yellow fever is most prevalent in tropical-like climates, the northern United States were not exempt from the fever. The first outbreak in English-speaking North America occurred in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> in 1668.<a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a> English colonists in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and the French in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippi River Valley">Mississippi River Valley</a> recorded major outbreaks in 1669, as well as additional yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia, <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, and New York City in the 18th and 19th centuries. The disease traveled along <a href="/wiki/Steamboat" title="Steamboat">steamboat</a> routes from New Orleans, causing some 100,000–150,000 deaths in total.<a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Fever_Epidemic_of_1793" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793">yellow fever epidemic of 1793</a> in Philadelphia, which was then the capital of the United States, resulted in the deaths of several thousand people, more than 9% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> One of these deaths was <a href="/wiki/James_Hutchinson_(physician)" title="James Hutchinson (physician)">James Hutchinson</a>, a physician helping to treat the population of the city. The <a href="/wiki/Relocation_of_the_United_States_Government_to_Trenton" title="Relocation of the United States Government to Trenton">national government fled</a> the city to Trenton, New Jersey, including President <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a> The southern city of <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> was plagued with major epidemics during the 19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853.<a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a> A major epidemic occurred in both New Orleans and <a href="/wiki/Shreveport,_Louisiana" title="Shreveport, Louisiana">Shreveport, Louisiana</a>, in 1873. Its residents called the disease "yellow jack". Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak affecting New Orleans.<a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barr2007-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a> At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the Americas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including particularly serious ones in <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Chile" title="Cartagena, Chile">Cartagena, Chile</a>, in 1741; Cuba in 1762 and 1900; <a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a> in 1803; and <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis, Tennessee</a>, in 1878.<a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> In the early 19th century, the prevalence of yellow fever in the Caribbean "led to serious health problems" and alarmed the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> as numerous deaths and sickness curtailed naval operations and destroyed morale.<a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a> One episode began in April 1822 when the frigate <a href="/wiki/HMS_Macedonian" title="HMS Macedonian">USS Macedonian</a> left <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> and became part of Commodore James Biddle's West India Squadron. Unbeknownst to all, they were about to embark on a cruise to disaster and their assignment "would prove a cruise through hell".<a href="#cite_note-Sharp_The_Disastrous_Voyage-149">[146]</a> Secretary of the Navy <a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Smith Thompson</a> had assigned the squadron to guard United States merchant shipping and suppress piracy.<a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a> During their time on deployment from 26 May to 3 August 1822, 76 of the Macedonian's officers and men died, including John Cadle, surgeon USN. Seventy-four of these deaths were attributed to yellow fever. Biddle reported that another 52 of his crew were on sick-list. In their report to the secretary of the Navy, Biddle and Surgeon's Mate Charles Chase stated the cause as "fever". As a consequence of this loss, Biddle noted that his squadron was forced to return to Norfolk Navy Yard early. Upon arrival, the Macedonian's crew were provided medical care and quarantined at <a href="/wiki/Craney_Island_(Virginia)" title="Craney Island (Virginia)">Craney Island, Virginia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sharp_The_Disastrous_Voyage-149">[146]</a> In 1853, <a href="/wiki/Cloutierville,_Louisiana" title="Cloutierville, Louisiana">Cloutierville, Louisiana</a>, had a late-summer outbreak of yellow fever that quickly killed 68 of the 91 inhabitants. A local doctor concluded that some unspecified infectious agent had arrived in a package from New Orleans.<a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a> In 1854, 650 residents of <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah, Georgia</a>, died from yellow fever.<a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a> In 1858, <a href="/wiki/St._Matthew%27s_German_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church" title="St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church">St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charleston, South Carolina</a>, had 308 yellow fever deaths, reducing the congregation by half.<a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a> A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads" title="Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a> in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> in June 1855.<a href="#cite_note-Virginia-157">[154]</a> The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of <a href="/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth,_Virginia" title="Portsmouth, Virginia">Portsmouth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[155]</a> In 1873, Shreveport, Louisiana, lost 759 citizens in an 80-day period to a yellow fever epidemic, with over 400 additional victims eventually succumbing. The total death toll from August through November was approximately 1,200.<a href="#cite_note-159">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a> In 1878, about 20,000 people died in a widespread <a href="/wiki/Lower_Mississippi_Valley_yellow_fever_epidemic_of_1878" title="Lower Mississippi Valley yellow fever epidemic of 1878">epidemic in the Mississippi River Valley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[158]</a> That year, Memphis had an unusually large amount of rain, which led to an increase in the mosquito population. The result was a huge epidemic of yellow fever.<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a> The steamship John D. Porter took people fleeing Memphis northward in hopes of escaping the disease, but passengers were not allowed to disembark due to concerns of spreading yellow fever. The ship roamed the Mississippi River for the next two months before unloading her passengers.<a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a> Major outbreaks have also occurred in southern Europe. <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> lost many lives to outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and 1828.