CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Pali - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"2b3aa255-c6e1-4a3f-98f6-447eb654c294","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Pali","wgTitle":"Pali","wgCurRevisionId":1258570057,"wgRevisionId":1258570057,"wgArticleId":38337,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from August 2023","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia external links cleanup from November 2024","Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup and no ISO hint","Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup from April 2019","Use dmy dates from July 2020","Use Indian English from May 2016","All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English", "Articles containing Pali-language text","Pages with undetermined IPA","Language articles with Linglist code","Languages with ISO 639-2 code","Languages with ISO 639-1 code","Extinct ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue","Pages with plain IPA","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015","All accuracy disputes","Articles with disputed statements from November 2013","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2023","Webarchive template wayback links","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Pali","Indo-Aryan languages","Classical Language in India","Sacred languages","Ancient languages","Languages written in Brahmic scripts"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Pali","wgRelevantArticleId":38337,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia", "wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q36727","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false, "wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init", "ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Pali - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Pali rootpage-Pali skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Pali" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Pali" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Pali" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Pali" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Origin and development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_and_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin and development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Geographic origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Manuscripts_and_inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manuscripts_and_inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Manuscripts and inscriptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manuscripts_and_inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Western_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Western_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Early Western research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Western_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Modern scholarship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emic_views_of_Pali" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emic_views_of_Pali"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>Emic views of Pali</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emic_views_of_Pali-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pali_today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pali_today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Pali today</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pali_today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pali_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pali_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Pali literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pali_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Relationship to other languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relationship_to_other_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relationship to other languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paiśācī" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paiśācī"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Paiśācī</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paiśācī-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ardha-Magadhi_Prakrit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ardha-Magadhi_Prakrit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ardha-Magadhi_Prakrit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magadhi_Prakrit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magadhi_Prakrit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Magadhi Prakrit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magadhi_Prakrit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexicon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Lexicon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nominal_inflection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nominal_inflection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Nominal inflection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nominal_inflection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-a-stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#a-stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>a-stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-a-stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ā-stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ā-stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>ā-stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ā-stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-i-stems_and_u-stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#i-stems_and_u-stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>i-stems and u-stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-i-stems_and_u-stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_analysis_of_a_Pali_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_analysis_of_a_Pali_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Linguistic analysis of a Pali text</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_analysis_of_a_Pali_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conversion_between_Sanskrit_and_Pali_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conversion_between_Sanskrit_and_Pali_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conversion_between_Sanskrit_and_Pali_forms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conversion_between_Sanskrit_and_Pali_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels_and_diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels_and_diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Vowels and diphthongs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels_and_diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sound_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Sound changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assimilations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assimilations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Assimilations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assimilations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_rules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_rules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2.1</span> <span>General rules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_rules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Total_assimilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Total_assimilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2.2</span> <span>Total assimilation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Total_assimilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regressive_assimilations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regressive_assimilations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2.2.1</span> <span>Regressive assimilations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regressive_assimilations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Progressive_assimilations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Progressive_assimilations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2.2.2</span> <span>Progressive assimilations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Progressive_assimilations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partial_and_mutual_assimilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partial_and_mutual_assimilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2.3</span> <span>Partial and mutual assimilation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partial_and_mutual_assimilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epenthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epenthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>Epenthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epenthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.4</span> <span>Other changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Exceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Writing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Writing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alphabet_with_diacritics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabet_with_diacritics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Alphabet with diacritics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabet_with_diacritics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transliteration_on_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transliteration_on_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Transliteration on computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transliteration_on_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Text_in_ASCII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Text_in_ASCII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Text in ASCII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Text_in_ASCII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Influence on other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>General sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pali</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">100 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पालि भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="पालि भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A_(%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9)" title="بالي (لغة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بالي (لغة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="পালি ভাষা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পালি ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_pali" title="Idioma pali – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma pali" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Pali" title="Basa Pali – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Pali" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="পালি ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পালি ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Пали теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Пали теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Палі (мова) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Палі (мова)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE" title="पालि भासा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पालि भासा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Пали – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Пали" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1l%C3%AD" title="Pálí – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pálí" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paali_keel" title="Paali keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Paali keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B9" title="Πάλι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πάλι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palia_lingvo" title="Palia lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Palia lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paliera" title="Paliera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Paliera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="زبان پالی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان پالی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Ph%C3%A1ilis" title="An Pháilis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Pháilis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81li" title="Pāli – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Pāli" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_pali" title="Lingua pali – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua pali" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AA%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF_%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%BE" title="પાલિ ભાષા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="પાલિ ભાષા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%94%EB%A6%AC%EC%96%B4" title="팔리어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="팔리어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पालि भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पालि भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_(jezik)" title="Pali (jezik) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pali (jezik)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="পালি ঠার – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="পালি ঠার" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Pali" title="Bahasa Pali – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Pali" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_pali" title="Lingua pali – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua pali" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_p%C4%81li" title="Lingua pāli – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua pāli" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99" title="פאלי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פאלי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Pali" title="Basa Pali – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Pali" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86" title="ಪಾಳಿ ಭಾಷೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪಾಳಿ ಭಾಷೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A1nung_P%C3%A1li" title="Amánung Páli – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Amánung Páli" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kipali" title="Kipali – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kipali" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Пали – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Пали" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B5" title="ພາສາປາລີ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາປາລີ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Palica" title="Lingua Palica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Palica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81li_valoda" title="Pāli valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pāli valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_(lingua)" title="Pali (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Pali (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1li_nyelv" title="Páli nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Páli nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_paly" title="Fiteny paly – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny paly" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF" title="പാലി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പാലി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पाली भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पाली भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89_(%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87)" title="بالى (لغه) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بالى (لغه)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="پالی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="پالی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Pali" title="Bahasa Pali – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Pali" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%A0%E1%80%AD" title="ပါဠိ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပါဠိ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_(taal)" title="Pali (taal) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pali (taal)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पाली भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पाली भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पालि भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पालि भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%91%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AA%E8%AA%9E" title="パーリ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="パーリ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paali" title="Paali – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Paali" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B3%E0%AC%BF_%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B7%E0%AC%BE" title="ପାଳି ଭାଷା – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପାଳି ଭାଷା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਪਾਲੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਾਲੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF_P%C4%81li" title="पालि Pāli – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="पालि Pāli" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="پالی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پالی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="پالي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پالي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B8" title="ភាសាបាលី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាបាលី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_pali" title="Lenga pali – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga pali" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_pali" title="Język pali – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język pali" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1li" title="Páli – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Páli" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_(Sprooch)" title="Pali (Sprooch) – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Pali (Sprooch)" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ripoarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_pali" title="Limba pali – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba pali" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Пали – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пали" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="पालिभाषा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="पालिभाषा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱯᱟᱞᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱟᱞᱤ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92" title="පාලි – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පාලි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A" title="پالي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پالي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1li_(jazyk)" title="Páli (jazyk) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Páli (jazyk)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%B5%DB%8C" title="زمانی پاڵی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی پاڵی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8_(%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Пали (језик) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пали (језик)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali_jezik" title="Pali jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pali jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paalin_kieli" title="Paalin kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Paalin kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Pali" title="Wikang Pali – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Pali" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF" title="பாளி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பாளி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Пали теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Пали теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B3%E0%B1%80_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="పాళీ భాష – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పాళీ భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5" title="ภาษาบาลี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาบาลี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pali" title="Pali – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Pali" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Палі (мова) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Палі (мова)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C_(%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86)" title="پالی (زبان) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="پالی (زبان)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Pali" title="Tiếng Pali – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Pali" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%88%A9%E6%96%87" title="巴利文 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="巴利文" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%88%A9%E6%96%87" title="巴利文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="巴利文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD" title="巴利语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="巴利语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q36727#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Pali" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pali"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pali"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Pali" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Pali" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&oldid=1258570057" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Pali&id=1258570057&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPali"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPali"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Pali&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pali_language" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wiktionary mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:About_Pali" hreflang="en"><span>Wiktionary</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q36727" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indo-European language native to the Indian subcontinent</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Bali_language_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bali language (disambiguation)">Bali language (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-External_links plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-external_links" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b>use of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a> may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_mirror_or_a_repository_of_links,_images,_or_media_files" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">inappropriate</a> external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">footnote references</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Nigerian language, see <a href="/wiki/Pali_language_(Chadic)" title="Pali language (Chadic)">Pali language (Chadic)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Pali_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Pali (disambiguation)">Pali (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should <b>specify the language</b> of its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2019</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Pali-Magadhi</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Brah">𑀧𑀸𑀮𑀺</span></span></li> <li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Khar" dir="rtl">𐨤𐨫𐨁</span></span></li> <li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Khmr">បាលី</span></span></li> <li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Mymr">ပါဠိ</span></span></li> <li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Lana">ᨷᩤᩊᩦ</span></span></li> <li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Thai">บาลี</span></span></li> <li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Sinh">පාලි</span></span></li> <li><span title="Pali-language text"><span lang="pi-Deva">पालि</span></span></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Pāḷi</i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Burmese_Kammavaca_Manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Burmese_Kammavaca_Manuscript.jpg/200px-Burmese_Kammavaca_Manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Burmese_Kammavaca_Manuscript.jpg/300px-Burmese_Kammavaca_Manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Burmese_Kammavaca_Manuscript.jpg/400px-Burmese_Kammavaca_Manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="250" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Burmese <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscripts" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm-leaf manuscripts">Kammavaca manuscript</a> written in Pali using the Burmese script</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[paːli]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">3rd century BCE – present<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Eastern Indo-Aryan languages">Māgadhan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Pali-Magadhi</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma script">Dhamma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devan%C4%81gar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Devanāgarī">Devanāgarī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kharo%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADh%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharoṣṭhī">Kharoṣṭhī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mon-Burmese_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon-Burmese script">Mon-Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham" class="mw-redirect" title="Tai Tham">Tai Tham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a> and transliteration to the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=pi">pi</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=360">pli</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/pli" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:pli">pli</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/pli">pli</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/pali1273">pali1273</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Pāli</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>), also known as <b>Pali-Magadhi</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Classical_languages_of_India" title="Classical languages of India">classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle Indo-Aryan</a> language on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist <i><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pāli Canon</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tipiṭaka</a></i> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">sacred language</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stargardt_2000,_page_25_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stargardt_2000,_page_25-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pali is designated as a <a href="/wiki/Classical_languages_of_India" title="Classical languages of India">classical language</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government of India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_development">Origin and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word 'Pali' is used as a name for the language of the Theravada canon. The word seems to have its origins in commentarial traditions, wherein the <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">Pāli</i></span> (in the sense of the line of original text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or vernacular translation that followed it in the manuscript.