<a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> suffered the loss of several thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. The <a href="/wiki/Armand-Emmanuel_de_Vignerot_du_Plessis,_Duc_de_Richelieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu">Duke de Richelieu</a> deployed 30,000 French troops to the border between <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrenees Mountains">Pyrenees Mountains</a>, to establish a <a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">cordon sanitaire</a> in order to prevent the epidemic from spreading from Spain into France.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-165">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causes_and_transmission">Causes and transmission</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Causes and transmission">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ezekiel_Stone_Wiggins" title="Ezekiel Stone Wiggins">Ezekiel Stone Wiggins</a>, known as the Ottawa Prophet, proposed that the cause of a yellow fever epidemic in <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida" title="Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville, Florida</a>, in 1888, was astrological.<a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The planets were in the same line as the sun and earth and this produced, besides Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc., a denser atmosphere holding more carbon and creating microbes. Mars had an uncommonly dense atmosphere, but its inhabitants were probably protected from the fever by their newly discovered <a href="/wiki/Mars_canals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars canals">canals</a>, which were perhaps made to absorb carbon and prevent the disease.<a href="#cite_note-167">[164]</a></blockquote> In 1848, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a> suggested that yellow fever was spread by insects such as moths or mosquitoes, basing his ideas on the pattern of transmission of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Finlay" title="Carlos Finlay">Carlos Finlay</a>, a Cuban-Spanish doctor and scientist, proposed in 1881 that yellow fever might be transmitted by previously infected <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a> rather than by direct contact from person to person, as had long been believed.<a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaves-Carballo_2005-170">[167]</a> Since the losses from yellow fever in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> in the 1890s were extremely high, U.S. Army doctors began research experiments with a team led by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a>, and composed of doctors <a href="/wiki/James_Carroll_(scientist)" title="James Carroll (scientist)">James Carroll</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristides_Agramonte" title="Aristides Agramonte">Aristides Agramonte</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jesse_William_Lazear" title="Jesse William Lazear">Jesse William Lazear</a>. They successfully proved Finlay's "mosquito hypothesis". Yellow fever was the first virus shown to be transmitted by mosquitoes. The physician <a href="/wiki/William_Gorgas" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gorgas">William Gorgas</a> applied these insights and eradicated yellow fever from <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>. He also campaigned against yellow fever during the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Panama_Canal" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a>. A previous effort of canal building by the French had failed in part due to mortality from the high incidence of yellow fever and malaria, which killed many workers.<a href="#cite_note-Barr2007-16">[16]</a> Although Reed has received much of the credit in United States history books for "beating" yellow fever, he had fully credited Finlay with the discovery of the yellow fever vector, and how it might be controlled. Reed often cited Finlay's papers in his own articles, and also credited him for the discovery in his personal correspondence.<a href="#cite_note-pierce-171">[168]</a> The acceptance of Finlay's work was one of the most important and far-reaching effects of the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission of 1900.<a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a> Applying methods first suggested by Finlay, the United States government and Army eradicated yellow fever in Cuba and later in Panama, allowing completion of the Panama Canal. While Reed built on the research of Finlay, historian François Delaporte notes that yellow fever research was a contentious issue. Scientists, including Finlay and Reed, became successful by building on the work of less prominent scientists, without always giving them the credit they were due.<a href="#cite_note-173">[170]</a> Reed's research was essential in the fight against yellow fever. He is also credited for using the first type of <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">medical consent</a> form during his experiments in Cuba, an attempt to ensure that participants knew they were taking a risk by being part of testing.<a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a> Like Cuba and Panama, Brazil also led a highly successful sanitation campaign against mosquitoes and yellow fever. Beginning in 1903, the campaign led by <a href="/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz" title="Oswaldo Cruz">Oswaldo Cruz</a>, then director general of public health, resulted not only in eradicating the disease but also in reshaping the physical landscape of Brazilian cities such as Rio de Janeiro.<a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a> During rainy seasons, Rio de Janeiro had regularly suffered floods, as water from the bay surrounding the city overflowed into Rio's narrow streets. Coupled with the poor drainage systems found throughout Rio, this created swampy conditions in the city's neighborhoods. Pools of stagnant water stood year-long in city streets and proved to be a fertile ground for disease-carrying mosquitoes. Thus, under Cruz's direction, public health units known as "mosquito inspectors" fiercely worked to combat yellow fever throughout Rio by spraying, exterminating rats, improving drainage, and destroying unsanitary housing. Ultimately, the city's sanitation and renovation campaigns reshaped Rio de Janeiro's neighborhoods. Its poor residents were pushed from city centers to Rio's suburbs, or to towns found in the outskirts of the city. In later years, Rio's most impoverished inhabitants would come to reside in <a href="/wiki/Favela" title="Favela">favelas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a> During 1920–1923, the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a>'s <a href="/wiki/International_Health_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="International Health Board">International Health Board</a> undertook an expensive and successful yellow fever eradication campaign in Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a> The IHB gained the respect of Mexico's federal government because of the success. The eradication of yellow fever strengthened the relationship between the US and Mexico, which had not been very good in the years prior. The eradication of yellow fever was also a major step toward better global health.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10501641-178">[175]</a> In 1927, scientists isolated the yellow fever virus in West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Bigon-179">[176]</a> Following this, two <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> were developed in the 1930s. <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a> led the completion of the 17D <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_vaccine" title="Yellow fever vaccine">yellow fever vaccine</a> in 1937, for which he was subsequently awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[177]</a> That vaccine, 17D, is still in use, although newer vaccines, based on <a href="/wiki/Vero_cell" title="Vero cell">vero cells</a>, are in development (as of 2018).<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIH-2016-181">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-ClinicalTrials-2018-182">[179]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Juan_Manuel_Blanes_Episodio_de_la_Fiebre_Amarilla.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A painting depicting yellow fever in Buenos Aires, 1871"><img alt="A painting depicting yellow fever in Buenos Aires, 1871" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Juan_Manuel_Blanes_Episodio_de_la_Fiebre_Amarilla.jpg/153px-Juan_Manuel_Blanes_Episodio_de_la_Fiebre_Amarilla.jpg" decoding="async" width="153" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Juan_Manuel_Blanes_Episodio_de_la_Fiebre_Amarilla.jpg/229px-Juan_Manuel_Blanes_Episodio_de_la_Fiebre_Amarilla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Juan_Manuel_Blanes_Episodio_de_la_Fiebre_Amarilla.jpg/306px-Juan_Manuel_Blanes_Episodio_de_la_Fiebre_Amarilla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5424" data-file-height="7087" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A painting depicting <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_in_Buenos_Aires" title="Yellow fever in Buenos Aires">yellow fever in Buenos Aires</a>, 1871</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Finlay_Carlos_1833-1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Carlos Finlay"><img alt="Carlos Finlay" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Finlay_Carlos_1833-1915.jpg/137px-Finlay_Carlos_1833-1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="137" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Finlay_Carlos_1833-1915.jpg/205px-Finlay_Carlos_1833-1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Finlay_Carlos_1833-1915.jpg/274px-Finlay_Carlos_1833-1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="850" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Finlay" title="Carlos Finlay">Carlos Finlay</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:WalterReed.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Walter Reed"><img alt="Walter Reed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg/155px-WalterReed.jpeg" decoding="async" width="155" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg/232px-WalterReed.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/WalterReed.jpeg/310px-WalterReed.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="581" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 195px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 190px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Theiler_nobel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Max Theiler"><img alt="Max Theiler" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Max_Theiler_nobel.jpg/141px-Max_Theiler_nobel.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Max_Theiler_nobel.jpg/212px-Max_Theiler_nobel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Max_Theiler_nobel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_status">Current status</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Current status">edit</a>]</div> Using vector control and strict vaccination programs, the urban cycle of yellow fever was nearly eradicated from South America.<a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a> Since 1943, only a single urban outbreak in <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Sierra" title="Santa Cruz de la Sierra">Santa Cruz de la Sierra</a>, Bolivia, has occurred. Since the 1980s, however, the number of yellow fever cases has been increasing again, and A. aegypti has returned to the urban centers of South America. This is partly due to limitations on available insecticides, as well as habitat dislocations caused by climate change. It is also because the vector control program was abandoned. Although no new urban cycle has yet been established, scientists believe this could happen again at any point. An outbreak in <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> in 2008 was thought to be urban in nature, but this ultimately proved not to be the case.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination.<a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a> These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break the <a href="/wiki/Sylvatic_cycle" title="Sylvatic cycle">sylvatic cycle</a> involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the future spread of the virus more likely.<a href="#cite_note-Toll2009-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> In the hamster model of yellow fever, early administration of the antiviral <a href="/wiki/Ribavirin" title="Ribavirin">ribavirin</a> is an effective treatment of many pathological features of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-Sbrana_2004-185">[182]</a> Ribavirin treatment during the first five days after virus infection improved survival rates, reduced tissue damage in the liver and <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>, prevented hepatocellular <a href="/wiki/Steatosis" title="Steatosis">steatosis</a>, and normalised levels of alanine aminotransferase, a liver damage marker. The mechanism of action of ribavirin in reducing liver pathology in yellow fever virus infection may be similar to its activity in treatment of <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a>, a related virus.<a href="#cite_note-Sbrana_2004-185">[182]</a> Because ribavirin had failed to improve survival in a virulent rhesus model of yellow fever infection, it had been previously discounted as a possible therapy.<a href="#cite_note-Huggins_1989-186">[183]</a> Infection was reduced in mosquitoes with the wMel strain of <a href="/wiki/Wolbachia" title="Wolbachia">Wolbachia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a> Yellow fever has been researched by several countries as a potential <a href="/wiki/Biological_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological weapon">biological weapon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Endicott1998-188">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-transit_explanation-72"><a href="#cite_ref-transit_explanation_72-0">^</a> Also required for travellers having transited (more than 12 hours) through a risk country's airport. </li> <li id="cite_note-no_transit-73"><a href="#cite_ref-no_transit_73-0">^</a> Not required for travellers having transited through a risk country's airport. </li> <li id="cite_note-ArBrPe-74"><a href="#cite_ref-ArBrPe_74-0">^</a> The WHO has designated (parts of) Argentina, Brazil and Peru as risk countries, but these countries do not require incoming travellers to vaccinate against yellow fever. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Old2009-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Old2009_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Old2009_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Old2009_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Old2009_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Old2009_1-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOldstone2020" class="citation book cs1">Oldstone, Michael B. 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Viruses, Plagues, and History. pp. 89–122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190056780.003.0005">10.1093/oso/9780190056780.003.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-005678-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-005678-0"><bdi>978-0-19-005678-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yellow+Fever&rft.btitle=Viruses%2C+Plagues%2C+and+History&rft.pages=89-122&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190056780.003.0005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-005678-0&rft.aulast=Oldstone&rft.aufirst=Michael+B.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazin2011" class="citation book cs1">Bazin H (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=orjaA_7sYZQC&pg=PA407">Vaccination: a history from Lady Montagu to genetic engineering</a>. 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New York: Chelsea House. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60413-254-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60413-254-0"><bdi>978-1-60413-254-0</bdi></a>. <q>The yellow fever virus was isolated in 1927</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=West+Nile+Virus&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Deadly+Diseases+%26+Epidemics&rft.pages=17&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Chelsea+House&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60413-254-0&rft.aulast=Sfakianos&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Hecht%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwpDaaFcFA3kC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlFact_Sheet_|_CDC_Yellow_Fever-19"><a href="#cite_ref-urlFact_Sheet_|_CDC_Yellow_Fever_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/symptoms/index.html">"CDC: Yellow fever—Symptoms and treatment"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120321164313/http://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/symptoms/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2012. 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NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mosquitoempirese00mcne/page/n63">44</a>–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mosquito+Empires%3A+Ecology+and+war+in+the+greater+Caribbean%2C+1620%E2%80%931914&rft.place=NY&rft.pages=44-45&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=JR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmosquitoempirese00mcne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid30158957-126"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid30158957_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChippauxChippaux2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chippaux JP, Chippaux A (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6109282">"Yellow fever in Africa and the Americas: a historical and epidemiological perspective"</a>. The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases. 24: 20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40409-018-0162-y">10.1186/s40409-018-0162-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6109282">6109282</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30158957">30158957</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Venomous+Animals+and+Toxins+Including+Tropical+Diseases&rft.atitle=Yellow+fever+in+Africa+and+the+Americas%3A+a+historical+and+epidemiological+perspective&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=20&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6109282%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30158957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40409-018-0162-y&rft.aulast=Chippaux&rft.aufirst=JP&rft.au=Chippaux%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6109282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson1994" class="citation journal cs1">Wilkinson, Robert L. (November 1994). "Yellow fever: Ecology, epidemiology, and role in the collapse of the Classic lowland Maya civilization". Medical Anthropology. 16 (1–4): 269–294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01459740.1994.9966118">10.1080/01459740.1994.9966118</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8643025">8643025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Yellow+fever%3A+Ecology%2C+epidemiology%2C+and+role+in+the+collapse+of+the+Classic+lowland+Maya+civilization&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=269-294&rft.date=1994-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01459740.1994.9966118&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8643025&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcneill-128"><a href="#cite_ref-mcneill_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill2004" class="citation journal cs1">McNeill, J. R. (April 2004). "Yellow Jack and Geopolitics: Environment, Epidemics, and the Struggles for Empire in the American Tropics, 1650-1825". OAH Magazine of History. 18 (3): 9–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmaghis%2F18.3.9">10.1093/maghis/18.3.9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OAH+Magazine+of+History&rft.atitle=Yellow+Jack+and+Geopolitics%3A+Environment%2C+Epidemics%2C+and+the+Struggles+for+Empire+in+the+American+Tropics%2C+1650-1825&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=9-13&rft.date=2004-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmaghis%2F18.3.9&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> The earliest mention of "yellow fever" appears in a manuscript of 1744 by <a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_(geographer)" title="John Mitchell (geographer)">Dr. John Mitchell</a> of Virginia; copies of the manuscript were sent to Mr. <a href="/wiki/Cadwallader_Colden" title="Cadwallader Colden">Cadwallader Colden</a>, a physician in New York, and to Dr. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a> of Philadelphia; the manuscript was eventually printed (in large part) in 1805 and reprinted in 1814. See: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7943142">"Dr. John Mitchell's Account of the Yellow Fever in Virginia in 1741-42, Written in 1748"</a>. Annals of Medical History. 6 (1): 91–92. January 1934. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7943142">7943142</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33944007">33944007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Medical+History&rft.atitle=Dr.+John+Mitchell%27s+Account+of+the+Yellow+Fever+in+Virginia+in+1741-42%2C+Written+in+1748&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=91-92&rft.date=1934-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7943142%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33944007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7943142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJarcho1957" class="citation journal cs1">Jarcho S (1957). 