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/K._R._Norman" title="K. R. Norman">K. R. Norman</a> suggests that its emergence was based on a misunderstanding of the compound <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">pāli-bhāsa</i></span>, with <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">pāli</i></span> being interpreted as the name of a particular language.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> </p><p>The name Pali does not appear in the canonical literature, and in commentary literature is sometimes substituted with <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">tanti</i></span>, meaning a string or lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> This name seems to have emerged in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> early in the second millennium CE during a resurgence in the use of Pali as a courtly and literary language.<sup id="cite_ref-grammar_kingship_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grammar_kingship-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> </p><p>As such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also varies, being found with both long "ā" <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑː]</span> and short "a" <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span>, and also with either a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex lateral approximant">voiced retroflex lateral approximant</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɭ]</span> or non-retroflex <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> "l" sound. Both the long ā and retroflex <span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">ḷ</i></span> are seen in the <a href="/wiki/ISO_15919" title="ISO 15919">ISO 15919</a>/<a href="/wiki/ALA-LC" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC">ALA-LC</a> rendering, <b><span title="Pali-language romanization"><i lang="pi-Latn">Pāḷi</i></span></b>; however, to this day there is no single, standard spelling of the term, and all four possible spellings can be found in textbooks. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caesar_Childers" title="Robert Caesar Childers">R. C. Childers</a> translates the word as "series" and states that the language "bears the epithet in consequence of the perfection of its grammatical structure".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geographic_origin">Geographic origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Geographic origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is persistent confusion as to the relation of <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Pāḷi</span></span> to the vernacular spoken in the ancient kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a>, which was located in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>. Beginning in the Theravada commentaries, Pali was identified with '<a href="/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit" title="Magadhi Prakrit">Magadhi</a>', the language of the kingdom of Magadha, and this was taken to also be the language that the Buddha used during his life.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 19th century, the British <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">Orientalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caesar_Childers" title="Robert Caesar Childers">Robert Caesar Childers</a> argued that the true or geographical name of the Pali language was <a href="/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit" title="Magadhi Prakrit">Magadhi Prakrit</a>, and that because <i>pāḷi</i> means "line, row, series", the early Buddhists extended the meaning of the term to mean "a series of books", so <i>pāḷibhāsā</i> means "language of the texts".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, modern scholarship has regarded Pali as a mix of several <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> languages from around the 3rd century BCE, combined and partially Sanskritized.<sup id="cite_ref-Bhikkhu_Bodhi_2005,_page_10_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bhikkhu_Bodhi_2005,_page_10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no attested dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan with all the features of Pali.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> In the modern era, it has been possible to compare Pali with inscriptions known to be in Magadhi Prakrit, as well as other texts and grammars of that language.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While none of the existing sources specifically document pre-Ashokan Magadhi, the available sources suggest that Pali is not equatable with that language.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern scholars generally regard Pali to have originated from a western dialect, rather than an eastern one.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pali has some commonalities with both the western <a href="/wiki/Ashoka%27s_Major_Rock_Edicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashoka's Major Rock Edicts">Ashokan Edicts</a> at <a href="/wiki/Girnar" title="Girnar">Girnar</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_(region)" title="Saurashtra (region)">Saurashtra</a>, and the Central-Western Prakrit found in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Hathigumpha_inscription" title="Hathigumpha inscription">Hathigumpha inscription</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> These similarities lead scholars to associate Pali with this region of western India.<sup id="cite_ref-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, Pali does retain some eastern features that have been referred to as <i>Māgadhisms</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gethin2008_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gethin2008-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pāḷi, as a <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle Indo-Aryan language</a>, is different from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</a> more with regard to its dialectal base than the time of its origin. A number of its <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> and lexical features show that it is not a direct continuation of <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Ṛgvedic</span></span></a> Sanskrit. Instead it descends from one or more dialects that were, despite many similarities, different from <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Ṛgvedic</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burmese_Kammavaca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Burmese_Kammavaca.jpg/220px-Burmese_Kammavaca.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Burmese_Kammavaca.jpg/330px-Burmese_Kammavaca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Burmese_Kammavaca.jpg/440px-Burmese_Kammavaca.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2960" data-file-height="2856" /></a><figcaption>19th century Burmese Kammavācā (confession for Buddhist monks), written in Pali on gilded palm leaf</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a> commentaries refer to the Pali language as "<a href="/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit" title="Magadhi Prakrit">Magadhan</a>" or the "language of Magadha".<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> This identification first appears in the commentaries, and may have been an attempt by Buddhists to associate themselves more closely with the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, only some of the Buddha's teachings were delivered in the historical territory of <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars consider it likely that he taught in several closely related dialects of Middle Indo-Aryan, which had a high degree of mutual intelligibility. </p><p>Theravada tradition, as recorded in chronicles like the <a href="/wiki/Mahavamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavamsa">Mahavamsa</a>, states that the <i>Tipitaka</i> was first committed to writing during the first century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> This move away from the previous tradition of oral preservation is described as being motivated by threats to the <i><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></i> from famine, war, and the growing influence of the rival tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Abhayagiri_Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhayagiri Vihara">Abhayagiri Vihara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> This account is generally accepted by scholars, though there are indications that Pali had already begun to be recorded in writing by this date.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> By this point in its history, scholars consider it likely that Pali had already undergone some initial assimilation with <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, such as the conversion of the Middle-Indic <i>bahmana</i> to the more familiar Sanskrit <i>brāhmana</i> that contemporary <a href="/wiki/Brahmans" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmans">brahmans</a> used to identify themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6">: 6 </span></sup> </p><p>In Sri Lanka, Pali is thought to have entered into a period of decline ending around the 4th or 5th century (as Sanskrit rose in prominence, and simultaneously, as Buddhism's adherents became a smaller portion of the subcontinent), but ultimately survived. The work of Buddhaghosa was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly language in Buddhist thought. The <i><a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a></i>, and the other commentaries that Buddhaghosa compiled, codified and condensed the Sinhala commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century BCE.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>With only a few possible exceptions, the entire corpus of Pali texts known today is believed to derive from the <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura_Maha_Viharaya" title="Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya">Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya</a> in Sri Lanka.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While literary evidence exists of Theravadins in mainland India surviving into the 13th century, no Pali texts specifically attributable to this tradition have been recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some texts (such as the <a href="/wiki/Milindapanha" class="mw-redirect" title="Milindapanha">Milindapanha</a>) may have been composed in India before being transmitted to Sri Lanka, but the surviving versions of the texts are those preserved by the Mahavihara in Ceylon and shared with monasteries in Theravada Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest inscriptions in Pali found in mainland Southeast Asia are from the first millennium CE, some possibly dating to as early as the 4th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inscriptions are found in what are now Burma, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia and may have spread from southern India rather than Sri Lanka.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 11th century, a so-called "Pali renaissance" began in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">Pagan</a>, gradually spreading to the rest of mainland Southeast Asia as royal dynasties sponsored monastic lineages derived from the <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura_Maha_Viharaya" title="Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya">Mahavihara of Anuradhapura</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This era was also characterized by the adoption of Sanskrit conventions and poetic forms (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Kavya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kavya">kavya</a></i>) that had not been features of earlier Pali literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Gornall_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gornall-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process began as early as the 5th century, but intensified early in the second millennium as Pali texts on poetics and composition modeled on Sanskrit forms began to grow in popularity.<sup id="cite_ref-Gornall_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gornall-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One milestone of this period was the publication of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Subodhalankara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Subodhalankara (page does not exist)">Subodhalankara</a> during the 14th century, a work attributed to Sangharakkhita Mahāsāmi and modeled on the Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Kavyadarsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kavyadarsa">Kavyadarsa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gornall_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gornall-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peter Masefield devoted considerable research to a form of Pali known as Indochinese Pali or 'Kham Pali'. Up until now, this has been considered a degraded form of Pali, But Masefield states that further examination of a very considerable corpus of texts will probably show that this is an internally consistent Pali dialect. The reason for the changes is that some combinations of characters are difficult to write in those scripts. Masefield further states that upon the third re-introduction of Theravada Buddhism into Sri Lanka (The Siyamese Sect), records in Thailand state that large number of texts were also taken. It seems that when the monastic ordination died out in Sri Lanka, many texts were lost also. Therefore the Sri Lankan Pali canon had been translated first into Indo-Chinese Pali, and then back again into Pali.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite an expansion of the number and influence of Mahavihara-derived monastics, this resurgence of Pali study resulted in no production of any new surviving literary works in Pali.<sup id="cite_ref-Collins_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this era, correspondences between royal courts in Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia were conducted in Pali, and grammars aimed at speakers of Sinhala, Burmese, and other languages were produced.<sup id="cite_ref-grammar_kingship_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grammar_kingship-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emergence of the term 'Pali' as the name of the language of the Theravada canon also occurred during this era.<sup id="cite_ref-grammar_kingship_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grammar_kingship-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manuscripts_and_inscriptions">Manuscripts and inscriptions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Manuscripts and inscriptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">Palm-leaf manuscript</a></div> <p>While Pali is generally recognized as an ancient language, no epigraphical or manuscript evidence has survived from the earliest eras.<sup id="cite_ref-analayo_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-analayo-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-skilling_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest samples of Pali discovered are inscriptions believed to date from 5th to 8th century located in mainland Southeast Asia, specifically central <a href="/wiki/Siam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siam">Siam</a> and lower <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-skilling_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These inscriptions typically consist of short excerpts from the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> and non-canonical texts, and include several examples of the <a href="/wiki/Ye_Dharma_Hetu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ye Dharma Hetu">Ye dhamma hetu</a> verse.<sup id="cite_ref-skilling_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest surviving Pali manuscript was discovered in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> dating to the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-skilling_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is in the form of four <a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">palm-leaf</a> folios, using <a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">a transitional script</a> deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta script</a> to scribe a fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Cullavagga" class="mw-redirect" title="Cullavagga">Cullavagga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest known manuscripts from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to the 13th–15th century, with few surviving examples.<sup id="cite_ref-skilling_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Very few manuscripts older than 400 years have survived, and complete manuscripts of the four <a href="/wiki/Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikaya">Nikayas</a> are only available in examples from the 17th century and later.<sup id="cite_ref-analayo_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-analayo-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Western_research">Early Western research</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early Western research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pali was first mentioned in Western literature in <a href="/wiki/Simon_de_la_Loub%C3%A8re" title="Simon de la Loubère">Simon de la Loubère</a>'s descriptions of his travels in the kingdom of Siam.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early grammar and dictionary was published by Methodist missionary Benjamin Clough in 1824, and an initial study published by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Burnouf" title="Eugène Burnouf">Eugène Burnouf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Lassen" title="Christian Lassen">Christian Lassen</a> in 1826 (<i>Essai sur le Pali, ou Langue sacrée de la presqu'île au-delà du Gange</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first modern Pali-English dictionary was published by Robert Childers in 1872 and 1875.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_hist_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict_hist-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">Pali Text Society</a>, English Pali studies grew rapidly and Childer's dictionary became outdated.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_hist_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict_hist-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planning for a new dictionary began in the early 1900s, but delays (including the outbreak of World War I) meant that work was not completed until 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_hist_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict_hist-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/T._W._Rhys_Davids" class="mw-redirect" title="T. W. Rhys Davids">T. W. Rhys Davids</a> in his book <i>Buddhist India</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Geiger" title="Wilhelm Geiger">Wilhelm Geiger</a> in his book <i>Pāli Literature and Language</i>, suggested that Pali may have originated as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> or common language of culture among people who used differing dialects in North India, used at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> and employed by him. Another scholar states that at that time it was "a refined and elegant vernacular of all Aryan-speaking people".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern scholarship has not arrived at a consensus on the issue; there are a variety of conflicting theories with supporters and detractors.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the death of the Buddha, Pali may have evolved among Buddhists out of the language of the Buddha as a new artificial language.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> R. C. Childers, who held to the theory that Pali was Old Magadhi, wrote: "Had Gautama never preached, it is unlikely that Magadhese would have been distinguished from the many other vernaculars of Hindustan, except perhaps by an inherent grace and strength which make it a sort of <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan</a> among the Prakrits."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_scholarship">Modern scholarship</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern scholarship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/K._R._Norman" title="K. R. Norman">K. R. Norman</a>, differences between different texts within the canon suggest that it contains material from more than a single dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> He also suggests it is likely that the <a href="/wiki/Viharas" class="mw-redirect" title="Viharas">viharas</a> in North India had separate collections of material, preserved in the local dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> In the early period it is likely that no degree of translation was necessary in communicating this material to other areas. Around the time of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> there had been more linguistic divergence, and an attempt was made to assemble all the material.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> It is possible that a language quite close to the Pali of the canon emerged as a result of this process as a compromise of the various dialects in which the earliest material had been preserved, and this language functioned as a lingua franca among Eastern Buddhists from then on.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> Following this period, the language underwent a small degree of Sanskritisation (i.e., MIA bamhana > brahmana, tta > tva in some cases).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Bodhi" title="Bhikkhu Bodhi">Bhikkhu Bodhi</a>, summarizing the current state of scholarship, states that the language is "closely related to the language (or, more likely, the various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke". He goes on to write: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Scholars regard this language as a hybrid showing features of several Prakrit dialects used around the third century BCE, subjected to a partial process of Sanskritization. While the language is not identical to what Buddha himself would have spoken, it belongs to the same broad language family as those he might have used and originates from the same conceptual matrix. This language thus reflects the thought-world that the Buddha inherited from the wider Indian culture into which he was born, so that its words capture the subtle nuances of that thought-world.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Bhikkhu Bodhi<sup id="cite_ref-Bhikkhu_Bodhi_2005,_page_10_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bhikkhu_Bodhi_2005,_page_10-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">A. K. Warder</a>, the Pali language is a Prakrit language used in a region of <a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">Western India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Warder,_A._K._2000._p._284_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warder,_A._K._2000._p._284-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warder associates Pali with the Indian realm (<i><a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">janapada</a></i>) of <a href="/wiki/Avanti_(India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avanti (India)">Avanti</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Sthavira_nik%C4%81ya" title="Sthavira nikāya">Sthavira nikāya</a> was centered.<sup id="cite_ref-Warder,_A._K._2000._p._284_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warder,_A._K._2000._p._284-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the initial split in the <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist community</a>, the Sthavira nikāya became influential in Western and <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> branch became influential in Central and <a href="/wiki/East_India" title="East India">East India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Akira Hirakawa and Paul Groner also associate Pali with Western India and the Sthavira nikāya, citing the Saurashtran inscriptions, which are linguistically closest to the Pali language.