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Cowart, "Yellow Jack in Jacksonville, Yellow Fever visited Duval County, Florida, in 1888"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130105144757/http://historicaltextarchive.com/print.php?action=section&artid=781">Archived</a> 2013-01-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Historical Text Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Josiah C. Nott (1848) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044103099172;view=1up;seq=601">"Yellow Fever contrasted with Bilious Fever – Reasons for believing it a disease sui generis – Its mode of Propagation – Remote Cause – Probable insect or animalcular origin"</a>, The New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, "4" : 563–601. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Carlos Juan Finlay (presented: August 14, 1881; published: 1882) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cMMYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147">"El mosquito hipoteticamente considerado como agente de transmission de la fiebre amarilla"</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170223052838/https://books.google.com/books?id=cMMYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147">Archived</a> 2017-02-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) (The mosquito hypothetically considered as an agent in the transmission of yellow fever) Anales de la Real Academia de Ciencias Médicas, Físicas y Naturales de la Habana, 18 : 147–169. Available on-line in English at: <ul><li>Charles Finlay, with Rudolph Matas, translator (1881) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qd9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA601">"The mosquito hypothetically considered as an agent in the transmission of yellow fever poison,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170223042231/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qd9DAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA601">Archived</a> 2017-02-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal, 9 : 601–616.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deltaomega.org/documents/finlay.pdf">Delta Omega.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120509234452/http://www.deltaomega.org/documents/finlay.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-05-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chaves-Carballo_2005-170"><a href="#cite_ref-Chaves-Carballo_2005_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaves-Carballo2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chaves-Carballo E (October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7205%2Fmilmed.170.10.881">"Carlos Finlay and yellow fever: triumph over adversity"</a>. 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PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 6 (11): e1892. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0001892">10.1371/journal.pntd.0001892</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3486898">3486898</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23133693">23133693</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Neglected+Tropical+Diseases&rft.atitle=Impact+of+Wolbachia+on+infection+with+chikungunya+and+yellow+fever+viruses+in+the+mosquito+vector+Aedes+aegypti&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e1892&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3486898%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23133693&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0001892&rft.aulast=van+den+Hurk&rft.aufirst=AF&rft.au=Hall-Mendelin%2C+S&rft.au=Pyke%2C+AT&rft.au=Frentiu%2C+FD&rft.au=McElroy%2C+K&rft.au=Day%2C+A&rft.au=Higgs%2C+S&rft.au=O%27Neill%2C+SL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3486898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Endicott1998-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Endicott1998_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndicottHageman1998" class="citation book cs1">Endicott SL, Hageman E (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesbiol00endi">The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea</a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33472-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33472-5"><bdi>978-0-253-33472-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+States+and+Biological+Warfare%3A+Secrets+from+the+Early+Cold+War+and+Korea&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33472-5&rft.aulast=Endicott&rft.aufirst=SL&rft.au=Hageman%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funitedstatesbiol00endi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Yellow fever <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Yellow+fever">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Yellow+fever&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosby2006" class="citation book cs1">Crosby M (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanplagueun00cros_0">The American Plague: The Untold Story of Yellow Fever, the Epidemic that Shaped Our History</a>. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-425-21202-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-425-21202-8"><bdi>978-0-425-21202-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Plague%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+Yellow+Fever%2C+the+Epidemic+that+Shaped+Our+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Berkley+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-425-21202-8&rft.aulast=Crosby&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanplagueun00cros_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEspinosa2009" class="citation book cs1">Espinosa M (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XWYaZrgf-ZcC">Epidemic Invasions: Yellow Fever and the Limits of Cuban Independence, 1878–1930</a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-21811-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-21811-3"><bdi>978-0-226-21811-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epidemic+Invasions%3A+Yellow+Fever+and+the+Limits+of+Cuban+Independence%2C+1878%E2%80%931930&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-226-21811-3&rft.aulast=Espinosa&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXWYaZrgf-ZcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinlay2012" class="citation journal cs1">Finlay CJ (January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.37757%2FMR2012V14.N1.10">"The Mosquito Hypothetically Considered as the Transmitting Agent of Yellow Fever"</a>. MEDICC Review. 