<sup id="cite_ref-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emic_views_of_Pali">Emic views of Pali</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Emic views of Pali"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although Sanskrit was said in the <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmanical</a> tradition to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods in which each word had an inherent significance, such views for any language was not shared in the early Buddhist traditions, in which words were only conventional and mutable signs.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view of language naturally extended to Pali and may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of Sanskrit. However, by the time of the compilation of the Pali commentaries (4th or 5th century), Pali was described by the anonymous authors as the natural language, the root language of all beings.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p><p>Comparable to <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Ancient Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">mystic traditions of the West</a>, Pali recitations were often thought to have a <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pali <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>dhāraṇī</span></span>s</a> used as charms, as, for example, against the bite of snakes. Many people in Theravada cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pali has a special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the recitation of the vows of <a href="/wiki/Angulimala" class="mw-redirect" title="Angulimala"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Aṅgulimāla</span></span></a> are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in Sri Lanka. In Thailand, the chanting of a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Abhidhammapiṭaka</span></span></a> is believed to be beneficial to the recently departed, and this ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days. There is nothing in the latter text that relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pali_today">Pali today</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pali today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pali died out as a literary language in mainland India in the fourteenth century but survived elsewhere until the eighteenth.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today Pali is studied mainly to gain access to Buddhist scriptures, and is frequently chanted in a ritual context. The secular literature of Pali historical chronicles, medical texts, and inscriptions is also of great historical importance. The great centres of Pali learning remain in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and other Theravada nations of Southeast Asia: <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>. Since the 19th century, various societies for the revival of Pali studies in India have promoted awareness of the language and its literature, including the <a href="/wiki/Maha_Bodhi_Society" title="Maha Bodhi Society">Maha Bodhi Society</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dhammapala</a>. </p><p>In Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">Pali Text Society</a> has been a major force in promoting the study of Pali by Western scholars since its founding in 1881. Based in the United Kingdom, the society publishes romanized Pali editions, along with many English translations of these sources. In 1869, the first <i>Pali Dictionary</i> was published using the research of Robert Caesar Childers, one of the founding members of the Pali Text Society. It was the first Pali translated text in English and was published in 1872. Childers' dictionary later received the <a href="/wiki/Volney_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Volney Prize">Volney Prize</a> in 1876. </p><p>The Pali Text Society was founded in part to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to Indology in late 19th-century England and the rest of the UK; incongruously, the citizens of the UK were not nearly so robust in Sanskrit and Prakrit language studies as Germany, Russia, and even <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>. Even without the inspiration of colonial holdings such as the former British occupation of Sri Lanka and Burma, institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/Danish_Royal_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Danish Royal Library">Danish Royal Library</a> have built up major collections of Pali manuscripts, and major traditions of Pali studies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pali_literature">Pali literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pali literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali literature</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Pali literature</a> is usually divided into canonical and non-canonical or extra-canonical texts.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Canonical texts include the whole of the <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tipitaka</a></i>. With the exception of three books placed in the <a href="/wiki/Khuddaka_Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuddaka Nikaya">Khuddaka Nikaya</a> by only the Burmese tradition, these texts (consisting of the five <a href="/wiki/Nikaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikaya">Nikayas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka">Sutta Pitaka</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vinaya_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinaya Pitaka">Vinaya Pitaka</a>, and the books of the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma Pitaka">Abhidhamma Pitaka</a>) are traditionally accepted as containing the words of the Buddha and his immediate disciples by the Theravada tradition. </p><p>Extra-canonical texts can be divided into several categories: </p> <ul><li>Commentaries (<i><a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">Atthakatha</a></i>) which record additional details and explanations regarding the contents of the Suttas.</li> <li>Sub-commentaries (<i><a href="/wiki/Sub-commentaries_(Therav%C4%81da)" title="Sub-commentaries (Theravāda)">ṭīkā</a></i>) which explain and add contents to the commentaries</li> <li>Chronicles (<i><a href="/wiki/Va%E1%B9%83sa" title="Vaṃsa">Vaṃsa</a></i>) which relate the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, as well as the origins of famous relics and shrines and the deeds of historical and mythical kings</li> <li>Manuals and treatises, which include summaries of canonical books and compendia of teachings and techniques like the <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a> manuals, which explain the contents of the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma Pitaka">Abhidhamma Pitaka</a></li></ul> <p>Other types of texts present in Pali literature include works on grammar and poetics, medical texts, astrological and <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> texts, cosmologies, and anthologies or collections of material from the canonical literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman_6-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the majority of works in Pali are believed to have originated with the Sri Lankan tradition and then spread to other Theravada regions, some texts may have other origins. The <a href="/wiki/Milinda_Panha" title="Milinda Panha">Milinda Panha</a> may have originated in northern India before being translated from Sanskrit or <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_Prakrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhari Prakrit">Gandhari Prakrit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also a number of texts that are believed to have been composed in Pali in Sri Lanka, Thailand and Burma but were not widely circulated. This regional Pali literature is currently relatively little known, particularly in the Thai tradition, with many manuscripts never catalogued or published.<sup id="cite_ref-skilling_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-skilling-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_other_languages">Relationship to other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Relationship to other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paiśācī"><span id="Pai.C5.9B.C4.81c.C4.AB"></span>Paiśācī</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Paiśācī"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paishachi" title="Paishachi">Paishachi</a></div> <p><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Paisaci" class="mw-redirect" title="Paisaci">Paiśācī</a></i></span> is a largely <a href="/wiki/Unattested" class="mw-redirect" title="Unattested">unattested</a> literary language of classical India that is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> and Sanskrit grammars of antiquity. It is found grouped with the Prakrit languages, with which it shares some linguistic similarities, but was not considered a spoken language by the early grammarians because it was understood to have been purely a literary language.<sup id="cite_ref-Konow_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konow-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In works of Sanskrit poetics such as <a href="/wiki/Da%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Din" title="Daṇḍin">Daṇḍin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Kavyadarsha" title="Kavyadarsha">Kavyadarsha</a></i>, it is also known by the name of <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Bhūtabhāṣā</i></span>, an epithet which can be interpreted as 'dead language' (i.e., with no surviving speakers), or <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">bhūta</i></span> means past and <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">bhāṣā</i></span> means language i.e. 'a language spoken in the past'. Evidence which lends support to this interpretation is that literature in Paiśācī is fragmentary and extremely rare but may once have been common. </p><p>The 13th-century Tibetan historian <a href="/wiki/Buton_Rinchen_Drub" title="Buton Rinchen Drub">Buton Rinchen Drub</a> wrote that the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a> were separated by choice of <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">sacred language</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghikas</a> used Prakrit, the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivādins</a> used Sanskrit, the <a href="/wiki/Sthavira_nik%C4%81ya" title="Sthavira nikāya">Sthaviravādins</a> used Paiśācī, and the Saṃmitīya used <a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This observation has led some scholars to theorize connections between Pali and Paiśācī; <a href="/wiki/Sten_Konow" title="Sten Konow">Sten Konow</a> concluded that it may have been an Indo-Aryan language spoken by <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Dravidian people">Dravidian people</a> in South India, and Alfred Master noted a number of similarities between surviving fragments and Pali morphology.<sup id="cite_ref-Konow_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konow-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Master_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Master-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ardha-Magadhi_Prakrit">Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ardhamagadhi_Prakrit" title="Ardhamagadhi Prakrit">Ardhamagadhi Prakrit</a></div> <p>Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar & Eastern Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was originally thought to be a predecessor of the vernacular Magadhi Prakrit, hence the name (literally "half-Magadhi"). Ardhamāgadhī was prominently used by Jain scholars and is preserved in the Jain Agamas.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ardhamagadhi Prakrit differs from later Magadhi Prakrit in similar ways to Pali, and was often believed to be connected with Pali on the basis of the belief that Pali recorded the speech of the Buddha in an early Magadhi dialect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magadhi_Prakrit">Magadhi Prakrit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Magadhi Prakrit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit" title="Magadhi Prakrit">Magadhi Prakrit</a></div> <p>Magadhi Prakrit was a <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle Indic language</a> spoken in present-day Bihar, and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Its use later expanded southeast to include some regions of modern-day Bengal, Odisha, and Assam, and it was used in some Prakrit dramas to represent vernacular dialogue. Preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit are from several centuries after the theorized lifetime of the Buddha, and include inscriptions attributed to <a href="/wiki/Asoka_Maurya" class="mw-redirect" title="Asoka Maurya">Asoka Maurya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Differences observed between preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit and Pali lead scholars to conclude that Pali represented a development of a northwestern dialect of Middle Indic, rather than being a continuation of a language spoken in the area of <a href="/wiki/Magadha_(Mahajanapada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magadha (Mahajanapada)">Magadha</a> in the time of the Buddha. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexicon">Lexicon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Lexicon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nearly every word in Pāḷi has <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> in the other Middle Indo-Aryan languages, the <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrits</a>. The relationship to <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a> is less direct and more complicated; the Prakrits were descended from <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages#Old_Indo-Aryan" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Old Indo-Aryan vernaculars</a>. Historically, influence between Pali and Sanskrit has been felt in both directions. The Pali language's resemblance to Sanskrit is often exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions—which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to be a living language, and are influenced by developments in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Indic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Indic">Middle Indic</a>, including the direct borrowing of a portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pali technical terminology has been borrowed from the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Post-canonical Pali also possesses a few loan-words from local languages where Pali was used (e.g. Sri Lankans adding Sinhala words to Pali). These usages differentiate the Pali found in the <a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Suttapiṭaka</span></span></a> from later compositions such as the Pali commentaries on the canon and folklore (e.g., commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Jataka_tales" title="Jataka tales">Jataka tales</a>), and comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized field unto itself.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Pali was not exclusively used to convey the teachings of the Buddha, as can be deduced from the existence of a number of secular texts, such as books of medical science/instruction, in Pali. However, scholarly interest in the language has been focused upon religious and philosophical literature, because of the unique window it opens on one phase in the development of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Height </th> <th colspan="4">Backness </th></tr> <tr> <th>Front </th> <th>Central </th> <th>Back </th></tr> <tr> <th>High </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨i⟩</span><br /><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ī⟩</span> </td> <td style="background:silver"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨u⟩</span><br /><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ū⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mid </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨e⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨a⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>, <span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨o⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Low </th> <td style="background:silver"> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ā⟩</span> </td> <td style="background:silver"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Vowels may be divided in two different ways: </p> <ol><li><ol><li>pure vowels: <i>a, ā, e, o</i></li> <li>sonant vowels: <i>i, ī, u, ū</i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></li> <li> <ol><li>vowels short by nature: <i>a, i, u</i></li> <li>vowels long by nature: <i>ā, ī, ū</i></li> <li>vowels of variable length: <i>e, o</i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></li></ol> <p>Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short. Short and long <b>e</b> and <b>o</b> are in complementary distribution: the short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long variants occur only in open syllables. Short and long <b>e</b> and <b>o</b> are therefore not distinct phonemes. </p><p><i>e</i> and <i>o</i> are long in an open syllable: at the end of a syllable as in [ne-tum̩] เนตุํ 'to lead' or [so-tum̩] โสตุํ 'to hear'.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are short in a closed syllable: when followed by a consonant with which they make a syllable as in [upek-khā] 'indifference' or [sot-thi] 'safety'.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>e</i> appears for <i>a</i> before doubled consonants: </p> <dl><dd><i>seyyā</i> = Skt. <i>śayyā</i> 'bed'</dd> <dd><i>pheggu</i> = Skt. <i>phaigu</i> 'empty, worthless'<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The vowels ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are lengthened in the flexional endings including: <i>-īhi, -ūhi and -īsu</i><sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A sound called <i><a href="/wiki/Anusvara" title="Anusvara">anusvāra</a></i> (Skt.; Pali: <i><a href="/wiki/Anusvara" title="Anusvara">niggahīta</a></i>), represented by the letter <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>ṁ</span></span></b> (ISO 15919) or <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>ṃ</span></span></b> (ALA-LC) in romanization, and by a raised dot in most traditional alphabets, originally marked the fact that the preceding vowel was nasalized. That is, <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>aṁ</span></span></b>, <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>iṁ</span></span></b> and <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>uṁ</span></span></b> represented <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ã]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ĩ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ũ]</span>. In many traditional pronunciations, however, the anusvāra is pronounced more strongly, like the velar nasal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ]</span>, so that these sounds are pronounced instead <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ãŋ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ĩŋ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ũŋ]</span>. However pronounced, <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>ṁ</span></span></b> never follows a long vowel; <b>ā, ī</b> and <b>ū</b> are converted to the corresponding short vowels when <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>ṁ</span></span> is added to a stem ending in a long vowel, e.g. <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>kathā + ṁ</span></span></b> becomes <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>kathaṁ</span></span></b>, not <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>*kathāṁ</span></span>, <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>devī + ṁ</span></span></b> becomes <b><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>deviṁ</span></span></b>, not *<span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>devīṁ</span></span>. </p><p><b>Changes of vowels due to the structure of the word</b> </p><p><b>Final vowels</b> </p><p>The final consonants of the Sanskrit words have been dropped in Pali and thus all the words end in a vowel or in a nasal vowel: <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">kāntāt</i></span> -> kantā 'from the loved one<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>; <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">kāntāṃ</i></span> -> <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">kantaṃ</i></span> 'the loved one<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> </p><p>The final vowels were usually weak in pronunciation and hence they were shortened: <i>akārsit -> akāsi 'he did'.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:0_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroflex">Retroflex</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-alveolar</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨m⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨n⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_nasal" title="Voiced retroflex nasal">ɳ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ṇ⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ñ⟩</span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ṅ⟩</span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a></small> </th> <th><small>unaspirated</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨p⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨t⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ṭ⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨k⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ph⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨th⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">ʈʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ṭh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʃʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ch⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨kh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small> <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <th><small>unaspirated</small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨b⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨d⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiced retroflex plosive">ɖ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ḍ⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">bʱ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨bh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">dʱ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨dh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">ɖʱ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ḍh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">dʒʱ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨jh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">ɡʱ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨gh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨s⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨h⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_approximant" title="Voiced labiodental approximant">ʋ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨v⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨r⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨l⟩</span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex lateral approximant">ɭ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ḷ⟩</span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>lateral <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">ɭʱ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ḷh⟩</span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Among the labial consonants, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʋ]</span> is <a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">labiodental</a> and the rest are <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">bilabial</a>. Among the dental/alveolar consonants, the majority is dental but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> are <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a>. </p><p>Of the sounds listed above only the three consonants in parentheses, <b>ṅ</b>, <b>ḷ</b>, and <b>ḷh</b>, are not distinct <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> in Pali: <b>ṅ</b> only occurs before velar stops, while <b>ḷ</b> and <b>ḷh</b> are <a href="/wiki/Intervocalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Intervocalic">intervocalic</a> <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> of single <b>ḍ</b> and <b>ḍh</b>. </p><p>In the Pali language, the consonants may be divided according to their strength or power of resistance. The strength decreases in the order of: <i>mutes, sibilant, nasals, l, v, y, r</i> </p><p>When two consonants come together, they are subject to one of the following change: </p> <ol><li>they are <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(phonology)" title="Assimilation (phonology)">assimilated</a> to each other</li> <li>they are first adapted and then assimilated to each other</li> <li>they give rise to a new consonant group</li> <li>they separated by the insertion of an <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic vowel</a></li> <li>they are sometimes interchanged by <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a><sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Aspirate consonants </p><p>when one of the two consonants is the sibilant s, then the new group of consonants has the aspiration in the last consonant: <i>as-ti (root: √as) > atthi</i> 'is' </p><p>the sibilant s, followed by a nasal, is changed to h and then it is transposed after the nasal (metathesis): <i>akas-ma > akah-ma > akamha</i> 'we did'<sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Alternation between <i>y</i> and <i>v</i></b> </p><p>Pali v appears for Skr. y. For instance, <i>āvudha -> āyudha</i> 'weapon'; <i>kasāva -> kasāya</i> 'dirt, sin'. After the svarabhakti-vowel I there appear v instead of y as in <i>praṭyamsa -> pativimsa.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Alternation between <i>r</i> and <i>l</i></b> </p><p>Representation of <i>r</i> by <i>l</i> is very common in Pali, and in Pkr. it is the rule for Magadhi, although this substitution occurs sporadically also in other dialect. This, initially, in <i>lūjjati -> rūjyate 'falls apart<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>; sometimes both forms with l and r occur in Skr.: <i>lūkha -> lūksa, rūksa 'gross, bad<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i><sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pali is a highly inflected language, in which almost every word contains, besides the root conveying the basic meaning, one or more affixes (usually suffixes) which modify the meaning in some way. Nouns are inflected for gender, number, and case; verbal inflections convey information about person, number, tense and mood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nominal_inflection">Nominal inflection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nominal inflection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pali nouns inflect for three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical genders</a> (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and two numbers (singular and plural). The nouns also, in principle, display eight <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a> or <i>paccatta</i> case, <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> or <i>upayoga</i> case, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> or <i><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>karaṇa</span></span></i> case, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> or <i>sampadāna</i> case, <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> or <i>sāmin</i> case, and <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a> or <i>bhumma</i> case; however, in many instances, two or more of these cases are identical in form; this is especially true of the genitive and dative cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="a-stems">a-stems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: a-stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>a-stems, whose uninflected stem ends in short <i>a</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>), are either masculine or neuter. The masculine and neuter forms differ only in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Masculine (<i>loka-</i> "world") </th> <th colspan="2">Neuter (<i>yāna-</i> "carriage") </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>loko</td> <td rowspan="2">lokā</td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>yānaṁ</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3">yānāni </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>loka </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>lokaṁ</span></span></td> <td>loke </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>lokena</td> <td rowspan="2">lokehi (lokebhi)</td> <td>yānena</td> <td rowspan="2">yānehi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>lokā (lokamhā, lokasmā; lokato)</td> <td>yānā (yānamhā, yānasmā; yānato) </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>lokassa (lokāya)</td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>lokānaṁ</span></span></td> <td>yānassa (yānāya)</td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>yānānaṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>lokassa</td> <td>yānassa </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>loke (<span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>lokasmiṁ, lokamhi</span></span>)</td> <td>lokesu</td> <td>yāne (<span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>yānasmiṁ, yānamhi</span></span>)</td> <td>yānesu </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ā-stems"><span id=".C4.81-stems"></span>ā-stems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: ā-stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nouns ending in ā (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aː/</span>) are almost always feminine. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Feminine (<i>kathā-</i> "story") </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>kathā</td> <td rowspan="3">kathāyo </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>kathe </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>kathaṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td rowspan="4">kathāya</td> <td rowspan="2">kathāhi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td rowspan="2"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>kathānaṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>kathāya, <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>kathāyaṁ</span></span></td> <td>kathāsu </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="i-stems_and_u-stems">i-stems and u-stems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: i-stems and u-stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>i-stems and u-stems are either masculine or neuter. The masculine and neuter forms differ only in the nominative and accusative cases. The vocative has the same form as the nominative. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Masculine (<i>isi-</i> "seer") </th> <th colspan="2">Neuter (<i>akkhi-</i> "eye") </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td rowspan="2">isi</td> <td rowspan="3">isayo, isī</td> <td rowspan="3">akkhi, <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>akkhiṁ</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3">akkhī, akkhīni </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>isiṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>isinā</td> <td rowspan="2">isihi, isīhi</td> <td>akkhinā</td> <td rowspan="2">akkhihi, akkhīhi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>isinā, isito</td> <td>akkhinā, akkhito </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>isino</td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>isinaṁ, isīnaṁ</span></span></td> <td>akkhino</td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>akkhinaṁ, akkhīnaṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>isissa, isino</td> <td>akkhissa, akkhino </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>isismiṁ</span></span></td> <td>isisu, isīsu</td> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>akkhismiṁ</span></span></td> <td>akkhisu, akkhīsu </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Masculine (<i>bhikkhu-</i> "monk") </th> <th colspan="2">Neuter (<i>cakkhu-</i> "eye") </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td rowspan="2">bhikkhu</td> <td rowspan="3">bhikkhavo, bhikkhū</td> <td rowspan="3"><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>cakkhu, cakkhuṁ</span></span></td> <td rowspan="3">cakkhūni </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>bhikkhuṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td rowspan="2">bhikkhunā</td> <td rowspan="2">bhikkhūhi</td> <td rowspan="2">cakkhunā</td> <td rowspan="2">cakkhūhi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>bhikkhuno</td> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>bhikkhūnaṁ</span></span></td> <td>cakkhuno</td> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>cakkhūnaṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>bhikkhussa, bhikkhuno</td> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>bhikkhūnaṁ, bhikkhunnaṁ</span></span></td> <td>cakkhussa, cakkhuno</td> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>cakkhūnaṁ, cakkhunnaṁ</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>bhikkhusmiṁ</span></span></td> <td>bhikkhūsu</td> <td><span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>cakkhusmiṁ</span></span></td> <td>cakkhūsu </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic_analysis_of_a_Pali_text">Linguistic analysis of a Pali text</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Linguistic analysis of a Pali text"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div><span title="Pali-language text"><i lang="pi">Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā, manoseṭṭhā manomayā;</i></span></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Mano-pubbaṅ-gam-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Mind-before-going-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dhamm-ā,</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)#Dharmas_in_Buddhist_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">dharma</a>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mano-seṭṭh-ā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mind-foremost-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mano-may-ā;</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mind-made-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Mano-pubbaṅ-gam-ā dhamm-ā, mano-seṭṭh-ā mano-may-ā;</p><p style="display: none;">Mind-before-going-M.PL.NOM <a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)#Dharmas_in_Buddhist_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">dharma</a>-M.PL.NOM, mind-foremost-M.PL.NOM mind-made-M.PL.NOM</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div><span title="Pali-language text"><i lang="pi">Manasā ce paduṭṭhena, bhāsati vā karoti vā,</i></span></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Manas-ā=ce</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Mind-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="neuter gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr>=if</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">paduṭṭh-ena,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">corrupted-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="neuter gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bhāsa-ti=vā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">speak-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>=either</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">karo-ti=vā,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">act-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>=or,</p></div><p style="display: none;">Manas-ā=ce paduṭṭh-ena, bhāsa-ti=vā karo-ti=vā,</p><p style="display: none;">Mind-N.SG.INST=if corrupted-N.SG.INST speak-3.SG.PRES=either act-3.SG.PRES=or,</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div><span title="Pali-language text"><i lang="pi">Tato naṁ dukkhaṁ anveti, cakkaṁ'va vahato padaṁ.</i></span></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Ta-to</p><p style="margin: 0px;">That-from</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">naṁ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">him</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dukkhaṁ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">suffering</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">anv-e-ti,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">after-go-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr>,</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cakkaṁ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wheel</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">'va</p><p style="margin: 0px;">as</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vahat-o</p><p style="margin: 0px;">carrying(beast)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="genitive case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">GEN</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pad-aṁ.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">foot-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="neuter gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">N</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Ta-to naṁ dukkhaṁ anv-e-ti, cakkaṁ 'va vahat-o pad-aṁ.</p><p style="display: none;">That-from him suffering after-go-3.SG.PRES, wheel as carrying(beast)-M.SG.GEN foot-N.SG.ACC</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>The three compounds in the first line literally mean: </p> <dl><dd><b><span title="Pali-language text"><i lang="pi">manopubbaṅgama</i></span></b> "whose precursor is mind", "having mind as a fore-goer or leader"</dd> <dd><b><span title="Pali-language text"><i lang="pi">manoseṭṭha</i></span></b> "whose foremost member is mind", "having mind as chief"</dd> <dd><b><span title="Pali-language text"><i lang="pi">manomaya</i></span></b> "consisting of mind" or "made by mind"</dd></dl> <p>The literal meaning is therefore: "The <a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)#Dharmas_in_Buddhist_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">dharmas</a> have mind as their leader, mind as their chief, are made of/by mind. If [someone] either speaks or acts with a corrupted mind, from that [cause] suffering goes after him, as the wheel [of a cart follows] the foot of a draught animal." </p><p>A slightly freer translation by Acharya Buddharakkhita </p> <dl><dd>Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought.</dd> <dd>If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him</dd> <dd>like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conversion_between_Sanskrit_and_Pali_forms">Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Conversion between Sanskrit and Pali forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pali and Sanskrit are very closely related and the common characteristics of Pali and Sanskrit were always easily recognized by those in India who were familiar with both. A large part of Pali and Sanskrit word-stems are identical in form, differing only in details of inflection. </p><p>Technical terms from Sanskrit were converted into Pali by a set of conventional phonological transformations. These transformations mimicked a subset of the phonological developments that had occurred in Proto-Pali. Because of the prevalence of these transformations, it is not always possible to tell whether a given Pali word is a part of the old Prakrit lexicon, or a transformed borrowing from Sanskrit. The existence of a Sanskrit word regularly corresponding to a Pali word is not always secure evidence of the Pali etymology, since, in some cases, artificial Sanskrit words were created by back-formation from Prakrit words.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (November 2013)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Pali#Dubious" title="Talk:Pali">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The following phonological processes are not intended as an exhaustive description of the historical changes which produced Pali from its Old Indic ancestor, but rather are a summary of the most common phonological equations between Sanskrit and Pali, with no claim to completeness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels_and_diphthongs">Vowels and diphthongs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Vowels and diphthongs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Sanskrit <b>ai</b> and <b>au</b> always <a href="/wiki/Monophthongization" title="Monophthongization">monophthongize</a> to Pali <b>e</b> and <b>o</b>, respectively</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>maitrī</b> (friendliness, benevolence) → <b>mettā</b>, <b>auṣadha</b> (medical herb) → <b>osadha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Sanskrit <b>āya</b>, <b>ayā</b> and <b>avā</b> reduce to Pali <b>ā</b><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>katipayāha</b> (someone) → <b>katipāha</b>, <b>vaihāyasa</b> (sky-dwelling) → <b>vehāsa</b>, <b>yāvagū</b> (barley) → <b>yāgu</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Sanskrit <b>aya</b> and <b>ava</b> likewise often reduce to Pali <b>e</b> and <b>o</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>dhārayati</b> (one maintains, one holds) → <b>dhāreti</b>, <b>avatāra</b> (descent) → <b>otāra</b>, <b>bhavati</b> (one becomes) → <b>hoti</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Sanskrit <b>avi</b> and <b>ayū</b> becomes Pali <b>e</b> (i.e. <b>avi</b> → <b>ai</b> → <b>e</b>) and <b>o</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>sthavira</b> (broad, thick, compact) → <b>thera</b>, <b>mayūra</b> (peacock) → <b>mora</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Sanskrit <b>ṛ</b> appears in Pali as <b>a</b>, <b>i</b> or <b>u</b>, often agreeing with the vowel in the following syllable. <b>ṛ</b> also sometimes becomes <b>u</b> after labial consonants.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>kṛta</b> (done) → <b>kata</b>, <b>tṛṣṇa</b> (thirst) → <b>taṇha</b>, <b>smṛti</b> (remembrance, reminiscence) → <b>sati</b>, <b>ṛṣi</b> (cleric) → <b>isi</b>, <b>dṛṣṭi</b> (vision, sight) → <b>diṭṭhi</b>, <b>ṛddhi</b> (growth, increase) → <b>iddhi</b>, <b>ṛju</b> (straight) → <b>uju</b>, <b>spṛṣṭa</b> (touched) → <b>phuṭṭha</b>, <b>vṛddha</b> (old) → <b>vuddha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Sanskrit long vowels are shortened before a sequence of two following consonants.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>kṣānti</b> (patience, forbearance, endurance, indulgence) → <b>khanti</b>, <b>rājya</b> (kingdom) → <b>rajja</b>, <b>īśvara</b> (lord) → <b>issara</b>, <b>tīrṇa</b> (crossed, surpassed) → <b>tiṇṇa</b>, <b>pūrva</b> (east) → <b>pubba</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants_2">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sound_changes">Sound changes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sound changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The Sanskrit sibilants <b>ś</b>, <b>ṣ</b>, and <b>s</b> merge as Pali <b>s</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>śaraṇa</b> (protector, defender) → <b>saraṇa</b>, <b>doṣa</b> (night, darkness) → <b>dosa</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The Sanskrit stops <b>ḍ</b> and <b>ḍh</b> become <b>ḷ</b> and <b>ḷh</b> between vowels (as in Vedic)</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>cakravāḍa</b> (cyclic) → <b>cakkavāḷa</b>, <b>virūḍha</b> (mounted, sprouted) → <b>virūḷha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assimilations">Assimilations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Assimilations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="General_rules">General rules</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: General rules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Many <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilations</a> of one consonant to a neighboring consonant occurred in the development of Pali, producing a large number of <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminate</a> (double) consonants. Since <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspiration</a> of a geminate consonant is only phonetically detectable on the last consonant of a cluster, geminate <b>kh, gh, ch, jh, ṭh, ḍh, th, dh, ph</b> and <b>bh</b> appear as <b>kkh, ggh, cch, jjh, ṭṭh, ḍḍh, tth, ddh, pph</b> and <b>bbh</b>, not as <i>khkh, ghgh</i> etc.</li> <li>Initial consonent clusters are simplified to a single consonant.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>prāṇa</b> (respiration) → <b>pāṇa</b> (not <i>ppāṇa</i>), <b>sthavira</b> (compact, dense) → <b>thera</b> (not <i>tthera</i>), <b>dhyāna</b> (meditation) → <b>jhāna</b> (not <i>jjhāna</i>), <b>jñāti</b> (intelligence) → <b>ñāti</b> (not <i>ññāti</i>)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>When assimilation would produce a sequence of three consonants in the middle of a word, geminates are simplified until there are only two consonants in sequence.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>uttrāsa</b> (fear, terror) → <b>uttāsa</b> (not <i>utttāsa</i>), <b>mantra</b> (instrument of thought, speech) → <b>manta</b> (not <i>mantta</i>), <b>indra</b> (conqueror) → <b>inda</b> (not <i>indda</i>), <b>vandhya</b> (barren, fruitless, deprived) → <b>vañjha</b> (not <i>vañjjha</i>)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The sequence <b>vv</b> resulting from assimilation changes to <b>bb.</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>sarva</b> (all, every, various) → savva → <b>sabba</b>, <b>pravrajati</b> (one moves forth) → pavvajati → <b>pabbajati</b>, <b>divya</b> (supernatural, wonderful, magical) → divva → <b>dibba</b>, <b>nirvāṇa</b> (deceased, extinguished; extinction, cessation, vanishing, disappearance) → nivvāṇa → <b>nibbāna</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Total_assimilation">Total assimilation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Total assimilation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Total assimilation, where one sound becomes identical to a neighboring sound, is of two types: progressive, where the assimilated sound becomes identical to the following sound; and regressive, where it becomes identical to the preceding sound. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Regressive_assimilations">Regressive assimilations</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Regressive assimilations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Internal <a href="/wiki/Visarga" title="Visarga">visarga</a> assimilates to a following voiceless stop or sibilant</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>duḥkṛta</b> (=<b>duṣkṛta</b>, wrong-done) → <b>dukkata</b>, <b>duḥkha</b> (difficult, unagreeable) → <b>dukkha</b>, <b>duḥprajña</b> (misknowledge) → <b>duppañña</b>, <b>niḥkrodha</b> (=<b>niṣkrodha</b>, wrath) → <b>nikkodha</b>, <b>niḥpakva</b> (=<b>niṣpakva</b>, well-cooked, decocted, infused) → <b>nippakka</b>, <b>niḥśoka</b> (ugly, unhappy, inglorious)→ <b>nissoka</b>, <b>niḥsattva</b> → <b>nissatta</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>In a sequence of two dissimilar Sanskrit stops, the first stop assimilates to the second stop</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>vimukti</b> → <b>vimutti</b>, <b>dugdha</b> → <b>duddha</b>, <b>utpāda</b> → <b>uppāda</b>, <b>pudgala</b> → <b>puggala</b>, <b>udghoṣa</b> → <b>ugghosa</b>, <b>adbhuta</b> → <b>abbhuta</b>, <b>śabda</b> → <b>sadda</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>In a sequence of two dissimilar nasals, the first nasal assimilates to the second nasal</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>unmatta</b> → <b>ummatta</b>, <b>pradyumna</b> → <b>pajjunna</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>j</b> assimilates to a following <b>ñ</b> (i.e., <b>jñ</b> becomes <b>ññ</b>)</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>prajñā</b> → <b>paññā</b>, <b>jñāti</b> → <b>ñāti</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The Sanskrit liquid consonants <b>r</b> and <b>l</b> assimilate to a following stop, nasal, sibilant, or <b>v</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>mārga</b> → <b>magga</b>, <b>karma</b> → <b>kamma</b>, <b>varṣa</b> → <b>vassa</b>, <b>kalpa</b> → <b>kappa</b>, <b>sarva</b> → savva → <b>sabba</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>r</b> assimilates to a following <b>l</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>durlabha</b> → <b>dullabha</b>, <b>nirlopa</b> → <b>nillopa</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>d</b> sometimes assimilates to a following <b>v</b>, producing vv → <b>bb</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>udvigna</b> → uvvigga → <b>ubbigga</b>, <b>dvādaśa</b> → <b>bārasa</b> (beside <b>dvādasa</b>)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>t</b> and <b>d</b> may assimilate to a following <b>s</b> or <b>y</b> when a morpheme boundary intervenes</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>ut+sava</b> → <b>ussava</b>, <b>ud+yāna</b> → <b>uyyāna</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Progressive_assimilations">Progressive assimilations</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Progressive assimilations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Nasals sometimes assimilate to a preceding stop (in other cases epenthesis occurs)</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>agni</b> (fire) → <b>aggi</b>, <b>ātman</b> (self) → <b>atta</b>, <b>prāpnoti</b> → <b>pappoti</b>, <b>śaknoti</b> → <b>sakkoti</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>m</b> assimilates to an initial sibilant</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>smarati</b> → <b>sarati</b>, <b>smṛti</b> → <b>sati</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Nasals assimilate to a preceding stop+sibilant cluster, which then develops in the same way as such clusters without following nasals</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>tīkṣṇa</b> → tikṣa → <b>tikkha</b>, <b>lakṣmī</b> → lakṣī →<b>lakkhī</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The Sanskrit liquid consonants <b>r</b> and <b>l</b> assimilate to a preceding stop, nasal, sibilant, or <b>v</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>prāṇa</b> → <b>pāṇa</b>, <b>grāma</b> → <b>gāma</b>, <b>śrāvaka</b> → <b>sāvaka</b>, <b>agra</b> → <b>agga</b>, <b>indra</b> → <b>inda</b>, <b>pravrajati</b> → pavvajati → <b>pabbajati</b>, <b>aśru</b> → <b>assu</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>y</b> assimilates to preceding non-dental/retroflex stops or nasals</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>cyavati</b> → <b>cavati</b>, <b>jyotiṣ</b> → <b>joti</b>, <b>rājya</b> → <b>rajja</b>, <b>matsya</b> → macchya → <b>maccha</b>, <b>lapsyate</b> → lacchyate → <b>lacchati</b>, <b>abhyāgata</b> → <b>abbhāgata</b>, <b>ākhyāti</b> → <b>akkhāti</b>, <b>saṁkhyā</b> → <b>saṅkhā</b> (but also <b>saṅkhyā</b>), <b>ramya</b> → <b>ramma</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>y</b> assimilates to preceding non-initial <b>v</b>, producing vv → <b>bb</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>divya</b> → divva → <b>dibba</b>, <b>veditavya</b> → veditavva → <b>veditabba</b>, <b>bhāvya</b> → bhavva → <b>bhabba</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>y</b> and <b>v</b> assimilate to any preceding sibilant, producing <b>ss</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>paśyati</b> → <b>passati</b>, <b>śyena</b> → <b>sena</b>, <b>aśva</b> → <b>assa</b>, <b>īśvara</b> → <b>issara</b>, <b>kariṣyati</b> → <b>karissati</b>, <b>tasya</b> → <b>tassa</b>, <b>svāmin</b> → <b>sāmī</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>v</b> sometimes assimilates to a preceding stop</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>pakva</b> → <b>pakka</b>, <b>catvāri</b> → <b>cattāri</b>, <b>sattva</b> → <b>satta</b>, <b>dhvaja</b> → <b>dhaja</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Partial_and_mutual_assimilation">Partial and mutual assimilation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Partial and mutual assimilation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">sibilants</a> before a stop assimilate to that stop, and if that stop is not already aspirated, it becomes aspirated; e.g. <b>śc</b>, <b>st</b>, <b>ṣṭ</b> and <b>sp</b> become <b>cch</b>, <b>tth</b>, <b>ṭṭh</b> and <b>pph</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>paścāt</b> → <b>pacchā</b>, <b>asti</b> → <b>atthi</b>, <b>stava</b> → <b>thava</b>, <b>śreṣṭha</b> → <b>seṭṭha</b>, <b>aṣṭa</b> → <b>aṭṭha</b>, <b>sparśa</b> → <b>phassa</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>In sibilant-stop-liquid sequences, the liquid is assimilated to the preceding consonant, and the cluster behaves like sibilant-stop sequences; e.g. <b>str</b> and <b>ṣṭr</b> become <b>tth</b> and <b>ṭṭh</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>śāstra</b> → śasta → <b>sattha</b>, <b>rāṣṭra</b> → raṣṭa → <b>raṭṭha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>t</b> and <b>p</b> become <b>c</b> before <b>s</b>, and the sibilant assimilates to the preceding sound as an aspirate (i.e., the sequences <b>ts</b> and <b>ps</b> become <b>cch</b>)</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>vatsa</b> → <b>vaccha</b>, <b>apsaras</b> → <b>accharā</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>A sibilant assimilates to a preceding <b>k</b> as an aspirate (i.e., the sequence <b>kṣ</b> becomes <b>kkh</b>)</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>bhikṣu</b> → <b>bhikkhu</b>, <b>kṣānti</b> → <b>khanti</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Any dental or retroflex stop or nasal followed by <b>y</b> converts to the corresponding palatal sound, and the <b>y</b> assimilates to this new consonant, i.e. <b>ty, thy, dy, dhy, ny</b> become <b>cc, cch, jj, jjh, ññ</b>; likewise <b>ṇy</b> becomes <b>ññ</b>. Nasals preceding a stop that becomes palatal share this change.