14 (1): 56–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.37757%2FMR2012V14.N1.10">10.37757/MR2012V14.N1.10</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34503309">34503309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MEDICC+Review&rft.atitle=The+Mosquito+Hypothetically+Considered+as+the+Transmitting+Agent+of+Yellow+Fever&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=56-59&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.37757%2FMR2012V14.N1.10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34503309&rft.aulast=Finlay&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.37757%252FMR2012V14.N1.10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGessner2016" class="citation book cs1">Gessner I (2016). Yellow Fever Years: An Epidemiology of Nineteenth-Century American Literature and Culture. Frankfurt on Main: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-67412-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-67412-3"><bdi>978-3-631-67412-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yellow+Fever+Years%3A+An+Epidemiology+of+Nineteenth-Century+American+Literature+and+Culture&rft.place=Frankfurt+on+Main&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-631-67412-3&rft.aulast=Gessner&rft.aufirst=I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarcourt-Smith1974" class="citation journal cs1">Harcourt-Smith S (1974). "'Yellow Jack': Caribbean Fever". History Today. 23 (9): 618–624.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=%27Yellow+Jack%27%3A+Caribbean+Fever&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=618-624&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Harcourt-Smith&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2003" class="citation book cs1">Murphy J (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/americanplaguetr00murp">An American Plague: The True and Terrifying Story of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793</a>. New York: Clarion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-77608-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-77608-7"><bdi>978-0-395-77608-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+American+Plague%3A+The+True+and+Terrifying+Story+of+the+Yellow+Fever+Epidemic+of+1793&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Clarion+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-395-77608-7&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famericanplaguetr00murp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNuwer2009" class="citation book cs1">Nuwer DS (2009). Plague Among the Magnolias: The 1878 Yellow Fever Epidemic in Mississippi. University of Alabama Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1653-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1653-2"><bdi>978-0-8173-1653-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plague+Among+the+Magnolias%3A+The+1878+Yellow+Fever+Epidemic+in+Mississippi&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-1653-2&rft.aulast=Nuwer&rft.aufirst=DS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Yellow_fever" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Yellow fever">Yellow fever</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a travel guide for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Yellow_fever#Q154874" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Yellow fever">Yellow fever</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/yellow_fever" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/yellow fever">yellow fever</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <div class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.8em 0.8em; width: 18.55em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 87%; clear: right; line-height:1.3em; background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;float:right;"><div style="float:left;"><a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Project_Med/App" title="meta:Wiki Project Med/App"><img alt="The offline app allows you to download all of Wikipedia's medical articles in an app to access them when you have no Internet." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/42px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/63px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/84px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="42" data-file-height="47" /></a></div><div style="float:left;width:6px;padding:1px;height:47px;"></div>Wikipedia's health care articles can be viewed offline with the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Project_Med/App" class="extiw" title="meta:Wiki Project Med/App">Medical Wikipedia app</a>.</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/yellowfever/">"U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission."</a> Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=11089">"Yellow fever virus"</a>. NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 11089.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NCBI+Taxonomy+Browser&rft.atitle=Yellow+fever+virus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2FTaxonomy%2FBrowser%2Fwwwtax.cgi%3Fmode%3DInfo%26id%3D11089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYellow+fever" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154874" class="extiw" title="d:Q154874">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#383352795">1D47</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/A95">A95</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=060">060</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015004">D015004</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb14203.htm">14203</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/SNOMED_CT" title="SNOMED CT">SNOMED CT</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://snomed.info/id/154345006">154345006</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001365.htm">001365</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/med/2432-overview">med/2432</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic645.htm#">emerg/645</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Zoonotic_viral_diseases_(A80–B34,_042–079)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Zoonotic_viral_diseases" title="Template:Zoonotic viral diseases"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Zoonotic_viral_diseases" title="Template talk:Zoonotic viral diseases"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Zoonotic_viral_diseases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Zoonotic viral diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Zoonotic_viral_diseases_(A80–B34,_042–079)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">viral diseases</a> (A80–B34, <a href="/wiki/042%E2%80%93079" class="mw-redirect" title="042–079">042–079</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropod -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Batai_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Batai virus">Batai virus</a> <ul><li>BATV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bwamba_orthobunyavirus" title="Bwamba orthobunyavirus">Bwamba Fever</a> <ul><li>BWAV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_encephalitis_orthobunyavirus" title="California encephalitis orthobunyavirus">California encephalitis</a> <ul><li>CEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamestown_Canyon_encephalitis" title="Jamestown Canyon encephalitis">Jamestown Canyon encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Crosse_encephalitis" title="La Crosse encephalitis">La Crosse encephalitis</a> <ul><li>LACV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahyna_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahyna virus">Tahyna virus</a> <ul><li>TAHV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tete_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tete virus">Tete virus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bunyamwera_orthobunyavirus" title="Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus">Bunyamwera fever</a> <ul><li>BUNV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngari_virus" title="Ngari