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>tyajati</b> → cyajati → <b>cajati</b>, <b>satya</b> → sacya → <b>sacca</b>, <b>mithyā</b> → michyā → <b>micchā</b>, <b>vidyā</b> → vijyā → <b>vijjā</b>, <b>madhya</b> → majhya → <b>majjha</b>, <b>anya</b> → añya → <b>añña</b>, <b>puṇya</b> → puñya → <b>puñña</b>, <b>vandhya</b> → vañjhya → vañjjha → <b>vañjha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The sequence <b>mr</b> becomes <b>mb</b>, via the epenthesis of a stop between the nasal and liquid, followed by assimilation of the liquid to the stop and subsequent simplification of the resulting geminate.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>āmra</b> → ambra → <b>amba</b>, <b>tāmra</b> → <b>tamba</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epenthesis">Epenthesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Epenthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a> vowel is sometimes inserted between certain consonant-sequences. As with <b>ṛ</b>, the vowel may be <b>a</b>, <b>i</b>, or <b>u</b>, depending on the influence of a neighboring consonant or of the vowel in the following syllable. <b>i</b> is often found near <b>i</b>, <b>y</b>, or palatal consonants; <b>u</b> is found near <b>u</b>, <b>v</b>, or labial consonants. </p> <ul><li>Sequences of stop + nasal are sometimes separated by <b>a</b> or <b>u</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>ratna</b> → <b>ratana</b>, <b>padma</b> → <b>paduma</b> (<b>u</b> influenced by labial <b>m</b>)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The sequence <b>sn</b> may become <b>sin</b> initially</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>snāna</b> → <b>sināna</b>, <b>sneha</b> → <b>sineha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>i</b> may be inserted between a consonant and <b>l</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>kleśa</b> → <b>kilesa</b>, <b>glāna</b> → <b>gilāna</b>, <b>mlāyati</b> → <b>milāyati</b>, <b>ślāghati</b> → <b>silāghati</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>An epenthetic vowel may be inserted between an initial sibilant and <b>r</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>śrī</b> → <b>sirī</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The sequence <b>ry</b> generally becomes <b>riy</b> (<b>i</b> influenced by following <b>y</b>), but is still treated as a two-consonant sequence for the purposes of vowel-shortening</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>ārya</b> → arya → <b>ariya</b>, <b>sūrya</b> → surya → <b>suriya</b>, <b>vīrya</b> → virya → <b>viriya</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>a</b> or <b>i</b> is inserted between <b>r</b> and <b>h</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>arhati</b> → <b>arahati</b>, <b>garhā</b> → <b>garahā</b>, <b>barhiṣ</b> → <b>barihisa</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>There is sporadic epenthesis between other consonant sequences</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>caitya</b> → <b>cetiya</b> (not <i>cecca</i>), <b>vajra</b> → <b>vajira</b> (not <i>vajja</i>)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_changes">Other changes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Other changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Any Sanskrit sibilant before a nasal becomes a sequence of nasal followed by <b>h</b>, i.e. <b>ṣṇ</b>, <b>sn</b> and <b>sm</b> become <b>ṇh</b>, <b>nh</b>, and <b>mh</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>tṛṣṇa</b> → <b>taṇha</b>, <b>uṣṇīṣa</b> → <b>uṇhīsa</b>, <b>asmi</b> → <b>amhi</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The sequence <b>śn</b> becomes <b>ñh</b>, due to assimilation of the <b>n</b> to the preceding palatal sibilant</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>praśna</b> → praśña → <b>pañha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The sequences <b>hy</b> and <b>hv</b> undergo <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>jihvā</b> → <b>jivhā</b>, <b>gṛhya</b> → <b>gayha</b>, <b>guhya</b> → <b>guyha</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>h</b> undergoes metathesis with a following nasal</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Example: <b>gṛhṇāti</b> → <b>gaṇhāti</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><b>y</b> is geminated between <b>e</b> and a vowel</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>śreyas</b> → <b>seyya</b>, <b>Maitreya</b> → <b>Metteyya</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Voiced aspirates such as <b>bh</b> and <b>gh</b> on rare occasions become <b>h</b></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>bhavati</b> → <b>hoti</b>, <b>-ebhiṣ</b> → <b>-ehi</b>, <b>laghu</b> → <b>lahu</b></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Dental and retroflex sounds sporadically change into one another</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Examples: <b>jñāna</b> → <b>ñāṇa</b> (not <i>ñāna</i>), <b>dahati</b> → <b>ḍahati</b> (beside Pali <b>dahati</b>) <b>nīḍa</b> → <b>nīla</b> (not <i>nīḷa</i>), <b>sthāna</b> → <b>ṭhāna</b> (not <i>thāna</i>), <b>duḥkṛta</b> → <b>dukkaṭa</b> (beside Pali <b>dukkata</b>), <b>granthi</b>→ <b>gaṇṭhi</b>, <b>pṛthivī → paṭhavī</b>/<b>puṭhuvī</b> (beside Pali <b>pathavī</b>/<b>puthuvī</b>/<b>puthavī</b>)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exceptions">Exceptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Exceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several notable exceptions to the rules above; many of them are common Prakrit words rather than borrowings from Sanskrit. </p> <ul><li><b>ārya</b> (noble, pure) → <b>ayya</b> (beside <b>ariya</b>)</li> <li><b>guru</b> (master) → <b>garu</b> (adj.) (beside <b>guru</b> (n.))</li> <li><b>puruṣa</b> (man) → <b>purisa</b> (not <i>purusa</i>)</li> <li><b>vṛkṣa</b> (tree) → rukṣa → <b>rukkha</b> (not <i>vukkha</i>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing">Writing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Writing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> erected a number of pillars with his edicts in at least three regional Prakrit languages in <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all of which are quite similar to Pali. Historically, the first written record of the Pali canon is believed to have been composed in Sri Lanka, based on a prior oral tradition. According to the <a href="/wiki/Mahavamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavamsa">Mahavamsa</a> (the chronicle of Sri Lanka), due to a major famine in the country Buddhist monks wrote down the Pali canon during the time of <a href="/wiki/Valagamba_of_Anuradhapura" class="mw-redirect" title="Valagamba of Anuradhapura">King Vattagamini</a> in 100 BCE.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Bilingual coins containing Pali written in the <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> script and Greek writing were used by <a href="/wiki/James_Prinsep" title="James Prinsep">James Prinsep</a> to decipher the Kharosthi <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This script became particularly significant for the study of early Buddhism following the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhist_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandharan Buddhist texts">Gandharan Buddhist texts</a>. </p><p>The transmission of written Pali has retained a universal system of alphabetic values, but has expressed those values in a variety of different scripts. In the 1840s, Thai king <a href="/wiki/Mongkut" title="Mongkut">Mongkut</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka script</a>, adapted from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Burmese-Mon scripts</a>, as a universal medium for transcribing Pali, intended to replace other existing regional scripts, including Khom Thai and Tai Tham.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The script did not come into popular use. Theravada Buddhist-professing regions use distinct scripts to transcribe Pali: </p> <ul><li>India: <a href="/wiki/Devan%C4%81gar%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Devanāgarī">Devanāgarī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom script</a></li> <li>Nepal: <a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit script</a></li> <li>Bangladesh: <a href="/wiki/Bengali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali script">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li>Sri Lanka: <a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li>Myanmar: <a href="/wiki/Burmese_alphabet" title="Burmese alphabet">Mon-Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khamti_language" title="Khamti language">Lik-Tai</a></li> <li>Cambodia: <a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a></li> <li>Thailand: <a href="/wiki/Thai_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thai alphabet">Thai</a> (since 1893; historically <a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka script</a>)</li> <li>Laos: <a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a> (since 1930; historically <a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabet_with_diacritics">Alphabet with diacritics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Alphabet with diacritics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 19th century, Pali has also been written in the Roman script. An alternate scheme devised by Frans Velthuis, called the <a href="/wiki/Velthuis" title="Velthuis">Velthuis</a> scheme (see <a href="#Text_in_ASCII">§ Text in ASCII</a>) allows for typing without <a href="/wiki/Diacritics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritics">diacritics</a> using plain <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> methods, but is arguably less readable than the standard <a href="/wiki/International_Alphabet_of_Sanskrit_Transliteration" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration">IAST</a> system, which uses <a href="/wiki/Diacritical" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritical">diacritical</a> marks. </p><p>The Pali alphabetical order is as follows: </p> <ul><li><b>a ā i ī u ū e o ṃ k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh ñ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l ḷ v s h</b></li></ul> <p><b>ḷh</b>, although a single sound, is written with ligature of <b>ḷ</b> and <b>h</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transliteration_on_computers">Transliteration on computers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Transliteration on computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several fonts to use for Pali transliteration. However, older ASCII fonts such as Leedsbit PaliTranslit, Times_Norman, Times_CSX+, Skt Times, Vri RomanPali CN/CB etc., are not recommendable, they are <a href="/wiki/Deprecation" title="Deprecation">deprecated</a>, since they are not compatible with one another, and are technically out of date. Instead, fonts based on the <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> standard are recommended. </p><p>However, not all Unicode fonts contain the necessary characters. To properly display all the diacritic marks used for romanized Pali (or for that matter, Sanskrit), a Unicode font must contain the following character ranges: </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>Basic Latin: U+0000 – U+007F</li> <li>Latin-1 Supplement: U+0080 – U+00FF</li> <li>Latin Extended-A: U+0100 – U+017F</li> <li>Latin Extended-B: U+0180 – U+024F</li> <li>Latin Extended Additional: U+1E00 – U+1EFF</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Some Unicode fonts freely available for typesetting Romanized Pali are as follows: </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palitext.com/subpages/PC_Unicode.htm">The Pali Text Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210213221143/http://www.palitext.com/subpages/PC_Unicode.htm">Archived</a> 13 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> recommends <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.budsas.org/fonts/index.htm">VU-Times</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/gandhariunicode/gandhari_unicode_font">Gandhari Unicode</a> for Windows and Linux Computers.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thlib.org/tools/#wiki=/access/wiki/site/c06fa8cf-c49c-4ebc-007f-482de5382105/diacritic%20fonts.html">The Tibetan & Himalayan Digital Library</a> recommends <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070617033953/http://www.bcca.org/services/fonts/">Times Ext Roman</a>, and provides links to several Unicode diacritic <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thlib.org/tools/#wiki=/access/wiki/site/c06fa8cf-c49c-4ebc-007f-482de5382105/windows%20unicode%20diacritic%20fonts.html">Windows</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thlib.org/tools/#wiki=/access/wiki/site/c06fa8cf-c49c-4ebc-007f-482de5382105/macintosh%20unicode%20diacritic%20fonts.html">Mac</a> fonts usable for typing Pali together with ratings and installation instructions. It also provides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thlib.org/tools/#wiki=/access/wiki/site/c06fa8cf-c49c-4ebc-007f-482de5382105/diacritic%20fonts.html">macros</a> for typing diacritics in OpenOffice and MS Office.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/">SIL: International</a> provides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&id=CharisSIL_download">Charis SIL and Charis SIL Compact</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100224025123/http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&id=charissil_download">Archived</a> 24 February 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&cat_id=FontDownloadsDoulos">Doulos SIL</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=Gentium_download">Gentium</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=Gentium_basic">Gentium Basic, Gentium Book Basic</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120226105845/http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=Gentium_basic">Archived</a> 26 February 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> fonts. Of them, Charis SIL, Gentium Basic and Gentium Book Basic have all four styles (regular, italic, bold, bold-italic); so can provide publication quality typesetting.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100313135127/http://www.linuxlibertine.org/">Libertine Openfont Project</a> provides the Linux Libertine font (four serif styles and many Opentype features) and Linux Biolinum (four sans-serif styles) at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sourceforge.net/projects/linuxlibertine">SourceForge</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090909030635/http://junicode.sourceforge.net/">Junicode</a> (short for Junius-Unicode) is a Unicode font for medievalists, but it provides all diacritics for typing Pali. It has four styles and some Opentype features such as Old Style for numerals.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.io.com/~hmiller/lang/">Thryomanes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100725041925/http://www.io.com/~hmiller/lang/">Archived</a> 25 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> includes all the Roman-alphabet characters available in Unicode along with a subset of the most commonly used Greek and Cyrillic characters, and is available in normal, italic, bold, and bold italic.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gust.org.pl/">GUST</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610103043/http://www.gust.org.pl/">Archived</a> 10 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Polish TeX User Group) provides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gust.org.pl/projects/e-foundry/latin-modern/download">Latin Modern</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110603224918/http://www.gust.org.pl/projects/e-foundry/latin-modern/download">Archived</a> 3 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gust.org.pl/projects/e-foundry/tex-gyre">TeX Gyre</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110622122721/http://www.gust.org.pl/projects/e-foundry/tex-gyre">Archived</a> 22 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> fonts. Each font has four styles, with the former finding most acceptance among the LaTeX users while the latter is a relatively new family. Of the latter, each typeface in the following families has nearly 1250 glyphs and is available in PostScript, TeX and OpenType formats. <ul><li>The <i>TeX Gyre Adventor</i> family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Gothic L family. The original font, <a href="/wiki/ITC_Avant_Garde" title="ITC Avant Garde">ITC Avant Garde Gothic</a>, was designed by Herb Lubalin and Tom Carnase in 1970.</li> <li>The <i>TeX Gyre Bonum</i> family of serif fonts is based on the URW Bookman L family. The original font, <a href="/wiki/Bookman_(typeface)" title="Bookman (typeface)">Bookman</a> or Bookman Old Style, was designed by Alexander Phemister in 1860.</li> <li>The <i>TeX Gyre Chorus</i> is a font based on the URW Chancery L Medium Italic font. The original, <a href="/wiki/ITC_Zapf_Chancery" title="ITC Zapf Chancery">ITC Zapf Chancery</a>, was designed in 1979 by Hermann Zapf.</li> <li>The <i>TeX Gyre Cursor</i> family of monospace serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Mono L family. The original font, <a href="/wiki/Courier_(typeface)" title="Courier (typeface)">Courier</a>, was designed by Howard G. (Bud) Kettler in 1955.</li> <li>The <i>TeX Gyre Heros</i> family of sans serif fonts is based on the URW Nimbus Sans L family. The original font, <a href="/wiki/Helvetica" title="Helvetica">Helvetica</a>, was designed in 1957 by Max Miedinger.</li> <li>The <i>TeX Gyre Pagella</i> family of serif fonts is based on the URW Palladio L family. The original font, <a href="/wiki/Palatino" title="Palatino">Palatino</a>, was designed by Hermann Zapf in the 1940s.</li> <li>The <i>TeX Gyre Schola</i> family of serif fonts is based on the URW Century Schoolbook L family. The original font, <a href="/wiki/Century_Schoolbook" class="mw-redirect" title="Century Schoolbook">Century Schoolbook</a>, was designed by Morris Fuller Benton in 1919.</li> <li>The <i>TeX Gyre Termes</i> family of serif fonts is based on the Nimbus Roman No9 L family. The original font, <a href="/wiki/Times_New_Roman" title="Times New Roman">Times Roman</a>, was designed by Stanley Morison together with Starling Burgess and Victor Lardent.</li></ul></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><ul><li>John Smith provides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bombay.indology.info/software/fonts/induni/index.html">IndUni</a> Opentype fonts, based upon URW++ fonts. Of them: <ul><li><i>IndUni-C</i> is Courier-lookalike;</li> <li><i>IndUni-H</i> is Helvetica-lookalike;</li> <li><i>IndUni-N</i> is New Century Schoolbook-lookalike;</li> <li><i>IndUni-P</i> is Palatino-lookalike;</li> <li><i>IndUni-T</i> is Times-lookalike;</li> <li><i>IndUni-CMono</i> is Courier-lookalike but monospaced;</li></ul></li> <li>An English Buddhist monk titled Bhikkhu Pesala provides some <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.softerviews.org/Fonts.html">Pali OpenType fonts</a> he has designed himself. Of them: <ul><li><i>Acariya</i> is a Garamond style typeface derived from Guru (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).</li> <li><i>Balava</i> is a revival of Baskerville derived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151025081726/http://www.impallari.com/projects/overview/libre-baskerville">Libre Baskerville</a> (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).</li> <li><i>Cankama</i> is a Gothic, Black Letter script. Regular style only.</li> <li>(<i>Carita</i> has been discontinued.)</li> <li><i>Garava</i> was designed for body text with a generous x-height and economical copyfit. It includes <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/features_pt.htm#pcap">Petite Caps</a> (as OpenType Features), and Heavy styles besides the usual four styles (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).</li> <li>Guru is a condensed Garamond style typeface designed for economy of copy-fit. A hundred A4 pages of text set in Pali would be about 98 pages if set in Acariya, 95 if set in Garava or Times New Roman, but only 90 if set in Guru.(regular, italic, bold, bold italic styles).</li> <li><i>Hari</i> is a hand-writing script derived from Allura by Robert E. Leuschke.(Regular style only).</li> <li>(<i>Hattha</i> has been discontinued)</li> <li><i>Jivita</i> is an original Sans Serif typeface for body text. (regular, italic, bold, bold italic).</li> <li><i>Kabala</i> is a distinctive Sans Serif typeface designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.</li> <li><i>Lekhana</i> is a Zapf Chancery clone, a flowing script that can be used for correspondence or body text. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.</li> <li><i>Mahakampa</i> is a hand-writing script derived from Great Vibes by Robert E. Leuschke. Regular type style.</li> <li><i>Mandala</i> is designed for display text or headings. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.</li> <li><i>Nacca</i> is a hand-writing script derived from Dancing Script by Pablo Impallari and released on Font Squirrel. Regular type style.</li> <li><i>Odana</i> is a calligraphic brush font suitable for headlines, titles, or short texts where a less formal appearance is wanted. Regular style only.</li> <li><i>Open Sans</i> is a Sans Serif font suitable for body text. Ten type styles.</li> <li><i>Pali</i> is a clone of Hermann Zapf's Palatino. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.</li> <li><i>Sukhumala</i> is derived from Sort Mills Goudy. Five type styles</li> <li><i>Talapanna</i> is a clone of Goudy Bertham, with decorative gothic capitals and extra ligatures in the Private Use Area. Regular and bold styles.</li> <li>(<i>Talapatta</i> is discontinued.)</li> <li><i>Veluvana</i> is another brush calligraphic font but basic Greek glyphs are taken from <i>Guru</i>. Regular style only.</li> <li><i>Verajja</i> is derived from Bitstream Vera. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.</li> <li><i>VerajjaPDA</i> is a cut-down version of <i>Verajja</i> without symbols. For use on PDA devices. Regular, italic, bold and bold italic styles.</li> <li>He also provides some <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.softerviews.org/Fonts.html#PagePlus_Keyboard">Pali keyboards</a> for Windows XP.</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/fonts.html">The font section</a> of Alanwood's Unicode Resources have links to several general purpose fonts that can be used for Pali typing if they cover the character ranges above.</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Some of the latest fonts coming with Windows 7 can also be used to type transliterated Pali: <i>Arial</i>, <i>Calibri</i>, <i>Cambria</i>, <i>Courier New</i>, <i>Microsoft Sans Serif</i>, <i>Segoe UI</i>, <i>Segoe UI Light</i>, <i>Segoe UI Semibold</i>, <i>Tahoma</i>, and <i>Times New Roman</i>. Some of them have four styles each, hence usable in professional typesetting: <i>Arial, Calibri</i> and <i>Segoe UI</i> are sans-serif fonts, <i>Cambria</i> and <i>Times New Roman</i> are serif fonts and <i>Courier New</i> is a monospace font. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Text_in_ASCII">Text in ASCII</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Text in ASCII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Devanagari_transliteration#Velthuis" title="Devanagari transliteration">Velthuis scheme</a> was originally developed in 1991 by Frans Velthuis for use with his "devnag" Devanāgarī font, designed for the <a href="/wiki/TeX" title="TeX">TeX</a> typesetting system. This system of representing Pali diacritical marks has been used in some websites and discussion lists. However, as the Web itself and email software slowly evolve towards the Unicode encoding standard, this system has become almost unnecessary and obsolete. </p><p>The following table compares various conventional renderings and shortcut key assignments: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>character </th> <th>ASCII Rendering </th> <th>Character Name </th> <th>Unicode Number </th> <th>Key Combination </th> <th>ALT Code </th> <th>HTML Code </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ā</td> <td>aa</td> <td>a with macron</td> <td>U+0101</td> <td>Alt+A</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#257; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ī</td> <td>ii</td> <td>i with macron</td> <td>U+012B</td> <td>Alt+I</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#299; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ū</td> <td>uu</td> <td>u with macron</td> <td>U+016B</td> <td>Alt+U</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#363; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ṃ</td> <td>.m</td> <td>m with dot below</td> <td>U+1E43</td> <td>Alt+Ctrl+M</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#7745; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ṇ</td> <td>.n</td> <td>n with dot under</td> <td>U+1E47</td> <td>Alt+N</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#7751; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ñ</td> <td>~n</td> <td>n with tilde</td> <td>U+00F1</td> <td>Alt+Ctrl+N</td> <td>Alt+0241(NumPad)</td> <td>&ntilde; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ṭ</td> <td>.t</td> <td>t with dot below</td> <td>U+1E6D</td> <td>Alt+T</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#7789; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ḍ</td> <td>.d</td> <td>d with dot below</td> <td>U+1E0D</td> <td>Alt+D</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#7693; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ṅ</td> <td>"n</td> <td>n with dot above</td> <td>U+1E45</td> <td>Ctrl+N</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#7749; </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ḷ</td> <td>.l</td> <td>l with dot below</td> <td>U+1E37</td> <td>Alt+L</td> <td>–</td> <td>&#7735; </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_other_languages">Influence on other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Influence on other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pali has influenced the languages of mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia to various degrees, among them <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khmer_language" title="Khmer language">Khmer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lao_language" title="Lao language">Lao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thai_language" title="Thai language">Thai</a>. </p><p>In Cambodia, Pali replaced Sanskrit as a <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige language</a> in the 13th century, coinciding with the spread of Theravada Buddhism there.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the 1900s, <a href="/wiki/Chuon_Nath" title="Chuon Nath">Chuon Nath</a> used Pali roots to coin Khmer neologisms to describe modern phenomena, such as the 'train.'<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in 20th century Thailand and Laos, local scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Chit_Phumisak" title="Chit Phumisak">Jit Bhumisak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vajiravudh" title="Vajiravudh">Vajiravudh</a> coined new words using Pali roots to describe foreign concepts and technological innovations.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Myanmar, since its earliest stage as <a href="/wiki/Old_Burmese" title="Old Burmese">Old Burmese</a>, the Burmese language has readily adopted thousands of loanwords from Pali, particularly in the domains of religion, government, arts, and science, whereas the adoption of Sanskrit loanwords has been confined to specialized subjects like astrology, astronomy, and medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first to tenth <a href="/wiki/Ordinal_number" title="Ordinal number">ordinal numbers</a> in Burmese are also directly borrowed form Pali.<sup id="cite_ref-bbe_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burmese has a long history of using and repurposing Pali roots to coin Burmese neologisms well into the 20th century, including the words for 'feudalism' (from Pali <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">padesa + rāja</i></span>), 'organization' (from Pali <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">samagga</i></span>), and 'leader' (from Pali <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ukkaṭṭha</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pali has also influenced Burmese grammatical structures, particularly in the literary register of Burmese.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 13th century, the third person pronoun in Pali (<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">so</i></span>) had become grammaticized into the Burmese grammatical particle <i>so</i> (သော), which is still used to modify nouns, following Pali syntax.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until the 19th century, Burmese prose writing was heavily influenced by Pali texts, in particular <i>nissaya</i> texts that first emerged in the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Sri Lanka, Pali has enriched the Sinhala language since the <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura_period" title="Anuradhapura period">Anuradhapura period</a>, particularly in the realm of literature, as exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABpava%E1%B9%83sa" title="Dīpavaṃsa">Dipavamsa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81va%E1%B9%83sa" title="Mahāvaṃsa">Mahavamsa</a> chronicles, both written in Pali verse.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Anuradhapura period, Sanskrit became more influential in the development of Sinhala<sup id="cite_ref-:4_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nagrajji (2003) "Pali language and the Buddhist Canonical Literature". <i>Agama and Tripitaka</i>, vol. 2: Language and Literature.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChandananda" class="citation web cs1">Chandananda, Dorapane. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/39723307">"How Māgadhī Became Pali and It Does not Have Own Scripts"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+M%C4%81gadh%C4%AB+Became+Pali+and+It+Does+not+Have+Own+Scripts&rft.aulast=Chandananda&rft.aufirst=Dorapane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F39723307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stargardt_2000,_page_25-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stargardt_2000,_page_25_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStargardt2000" class="citation book cs1">Stargardt, Janice (2000). <i>Tracing Thoughts Through Things: The Oldest Pali Texts and the Early Buddhist Archaeology of India and Burma</i>. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6984-304-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6984-304-9"><bdi>978-90-6984-304-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracing+Thoughts+Through+Things%3A+The+Oldest+Pali+Texts+and+the+Early+Buddhist+Archaeology+of+India+and+Burma&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Royal+Netherlands+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-6984-304-9&rft.aulast=Stargardt&rft.aufirst=Janice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/5-more-languages-to-get-classical-language-status-marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-and-bengali-6709237">"Marathi, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit and Assamese Get Classical Language Status"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Marathi%2C+Bengali%2C+Pali%2C+Prakrit+and+Assamese+Get+Classical+Language+Status&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ndtv.com%2Findia-news%2F5-more-languages-to-get-classical-language-status-marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-and-bengali-6709237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.livemint.com/news/india/centre-approves-five-languages-as-classical-languages-marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-and-bengali-11727968242807.html">https://www.livemint.com/news/india/centre-approves-five-languages-as-classical-languages-marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-and-bengali-11727968242807.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norman-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_6-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K._R._Norman" title="K. R. Norman">Norman, Kenneth Roy</a> (1983). <i>Pali Literature</i>. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 2–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-447-02285-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-447-02285-X"><bdi>3-447-02285-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pali+Literature&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=2-3&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=3-447-02285-X&rft.aulast=Norman&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-grammar_kingship-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-grammar_kingship_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grammar_kingship_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-grammar_kingship_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWijithadhamma2015" class="citation journal cs1">Wijithadhamma, Ven. M. (2015). "Pali Grammar and Kingship in Medieval Sri Lanka". <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka</i>. <b>60</b> (2): 49–58. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44737021">44737021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society+of+Sri+Lanka&rft.atitle=Pali+Grammar+and+Kingship+in+Medieval+Sri+Lanka&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=49-58&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44737021%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wijithadhamma&rft.aufirst=Ven.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazra1994" class="citation book cs1">Hazra, Kanai Lal (1994). <i>Pāli - language and literature: a systematic survey and historical study</i>. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-246-0004-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-246-0004-7"><bdi>978-81-246-0004-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=P%C4%81li+-+language+and+literature%3A+a+systematic+survey+and+historical+study&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=D.K.+Printworld&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-81-246-0004-7&rft.aulast=Hazra&rft.aufirst=Kanai+Lal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChilders1875" class="citation book cs1">Childers, Robert Cæsar (1875). <i>A Dictionary of the Pali Language</i>. London: Trübner. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7007711">7007711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+the+Pali+Language&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner&rft.date=1875&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7007711&rft.aulast=Childers&rft.aufirst=Robert+C%C3%A6sar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bhikkhu_Bodhi_2005,_page_10-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bhikkhu_Bodhi_2005,_page_10_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bhikkhu_Bodhi_2005,_page_10_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBodhi2005" class="citation book cs1">Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005). <i>In the Buddha's Words: an anthology of discourses from the Pāli canon</i>. Boston: Wisdom Publications. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-491-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-491-9"><bdi>978-0-86171-491-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Buddha%27s+Words%3A+an+anthology+of+discourses+from+the+P%C4%81li+canon&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Wisdom+Publications&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-86171-491-9&rft.aulast=Bodhi&rft.aufirst=Bhikkhu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEiland2020–2021" class="citation journal cs1">Eiland, Murray (Winter 2020–2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/89897129">"What the Buddha Thought"</a>. <i>Antiqvvs</i>. <b>3</b> (1). Interview with Richard Gombrich: 41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiqvvs&rft.atitle=What+the+Buddha+Thought&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41&rft.date=2020%2F2021&rft.aulast=Eiland&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F89897129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Collins-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Collins_12-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2003" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Steven (2003). "What Is Literature in Pali?". <i>Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia</i>. University of California Press. pp. 649–688. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22821-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22821-4"><bdi>978-0-520-22821-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ppqxk.19">10.1525/j.ctt1ppqxk.19</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Literature+in+Pali%3F&rft.btitle=Literary+Cultures+in+History%3A+Reconstructions+from+South+Asia&rft.pages=649-688&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1525%2Fj.ctt1ppqxk.19%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22821-4&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hirakawa,_Akira_2007._p._119_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirakawaGroner1990" class="citation book cs1">Hirakawa, Akira; Groner, Paul (1990). <i>A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna</i>. University of Hawaii Press. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1203-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1203-4"><bdi>978-0-8248-1203-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Buddhism%3A+From+%C5%9A%C4%81kyamuni+to+Early+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1203-4&rft.aulast=Hirakawa&rft.aufirst=Akira&rft.au=Groner%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gethin2008-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gethin2008_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRupert_Gethin2008" class="citation book cs1">Rupert Gethin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AvogpRk9-5wC"><i>Sayings of the Buddha: New Translations from the Pali Nikayas</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. xxiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283925-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283925-1"><bdi>978-0-19-283925-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sayings+of+the+Buddha%3A+New+Translations+from+the+Pali+Nikayas&rft.pages=xxiv&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-283925-1&rft.au=Rupert+Gethin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAvogpRk9-5wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oberlies, Thomas (2001). <i>Pāli: A Grammar of the Language of the <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Theravāda Tipiṭaka</span></span></i>. Indian Philology and South Asian Studies, v. 3. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 6. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-016763-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-016763-8">3-11-016763-8</a>. "Pāli as a MIA language is different from Sanskrit not so much with regard to the time of its origin than as to its dialectal base, since a number of its morphonological and lexical features betray the fact that it is not a direct continuation of <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Ṛgvedic</span></span> Sanskrit; rather it descends from a dialect (or a number of dialects) which was (/were), despite many similarities, different from <span title="ISO 15919 Indic (Sinhala script) transliteration"><span>Ṛgvedic</span></span>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gornall-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gornall_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gornall_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gornall_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGornallHenry2017" class="citation book cs1">Gornall, Alastair; Henry, Justin (2017). "Beautifully moral: cosmopolitan issues in medieval Pāli literary theory". <i>Sri Lanka at the Crossroads of History</i>. UCL Press. pp. 77–93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-911307-84-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-911307-84-6"><bdi>978-1-911307-84-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1qnw8bs.9">j.ctt1qnw8bs.9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beautifully+moral%3A+cosmopolitan+issues+in+medieval+P%C4%81li+literary+theory&rft.btitle=Sri+Lanka+at+the+Crossroads+of+History&rft.pages=77-93&rft.pub=UCL+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1qnw8bs.9%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-911307-84-6&rft.aulast=Gornall&rft.aufirst=Alastair&rft.au=Henry%2C+Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Masefield, Indo-Chinese Pali, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/34836100/PETER_MASEFIELD_INDO-CHINESE_PALI">https://www.academia.edu/34836100/PETER_MASEFIELD_INDO-CHINESE_PALI</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-analayo-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-analayo_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-analayo_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnālayo2012" class="citation journal cs1">Anālayo (2012). "The Historical Value of the Pāli Discourses". <i>Indo-Iranian Journal</i>. <b>55</b> (3): 223–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F001972412X620187">10.1163/001972412X620187</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24665100">24665100</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indo-Iranian+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Value+of+the+P%C4%81li+Discourses&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=223-253&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F001972412X620187&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24665100%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=An%C4%81layo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-skilling-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-skilling_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkilling2014" class="citation book cs1">Skilling, Peter (2014). "Reflections on the Pali Literature of Siam". <i>From Birch Bark to Digital Data: Recent Advances in Buddhist Manuscript Research: Papers Presented at the Conference Indic Buddhist Manuscripts: The State of the Field. Stanford, June 15-19 2009</i>. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 347–366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt1vw0q4q.25">10.2307/j.ctt1vw0q4q.25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-7581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-7581-0"><bdi>978-3-7001-7581-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1vw0q4q.25">j.ctt1vw0q4q.25</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+the+Pali+Literature+of+Siam&rft.btitle=From+Birch+Bark+to+Digital+Data%3A+Recent+Advances+in+Buddhist+Manuscript+Research%3A+Papers+Presented+at+the+Conference+Indic+Buddhist+Manuscripts%3A+The+State+of+the+Field.+Stanford%2C+June+15-19+2009&rft.pages=347-366&rft.pub=Austrian+Academy+of+Sciences+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1vw0q4q.25%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt1vw0q4q.25&rft.isbn=978-3-7001-7581-0&rft.aulast=Skilling&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNepalese-German_Manuscript_Cataloguing_Project" class="citation web cs1">Nepalese-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue-old.ngmcp.uni-hamburg.de/mediawiki/index.php/A_1151-2_(P%C4%81l%C4%ABbh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%C4%81vinaya)">"A 1151–2 (Pālībhāṣāvinaya)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+1151%E2%80%932+%28P%C4%81l%C4%ABbh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%C4%81vinaya%29&rft.au=Nepalese-German+Manuscript+Cataloguing+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcatalogue-old.ngmcp.uni-hamburg.de%2Fmediawiki%2Findex.php%2FA_1151-2_%28P%25C4%2581l%25C4%25ABbh%25C4%2581%25E1%25B9%25A3%25C4%2581vinaya%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÑāṇatusita2014" class="citation book cs1">Ñāṇatusita, Bhikkhu (2014). "Pali Manuscripts of Sri Lanka". <i>From Birch Bark to Digital Data: Recent Advances in Buddhist Manuscript Research: Papers Presented at the Conference Indic Buddhist Manuscripts: The State of the Field. Stanford, June 15-19 2009</i>. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 367–404. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt1vw0q4q.26">10.2307/j.ctt1vw0q4q.26</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-7581-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-7581-0"><bdi>978-3-7001-7581-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1vw0q4q.26">j.ctt1vw0q4q.26</a>. <q>The four oldest known Sinhalese Pali manuscripts date from the <a href="/wiki/Dambadeniya_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Dambadeniya kingdom">Dambadeniya kingdom</a> period.......The oldest manuscript, the <a href="/wiki/Cullavagga" class="mw-redirect" title="Cullavagga">Cullavagga</a> in the possession of the library of the <a href="/wiki/Colombo_National_Museum" title="Colombo National Museum">Colombo National Museum</a>, dates from the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Parakramabahu_II_of_Dambadeniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Parakramabahu II of Dambadeniya">Parakramabahu II</a> (1236–1237)......Another old manuscript dating from this period is a manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Paramatthama%C3%B1jus%C4%81" title="Paramatthamañjusā">Paramatthamañjusā</a>, the Visuddhimagga commentary......Another old manuscript, of the Sāratthadīpanī, a sub-commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Samantapasadika" title="Samantapasadika">Samantapāsādikā</a> Vinaya commentary......According to Wickramaratne (1967: 21) another 13th-century manuscript, containing the <a href="/wiki/Mahavagga" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavagga">Mahavagga</a> of the Vinaya Pitaka......Another source ascribes it to the 15th century, along with a <a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a> manuscript......Another 15th-century manuscript of the Sāratthadīpanī is at the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliothèque Nationale">Bibliothèque Nationale</a> in Paris.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pali+Manuscripts+of+Sri+Lanka&rft.btitle=From+Birch+Bark+to+Digital+Data%3A+Recent+Advances+in+Buddhist+Manuscript+Research%3A+Papers+Presented+at+the+Conference+Indic+Buddhist+Manuscripts%3A+The+State+of+the+Field.+Stanford%2C+June+15-19+2009&rft.pages=367-404&rft.pub=Austrian+Academy+of+Sciences+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1vw0q4q.26%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt1vw0q4q.26&rft.isbn=978-3-7001-7581-0&rft.aulast=%C3%91%C4%81%E1%B9%87atusita&rft.aufirst=Bhikkhu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dict_hist-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dict_hist_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dict_hist_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dict_hist_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGethinStraube2018" class="citation journal cs1">Gethin, Rupert; Straube, Martin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cari.ne.jp/search/detail/paper/id/779">"The Pali Text Society's A Dictionary of Pāli"</a>. <i>Bulletin of Chuo Academic Research Institute (Chuo Gakujutsu Kenkyūjo Kiyō)</i>. <b>47</b>: 169–185.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Chuo+Academic+Research+Institute+%28Chuo+Gakujutsu+Kenky%C5%ABjo+Kiy%C5%8D%29&rft.atitle=The+Pali+Text+Society%27s+A+Dictionary+of+P%C4%81li&rft.volume=47&rft.pages=169-185&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Gethin&rft.aufirst=Rupert&rft.au=Straube%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cari.ne.jp%2Fsearch%2Fdetail%2Fpaper%2Fid%2F779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fsnow.com/text/buddhist-india/chapter9.htm">Buddhist India, ch. 9</a> Retrieved 14 June 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hazra, Kanai Lal. <i>Pāli Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study.</i> D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, page 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hazra, Kanai Lal. <i>Pāli Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study.</i> D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, pages 1–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hazra, Kanai Lal. <i>Pāli Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study.</i> D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, page 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hazra, Kanai Lal. <i>Pāli Language and Literature; a systematic survey and historical study.</i> D.K. Printworld Lrd., New Delhi, 1994, page 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. R. Norman, <i>Pāli Literature</i>. Otto Harrassowitz, 1983, pages 1–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warder,_A._K._2000._p._284-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warder,_A._K._2000._p._284_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warder,_A._K._2000._p._284_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Warder, A. K. <i>Indian Buddhism</i>. 2000. p. 284</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Kalupahana" title="David Kalupahana">David Kalupahana</a>, <i>Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way.</i> SUNY Press, 1986, page 19. The author refers specifically to the thought of early Buddhism here.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dispeller of Delusion</i>, Pali Text Society, volume II, pages 127f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBook2012" class="citation book cs1">Book, Chroniker Press (29 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3176AwAAQBAJ"><i>Epitome of the Pali Canon</i></a>. Lulu.com. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-300-32715-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-300-32715-8"><bdi>978-1-300-32715-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epitome+of+the+Pali+Canon&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2012-10-29&rft.isbn=978-1-300-32715-8&rft.aulast=Book&rft.aufirst=Chroniker+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3176AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Wikipedia_and_sources_that_mirror_or_use_it" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="This claim cites another Wikipedia article. Articles need references to reliable third-party sources. (August 2023)">circular reference</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Negi (2000), "Pali Language", <i>Students' Britannica India</i>, vol. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw1932" class="citation journal cs1">Law, Bimala Churn (January 1932). "Non-Canonical Pali Literature". <i>Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 97–143. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41688230">41688230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Bhandarkar+Oriental+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Non-Canonical+Pali+Literature&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=97-143&rft.date=1932-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41688230%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=Bimala+Churn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_Hinüber1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oskar_von_Hin%C3%BCber" title="Oskar von Hinüber">Von Hinüber, Oskar</a> (1997). <i>A Handbook of Pali Literature</i> (1st Indian ed.). New Delhi: Munishiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-215-0778-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-215-0778-2"><bdi>81-215-0778-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Pali+Literature&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=83&rft.edition=1st+Indian&rft.pub=Munishiram+Manoharlal+Publishers+Pvt.+Ltd.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=81-215-0778-2&rft.aulast=Von+Hin%C3%BCber&rft.aufirst=Oskar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Konow-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Konow_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Konow_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/dmg/periodical/pageview/56372">"181 [95] – The home of the Paisaci – The home of the Paisaci – Page – Zeitschriften der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft – MENAdoc – Digital Collections"</a>. <i>menadoc.bibliothek.Uni-Halle.de</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=menadoc.bibliothek.Uni-Halle.de&rft.atitle=181+%5B95%5D+%E2%80%93+The+home+of+the+Paisaci+%E2%80%93+The+home+of+the+Paisaci+%E2%80%93+Page+%E2%80%93+Zeitschriften+der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft+%E2%80%93+MENAdoc+%E2%80%93+Digital+Collections&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmenadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de%2Fdmg%2Fperiodical%2Fpageview%2F56372&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yao, Zhihua. <i>The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition.</i> 2012. p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Master-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Master_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/186271058/An-Unpublished-Fragment-of-Paisachi">"An Unpublished Fragment of Paisachi – Sanskrit – Pali"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2019</span> – via Scribd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Unpublished+Fragment+of+Paisachi+%E2%80%93+Sanskrit+%E2%80%93+Pali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F186271058%2FAn-Unpublished-Fragment-of-Paisachi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstance_JonesJames_D._Ryan2006" class="citation book cs1">Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA42"><i>Encyclopedia of Hinduism</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7564-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7564-5"><bdi>978-0-8160-7564-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Hinduism&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5&rft.au=Constance+Jones&rft.au=James+D.+Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOgMmceadQ3gC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bashan A.L., <i>The Wonder that was India</i>, Picador, 2004, pp.394</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerniola1997" class="citation book cs1">Perniola, Vito (1997). <i>A Grammar of the Pali Language</i>. Pali Text Society. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0860133540" title="Special:BookSources/0860133540"><bdi>0860133540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+Pali+Language&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Pali+Text+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0860133540&rft.aulast=Perniola&rft.aufirst=Vito&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiger1996" class="citation book cs1">Geiger, Wilhelm (October 1996). <i>Pali Literature and Language 2nd edition</i>. Orintal Books Reptint Corporation Delhi_6. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8170690773" title="Special:BookSources/8170690773"><bdi>8170690773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pali+Literature+and+Language+2nd+edition&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Orintal+Books+Reptint+Corporation+Delhi_6&rft.date=1996-10&rft.isbn=8170690773&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerniola1997" class="citation book cs1">Perniola, Vito (1997). <i>A Grammar of the Pali Language</i>. Pali Text Society. pp. 9, 10, 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0860133540" title="Special:BookSources/0860133540"><bdi>0860133540</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+Pali+Language&rft.pages=9%2C+10%2C+11&rft.pub=Pali+Text+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0860133540&rft.aulast=Perniola&rft.aufirst=Vito&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (2007-07-26). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Inscriptions of Aśoka</i> by Alexander Cunningham, Eugen Hultzsch. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. Calcutta: 1877</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiasMiriyagalla2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dias, Malini; Miriyagalla, Das (2007). "Brahmi Script in Relation to Mesopotamian Cuneiform". <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka</i>. <b>53</b>: 91–108. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23731201">23731201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society+of+Sri+Lanka&rft.atitle=Brahmi+Script+in+Relation+to+Mesopotamian+Cuneiform&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=91-108&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23731201%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dias&rft.aufirst=Malini&rft.au=Miriyagalla%2C+Das&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosbyKyaw2022" class="citation web cs1">Crosby, Kate; Kyaw, Pyi Phyo (19 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-764">"Practices of Protection in the Pali World"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.764">10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.764</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934037-8"><bdi>978-0-19-934037-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Practices+of+Protection+in+the+Pali+World&rft.date=2022-10-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.013.764&rft.isbn=978-0-19-934037-8&rft.aulast=Crosby&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft.au=Kyaw%2C+Pyi+Phyo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Freligion%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199340378.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199340378-e-764&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2019" class="citation cs2">Ray, Himanshu Prabha (25 January 2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-214">"Archaeology of Buddhism in Asia"</a>, <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277727.013.214">10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.214</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027772-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027772-7"><bdi>978-0-19-027772-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Archaeology+of+Buddhism+in+Asia&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Asian+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019-01-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277727.013.214&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027772-7&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Himanshu+Prabha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fasianhistory%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277727.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190277727-e-214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDjité2011" class="citation book cs1">Djité, Paulin G. (2011). <i>The Language Difference: Language and Development in the Greater Mekong Sub-region</i>. Multilingual Matters. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84769-340-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84769-340-2"><bdi>978-1-84769-340-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+Difference%3A+Language+and+Development+in+the+Greater+Mekong+Sub-region&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Multilingual+Matters&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84769-340-2&rft.aulast=Djit%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Paulin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker2011" class="citation web cs1">Becker, Stuart Alan (8 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.phnompenhpost.com/post-plus/chuon-nath-guardian-cambodian-culture">"Chuon Nath: Guardian of cambodian culture"</a>. <i>Phnom Penh Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phnom+Penh+Post&rft.atitle=Chuon+Nath%3A+Guardian+of+cambodian+culture&rft.date=2011-04-08&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.phnompenhpost.com%2Fpost-plus%2Fchuon-nath-guardian-cambodian-culture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDaniel2010" class="citation book cs1">McDaniel, Justin Thomas (1 December 2010). <i>Gathering Leaves and Lifting Words: Histories of Buddhist Monastic Education in Laos and Thailand</i>. University of Washington Press. pp. 187–188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98922-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98922-8"><bdi>978-0-295-98922-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gathering+Leaves+and+Lifting+Words%3A+Histories+of+Buddhist+Monastic+Education+in+Laos+and+Thailand&rft.pages=187-188&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2010-12-01&rft.isbn=978-0-295-98922-8&rft.aulast=McDaniel&rft.aufirst=Justin+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPe2018" class="citation cs2">Pe, Hla (25 June 2018), "Part D. On Language", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1355/9789814377904-007/html"><i>Burma</i></a>, ISEAS Publishing, pp. 103–138, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1355%2F9789814377904-007">10.1355/9789814377904-007</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4377-90-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4377-90-4"><bdi>978-981-4377-90-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+D.+On+Language&rft.btitle=Burma&rft.pages=103-138&rft.pub=ISEAS+Publishing&rft.date=2018-06-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1355%2F9789814377904-007&rft.isbn=978-981-4377-90-4&rft.aulast=Pe&rft.aufirst=Hla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1355%2F9789814377904-007%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenny2013" class="citation journal cs1">Jenny, Mathias (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/81044">"The Mon language:recipient and donor between Burmese and Thai"</a>. <i>Journal of Language and Culture</i>. <b>31</b> (2): 5–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5167%2FUZH-81044">10.5167/UZH-81044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Mon+language%3Arecipient+and+donor+between+Burmese+and+Thai&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=5-33&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5167%2FUZH-81044&rft.aulast=Jenny&rft.aufirst=Mathias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zora.uzh.ch%2Fid%2Feprint%2F81044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatleyHnin_Tun1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatley, Julian; Hnin Tun, San San (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/411086">"Languages in Contact: The Case of English and Burmese"</a>. <i>Journal of Burma Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 61–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjbs.1999.0001">10.1353/jbs.1999.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2010-314X">2010-314X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Burma+Studies&rft.atitle=Languages+in+Contact%3A+The+Case+of+English+and+Burmese&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-99&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjbs.1999.0001&rft.issn=2010-314X&rft.aulast=Wheatley&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft.au=Hnin+Tun%2C+San+San&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F411086&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbe-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bbe_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkell2002" class="citation book cs1">Okell, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420002442/https://www.soas.ac.uk/bbe/file53735.pdf"><i>Burmese By Ear</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/186013758X" title="Special:BookSources/186013758X"><bdi>186013758X</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soas.ac.uk/bbe/file53735.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Burmese+By+Ear&rft.pub=The+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies%2C+University+of+London&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=186013758X&rft.aulast=Okell&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soas.ac.uk%2Fbbe%2Ffile53735.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie2018" class="citation book cs1">Comrie, Bernard (2018). <i>The World's Major Languages</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-29049-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-29049-0"><bdi>978-1-317-29049-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Major+Languages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-317-29049-0&rft.aulast=Comrie&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYanson2002" class="citation cs2">Yanson, Rudolf A. (1 January 2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047401308/B9789047401308_s008.xml">"On Pali-Burmese Interference"</a>, <i>Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages</i>, Brill, pp. 39–57, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789047401308_008">10.1163/9789047401308_008</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0130-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0130-8"><bdi>978-90-474-0130-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Tibeto-Burman+Languages&rft.atitle=On+Pali-Burmese+Interference&rft.pages=39-57&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789047401308_008&rft.isbn=978-90-474-0130-8&rft.aulast=Yanson&rft.aufirst=Rudolf+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789047401308%2FB9789047401308_s008.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilvaSilva2005" class="citation book cs1">Silva, K. M. De; Silva, Kingsley M. De (2005). <i>A History of Sri Lanka</i>. Penguin Books India. pp. 77–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-8095-92-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-955-8095-92-8"><bdi>978-955-8095-92-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sri+Lanka&rft.pages=77-79&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+India&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-955-8095-92-8&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=K.+M.+De&rft.au=Silva%2C+Kingsley+M.+De&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: General sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller1995" class="citation book cs1">Müller, Edward (1995) [First published 1884]. <i>Simplified Grammar of the Pali Language</i>. Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-206-1103-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-206-1103-9"><bdi>81-206-1103-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Simplified+Grammar+of+the+Pali+Language&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=81-206-1103-9&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>American National Standards Institute. (1979). <i>American National Standard system for the romanization of Lao, Khmer, and Pali</i>. New York: The institute.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersen1907" class="citation book cs1">Andersen, Dines (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924071132082"><i>A Pali Reader</i></a>. Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, Nordisk Forlag. p. 310<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Pali+Reader&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=310&rft.pub=Gyldendalske+Boghandel%2C+Nordisk+Forlag&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=Dines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924071132082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APali" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mahathera Buddhadatta (1998). <i>Concise Pāli-English Dictionary. Quickly find the meaning of a word, without the detailed grammatical and contextual analysis.</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8120806050" title="Special:BookSources/8120806050">8120806050</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Collins_(Buddhist_studies_scholar)" title="Steven Collins (Buddhist studies scholar)">Collins, Steven</a> (2006). <i>A Pali Grammar for Students</i>. Silkworm Press.</li> <li>Gupta, K. M. (2006). <i>Linguistic approach to meaning in Pali</i>. New Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7574-170-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-7574-170-8">81-7574-170-8</a></li> <li>Hazra, K. L. (1994). <i>Pāli language and literature: a systematic survey and historical study</i>. Emerging perceptions in Buddhist studies, no. 4–5. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-246-0004-X" title="Special:BookSources/81-246-0004-X">81-246-0004-X</a></li> <li>Martineau, Lynn (1998). <i>Pāli Workbook Pāli Vocabulary from the 10-day Vipassana Course of S. N. Goenka</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1928706045" title="Special:BookSources/1928706045">1928706045</a>.</li> <li>Müller, Edward (2003) [1884]. <i>The Pali language: a simplified grammar</i>. Trübner's collection of simplified grammars. London: Trubner. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84453-001-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84453-001-9">1-84453-001-9</a></li> <li>Bhikkhu Nanamoli. <i>A Pāli-English Glossary of Buddhist technical terms</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9552400864" title="Special:BookSources/9552400864">9552400864</a></li> <li>Perniola, V. (1997). <i>Pali Grammar</i>, Oxford, The Pali Text Society.</li> <li>Soothill, W. E., & Hodous, L. (1937). <i>A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms: with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index</i>. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.</li> <li>Webb, Russell (ed.) <i>An Analysis of the Pali Canon</i>, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy; 1975, 1991 (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.bps.lk/reference.asp">http://www.bps.lk/reference.asp</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603122253/http://www.bps.lk/reference.asp">Archived</a> 3 June 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li>Wallis, Glenn (2011). <i>Buddhavacana, a Pali reader</i> (PDF eBook). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/192870686X" title="Special:BookSources/192870686X">192870686X</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pali&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="pi:"> Pali edition</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Pali" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Pali">Pali</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pali_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pali language">Pali language</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dhamma.ru/paali/palisan.htm">Reconstruction of Ancient Indian sound clusters on the basis of Pali sounds (according to <i>Grammatik des Pali</i> by Achim Fahs)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150911082033/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Concise%20Pali%20English%20Dictionary_Buddhadatta.pdf">Buddhadatta Mahāthera, A. P. (1958). <i>Concise Pāli-English Dictionary</i>.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="25px&#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Buddhism_topics" title="Template:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Buddhism_topics" title="Template talk:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="25px&#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/25px-Buddhism_Symbol.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/38px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/50px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="278" /></a></span>   Topics in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>   <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/25px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">Buddhist crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism-related_lists" title="Category:Buddhism-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bodhisattvas" title="List of bodhisattvas">Bodhisattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhas">Buddhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">Suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/24px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/32px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Buddhism" title="Portal:Buddhism">Buddhism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indo-Aryan_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Template:Indo-Aryan languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Template talk:Indo-Aryan languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-Aryan languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indo-Aryan_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dardic_languages" title="Dardic languages">Dardic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kashmiri</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishtwari" title="Kishtwari">Kishtwari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Shina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shina_language" title="Shina language">Shina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brokskat" title="Brokskat">Brokskat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundal_Shahi_language" title="Kundal Shahi language">Kundal Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalkoti_language" title="Kalkoti language">Kalkoti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushoji_language" title="Ushoji language">Ushoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palula_language" title="Palula language">Palula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawi_language_(Dardic)" title="Sawi language (Dardic)">Sawi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pashayi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashayi_languages" title="Pashayi languages">Pashayi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kunar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dameli_language" title="Dameli language">Dameli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gawar-Bati_language" title="Gawar-Bati language">Gawar-Bati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nangalami_language" title="Nangalami language">Nangalami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shumashti_language" title="Shumashti language">Shumashti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wotapuri-Katarqalai_language" title="Wotapuri-Katarqalai language">Wotapuri-Katarqalai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chitral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalasha-mun" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalasha-mun">Kalasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khowar" title="Khowar">Khowar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hazara Division</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Kohistani" title="Indus Kohistani">Indus Kohistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateri_language" title="Bateri language">Bateri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilisso_language" title="Chilisso language">Chilisso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gowro_language" title="Gowro language">Gowro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalami language">Kalami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirahi_language" title="Tirahi language">Tirahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mankiyali_language" title="Mankiyali language">Mankiyali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Northern Indo-Aryan languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doteli" title="Doteli">Doteli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumli_language" title="Jumli language">Jumli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garhwali_language" title="Garhwali