virus">Ngari virus</a> <ul><li>NRIV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a> <ul><li>RVFV</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flaviviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis" title="Japanese encephalitis">Japanese encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese encephalitis virus">JEV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Valley_encephalitis_virus" title="Murray Valley encephalitis virus">Australian encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Valley_encephalitis_virus" title="Murray Valley encephalitis virus">MVEV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunjin_virus" title="Kunjin virus">KUNV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Louis_encephalitis" title="Saint Louis encephalitis">Saint Louis encephalitis</a> <ul><li>SLEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usutu_virus" title="Usutu virus">Usutu virus</a> <ul><li>USUV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nile_fever" title="West Nile fever">West Nile fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">WNV</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">Dengue fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dengue_virus" title="Dengue virus">DENV-1-4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yellow fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow fever virus">YFV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ZIKV" class="mw-redirect" title="ZIKV">ZIKV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Togaviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Togaviridae">Togaviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis" title="Eastern equine encephalitis">Eastern equine encephalomyelitis</a> <ul><li>EEEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Western equine encephalitis virus">Western equine encephalomyelitis</a> <ul><li>WEEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis</a> <ul><li>VEEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">Chikungunya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chikungunya_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chikungunya virus">CHIKV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27nyong%27nyong_virus" title="O'nyong'nyong virus">O'nyong'nyong fever</a> <ul><li>ONNV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogosta_disease" title="Pogosta disease">Pogosta disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sindbis_virus" title="Sindbis virus">Sindbis virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_River_fever" title="Ross River fever">Ross River fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ross_River_virus" title="Ross River virus">RRV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semliki_Forest_virus" title="Semliki Forest virus">Semliki Forest virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reoviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Reoviridae">Reoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banna_virus" title="Banna virus">Banna virus encephalitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease#Viral" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Congo_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever">Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever</a> (CCHFV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heartland_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Heartland virus">Heartland virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_fever_with_thrombocytopenia_syndrome" title="Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome">Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Huaiyangshan_banyangvirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaiyangshan banyangvirus">Huaiyangshan banyangvirus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tete_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tete virus">Tete virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bhanja_virus" title="Bhanja virus">Bhanja virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flaviviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis" title="Tick-borne encephalitis">Tick-borne encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis_virus" title="Tick-borne encephalitis virus">TBEV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powassan_encephalitis" title="Powassan encephalitis">Powassan encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powassan_virus" title="Powassan virus">POWV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Omsk_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Omsk hemorrhagic fever">Omsk hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li>OHFV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyasanur_Forest_disease" title="Kyasanur Forest disease">Kyasanur Forest disease</a> <ul><li>KFDV</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkhurma_virus" title="Alkhurma virus">AHFV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langat_virus" title="Langat virus">Langat virus</a> <ul><li>LGTV</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orthomyxoviridae" title="Orthomyxoviridae">Orthomyxoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_virus" title="Bourbon virus">Bourbon virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reoviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Reoviridae">Reoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_tick_fever" title="Colorado tick fever">Colorado tick fever</a> <ul><li>CTFV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemerovo_tickborne_viral_fever" title="Kemerovo tickborne viral fever">Kemerovo tickborne viral fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sandfly#Viruses" title="Sandfly">Sandfly -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adria_virus" title="Adria virus">Adria virus</a> (ADRV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oropouche_fever" title="Oropouche fever">Oropouche fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oropouche_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oropouche virus">Oropouche virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappataci_fever" title="Pappataci fever">Pappataci fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toscana_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Toscana virus">Toscana virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandfly_fever_Naples_phlebovirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandfly fever Naples phlebovirus">Sandfly fever Naples virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandipura_vesiculovirus" title="Chandipura vesiculovirus">Chandipura virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammal -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodent -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arenavirus" title="Arenavirus">Arenaviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lassa_fever" title="Lassa fever">Lassa fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lassa_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lassa virus">LASV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever">Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li>GTOV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Argentine hemorrhagic fever">Argentine hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentinian_mammarenavirus" title="Argentinian mammarenavirus">JUNV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Brazilian hemorrhagic fever">Brazilian hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Brazilian hemorrhagic fever">SABV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Bolivian hemorrhagic fever">Bolivian hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li>MACV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lujo_mammarenavirus" title="Lujo mammarenavirus">LUJV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapare_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapare virus">CHPV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus_hemorrhagic_fever_with_renal_syndrome" title="Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome">Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dobrava-Belgrade_orthohantavirus" title="Dobrava-Belgrade orthohantavirus">DOBV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hantaan_orthohantavirus" title="Hantaan orthohantavirus">HTNV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puumala_orthohantavirus" title="Puumala orthohantavirus">PUUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seoul_orthohantavirus" title="Seoul orthohantavirus">SEOV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_virus" title="Amur virus">AMRV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_virus" title="Thailand virus">THAIV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus_pulmonary_syndrome" title="Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome">Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andes_orthohantavirus" title="Andes orthohantavirus">ANDV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin_Nombre_orthohantavirus" title="Sin Nombre orthohantavirus">SNV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">Herpesviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murid_gammaherpesvirus_4" title="Murid gammaherpesvirus 4">Murid gammaherpesvirus 4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bat#Disease_transmission" title="Bat">Bat -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Filoviridae" title="Filoviridae">Filoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebola virus disease">Ebola virus disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundibugyo_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundibugyo virus">BDBV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudan virus">SUDV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%AF_Forest_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Taï Forest virus">TAFV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaire_ebolavirus" title="Zaire ebolavirus">ZEBOV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus_disease" title="Marburg virus disease">Marburg virus disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus" title="Marburg virus">MARV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravn_virus" title="Ravn virus">RAVV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">Rabies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_bat_lyssavirus" title="Australian bat lyssavirus">ABLV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokola_lyssavirus" title="Mokola lyssavirus">MOKV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duvenhage_lyssavirus" title="Duvenhage lyssavirus">DUVV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagos_bat_lyssavirus" title="Lagos bat lyssavirus">LBV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandipura_vesiculovirus" title="Chandipura vesiculovirus">CHPV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paramyxoviridae" title="Paramyxoviridae">Paramyxoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henipavirus" title="Henipavirus">Henipavirus encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hendra_virus" title="Hendra virus">HeV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus" title="Nipah virus">NiV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coronaviridae" title="Coronaviridae">Coronaviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome%E2%80%93related_coronavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle East respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus">MERS-CoV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS-related_coronavirus" title="SARS-related coronavirus">SARS-related coronavirus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus">SARS-CoV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primate -borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">Herpesviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B_virus" title="B virus">B virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">Retroviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simian_foamy_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Simian foamy virus">Simian foamy virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_1" title="Human T-lymphotropic virus 1">HTLV-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_2" title="Human T-lymphotropic virus 2">HTLV-2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Poxviridae" title="Poxviridae">Poxviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanapox" title="Tanapox">Tanapox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaba_monkey_tumor_virus" title="Yaba monkey tumor virus">Yaba monkey tumor virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple vectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">Rabies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabies_virus" title="Rabies virus">RABV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokola_lyssavirus" title="Mokola lyssavirus">Mokola virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Poxviridae" title="Poxviridae">Poxviridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monkeypox" class="mw-redirect" title="Monkeypox">Monkeypox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/19px-Sida-aids.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/29px-Sida-aids.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sida-aids.png/38px-Sida-aids.png 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="290" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Viruses" title="Portal:Viruses">Viruses</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Yellow fever virus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836749" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q836749">Q836749</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Yellow_fever_virus" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Yellow fever virus">Yellow fever virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/5CRFW">5CRFW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/541193">541193</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/10614052">10614052</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11461242">11461242</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=11089">11089</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154874#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154874#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154874#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1182653/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" 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