language">Garhwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaoni_language" title="Kumaoni language">Kumaoni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Pahari" title="Western Pahari">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangri_language" title="Kangri language">Kangri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhadarwahi_language" title="Bhadarwahi language">Bhadarwahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Churahi" title="Churahi">Churahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhateali" title="Bhateali">Bhateali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilaspuri" title="Bilaspuri">Bilaspuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chambeali" title="Chambeali">Chambeali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaddi_language" title="Gaddi language">Gaddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangwali" title="Pangwali">Pangwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandeali" title="Mandeali">Mandeali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasu_Pahari" title="Mahasu Pahari">Mahasu Pahari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaunsari_language" title="Jaunsari language">Jaunsari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kullui" title="Kullui">Kullui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahari_Kinnauri_language" title="Pahari Kinnauri language">Pahari Kinnauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduri_language" title="Hinduri language">Hinduri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirmauri_language" title="Sirmauri language">Sirmauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarazi_language" title="Sarazi language">Sarazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northwestern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Punjabi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_dialects_and_languages" title="Punjabi dialects and languages">dialects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sansi_language" title="Sansi language">Sansi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lahnda" title="Lahnda">Lahnda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindko" title="Hindko">Hindko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inku_language" title="Inku language">Inku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khetrani_language" title="Khetrani language">Khetrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahari-Pothwari" title="Pahari-Pothwari">Pahari-Pothwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraiki_language" title="Saraiki language">Saraiki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_languages" title="Sindhi languages">Sindhi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jadgali_language" title="Jadgali language">Jadgali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholosi_language" title="Kholosi language">Kholosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutchi_language" title="Kutchi language">Kutchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwati_language" title="Luwati language">Luwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoni_language" title="Memoni language">Memoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_languages" title="Gujarati languages">Gujarati</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aer_language" title="Aer language">Aer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lisan_ud-Dawat" title="Lisan ud-Dawat">Lisan ud-Dawat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jandavra_language" title="Jandavra language">Jandavra</a></li> <li>Koli <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kachi_Koli_language" title="Kachi Koli language">Kachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkari_Koli_language" title="Parkari Koli language">Parkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadiyara_Koli_language" title="Wadiyara Koli language">Wadiyara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_language" title="Saurashtra language">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaghri_language" title="Vaghri language">Vaghri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagri_language" title="Bagri language">Bagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goaria_language" title="Goaria language">Goaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loarki_language" title="Loarki language">Loarki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujari_language" title="Gujari language">Gujari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhundari_language" title="Dhundari language">Dhundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harauti_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Harauti language">Harauti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malvi_language" title="Malvi language">Malvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwari_language" title="Marwari language">Marwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mewati_language" title="Mewati language">Mewati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mewari_language" title="Mewari language">Mewari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shekhawati_language" title="Shekhawati language">Shekhawati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhatki_language" title="Dhatki language">Dhatki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Od_language" title="Od language">Od</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimadi_language" title="Nimadi language">Nimadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bhil_languages" title="Bhil languages">Bhil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhili_language" title="Bhili language">Bhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhilali_language" title="Bhilali language">Bhilali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chodri_language" title="Chodri language">Chodri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhodia%E2%80%93Kukna_language" title="Dhodia–Kukna language">Dhodia–Kukna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhanki_language" title="Dhanki language">Dhanki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubli_language" title="Dubli language">Dubli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauria_language" title="Bauria language">Bauria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhilori_language" title="Bhilori language">Bhilori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawchi_language" title="Mawchi language">Mawchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magari_language" title="Magari language">Magari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palya_Bareli_language" title="Palya Bareli language">Palya Bareli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauri_Bareli_language" title="Pauri Bareli language">Pauri Bareli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rathwi_Bareli_language" title="Rathwi Bareli language">Rathwi Bareli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardhi_language" title="Pardhi language">Pardhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamit_language" title="Gamit language">Gamit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalto_language" title="Kalto language">Kalto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasavi_language" title="Vasavi language">Vasavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagdi" title="Wagdi">Wagdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaagri_Booli_language" title="Vaagri Booli language">Vaagri Booli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khandeshi_language" title="Khandeshi language">Khandeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambadi" title="Lambadi">Lambadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_language" title="Dawoodi language">Dawoodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Romani_languages" title="Template:Romani languages">list of languages</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Central Indo-Aryan languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braj_Bhasha" title="Braj Bhasha">Braj Bhasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeli_language" title="Bundeli language">Bundeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryanvi_language" title="Haryanvi language">Haryanvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kauravi_dialect" title="Kauravi dialect">Kauravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a>/<a href="/wiki/Urdish" title="Urdish">Urdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deccani_language" title="Deccani language">Deccani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabadi_Urdu" title="Hyderabadi Urdu">Hyderabadi Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rekhta" title="Rekhta">Rekhta</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannauji_language" title="Kannauji language">Kannauji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sansi_language" title="Sansi language">Sansi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadhukkadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadhukkadi">Sadhukkadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awadhi_language" title="Awadhi language">Awadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagheli_language" title="Bagheli language">Bagheli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarhi_language" title="Chhattisgarhi language">Chhattisgarhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiji_Hindi" title="Fiji Hindi">Fiji Hindi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parya_language" title="Parya language">Parya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Eastern Indo-Aryan languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bihari_languages" title="Bihari languages">Bihari</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bhojpuric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Hindustani" title="Caribbean Hindustani">Caribbean Hindustani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magahi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magahi_language" title="Magahi language">Magahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khortha_language" title="Khortha language">Khortha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maithili</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angika" title="Angika">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajjika" title="Bajjika">Bajjika</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sadanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadri language">Sadri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurmali_language" title="Kurmali language">Kurmali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tharuic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tharu_languages" title="Tharu languages">Tharu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kochila_Tharu" title="Kochila Tharu">Kochila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buksa_language" title="Buksa language">Buksa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majhi_language" title="Majhi language">Majhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musasa_language" title="Musasa language">Musasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumhali_language" title="Kumhali language">Kumhali</a></li> <li>Kuswaric <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bote-Darai_language" title="Bote-Darai language">Bote-Darai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danwar_language" title="Danwar language">Danwar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gauda%E2%80%93Kamarupa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauda–Kamarupa languages">Gauda–<br />Kamarupa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bengali</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_dialects" title="Bengali dialects">dialects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishnupriya_Manipuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishnupriya Manipuri language">Bishnupriya Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharia_Thar_language" title="Kharia Thar language">Kharia Thar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurmukar_language" title="Kurmukar language">Kurmukar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mal_Paharia_language" title="Mal Paharia language">Mal Paharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noakhailla_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Noakhailla language">Noakhailla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_language" title="Tanchangya language">Tanchangya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kamarupic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamrupi_dialects" title="Kamrupi dialects">Kamrupi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goalpariya_dialects" title="Goalpariya dialects">Goalpariya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajbanshi_language_(Nepal)" title="Rajbanshi language (Nepal)">Rajbanshi (Nepal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rangpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surjapuri_language" title="Surjapuri language">Surjapuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chittagonian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chittagonian_language" title="Chittagonian language">Chittagonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_language" title="Chakma language">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_language" title="Rohingya language">Rohingya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Odia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambalpuri_language" title="Sambalpuri language">Sambalpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desia_language" title="Desia language">Desia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhatri_language" title="Bhatri language">Bhatri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_Parja_language" title="Bodo Parja language">Bodo Parja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reli_language" title="Reli language">Reli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kupia_language" title="Kupia language">Kupia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Halbic_languages" title="Halbic languages">Halbic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halbi_language" title="Halbi language">Halbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamar_language" title="Kamar language">Kamar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhunjia_language_(Halbic)" title="Bhunjia language (Halbic)">Bhunjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahari_language" title="Nahari language">Nahari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marathi-Konkani_languages" title="Marathi-Konkani languages">Marathi–<br />Konkani</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marathic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varhadi_dialect" title="Varhadi dialect">Varhadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andh_language" title="Andh language">Andh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berar-Deccan_Marathi" title="Berar-Deccan Marathi">Berar Deccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varli_language" title="Varli language">Varli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phudagi_language" title="Phudagi language">Phudagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katkari_language" title="Katkari language">Katkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadodi_language" title="Kadodi language">Kadodi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Konkanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtrian_Konkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharashtrian Konkani">Maharashtrian Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canarese_Konkani" title="Canarese Konkani">Canarese Konkani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Maldivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni" title="Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni">Mitanni superstrate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashokan_Prakrit" title="Ashokan Prakrit">Ashokan Prakrit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardhamagadhi_Prakrit" title="Ardhamagadhi Prakrit">Early Ardhamagadhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle (<a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_Prakrit" title="Dramatic Prakrit">Dramatic Prakrits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ardhamagadhi_Prakrit" title="Ardhamagadhi Prakrit">Ardhamagadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit" title="Magadhi Prakrit">Magadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtri_Prakrit" title="Maharashtri Prakrit">Maharashtri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shauraseni_Prakrit" title="Shauraseni Prakrit">Shauraseni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gāndhārī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudi_Prakrit" title="Gaudi Prakrit">Gaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paishachi" title="Paishachi">Paishachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late (<a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśa</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abahattha" title="Abahattha">Abahattha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elu" title="Elu">Elu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamarupi_Prakrit" title="Kamarupi Prakrit">Kamarupi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khasa_Prakrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Khasa Prakrit language">Khasa Prakrit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Badeshi" title="Badeshi">Badeshi</a> (unknown further classification)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazigar_language" title="Bazigar language">Bazigar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinali%E2%80%93Lahul_languages" title="Chinali–Lahul languages">Chinali–Lahul</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinali_language" title="Chinali language">Chinali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahul_Lohar_language" title="Lahul Lohar language">Lahul Lohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikhgal" title="Sheikhgal">Sheikhgal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pidgins<br />and creoles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andaman_Creole_Hindi" title="Andaman Creole Hindi">Andaman Creole Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Hindi" title="Bombay Hindi">Bombay Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haflong_Hindi" title="Haflong Hindi">Haflong Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagamese_creole" title="Nagamese creole">Nagamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefamese" title="Nefamese">Nefamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda_language" title="Vedda language">Vedda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani languages</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Template:Languages of Sri Lanka"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Template talk:Languages of Sri Lanka"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Sri Lanka"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Languages of Sri Lanka">Languages of Sri Lanka</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_dialects" title="Sri Lankan Tamil dialects">Sri Lankan Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_English" title="Sri Lankan English">Sri Lankan English</a><sup>1</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Malay_language" title="Sri Lanka Malay language">Sri Lankan Malay</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pali</a><sup>2</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Portuguese_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole">Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda_language" title="Vedda language">Vedda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_sign_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan sign languages">Sri Lankan sign languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formerly spoken and extinct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arwi" title="Arwi">Arwi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ceylon_Creole_Dutch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ceylon Creole Dutch (page does not exist)">Ceylon Creole Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodiya_dialect" title="Rodiya dialect">Rodiya</a><sup>3</sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><sup>1</sup><i>Recognized as a "link" language</i> <sup>2</sup><i>a liturgical language</i> <sup>3</sup><i>a dialect of Sinhala</i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36727#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36727#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36727#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1051644/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4044406-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85097195">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Pāli (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11963369m">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Pāli (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11963369m">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569055">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="jazyk páli"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph135843&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007560658905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pali&oldid=1258570057">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pali&oldid=1258570057</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pali" title="Category:Pali">Pali</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Category:Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Classical_Language_in_India" title="Category:Classical Language in India">Classical Language in India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sacred_languages" title="Category:Sacred languages">Sacred languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_languages" title="Category:Ancient languages">Ancient languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_written_in_Brahmic_scripts" title="Category:Languages written in Brahmic scripts">Languages written in Brahmic scripts</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_August_2023" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from August 2023">Articles lacking reliable references from August 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_external_links_cleanup_from_November_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia external links cleanup from November 2024">Wikipedia external links cleanup from November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_non-English_text_lacking_appropriate_markup_and_no_ISO_hint" title="Category:Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup and no ISO hint">Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup and no ISO hint</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_non-English_text_lacking_appropriate_markup_from_April_2019" title="Category:Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup from April 2019">Pages with non-English text lacking appropriate markup from April 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2020" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2020">Use dmy dates from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_Indian_English_from_May_2016" title="Category:Use Indian English from May 2016">Use Indian English from May 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_Indian_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English">All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Pali-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Pali-language text">Articles containing Pali-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_undetermined_IPA" title="Category:Pages with undetermined IPA">Pages with undetermined IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_with_Linglist_code" title="Category:Language articles with Linglist code">Language articles with Linglist code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_with_ISO_639-2_code" title="Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code">Languages with ISO 639-2 code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_with_ISO_639-1_code" title="Category:Languages with ISO 639-1 code">Languages with ISO 639-1 code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extinct_ISO_language_articles_citing_sources_other_than_Ethnologue" title="Category:Extinct ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue">Extinct ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_accuracy_disputes" title="Category:All accuracy disputes">All accuracy disputes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_disputed_statements_from_November_2013" title="Category:Articles with disputed statements from November 2013">Articles with disputed statements from November 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 12:29<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pali&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-gxw57","wgBackendResponseTime":173,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.097","walltime":"2.533","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17026,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":348626,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":16840,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":18,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":234361,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2008.579 1 -total"," 22.29% 447.616 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 21.81% 438.153 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.50% 411.835 1 Template:Infobox"," 9.18% 184.310 2 Template:Flatlist"," 7.52% 151.063 14 Template:Lang"," 7.26% 145.751 24 Template:Cite_book"," 6.13% 123.139 7 Template:Cite_web"," 5.35% 107.469 15 Template:Rp"," 4.98% 100.062 2 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.046","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19834727,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","23.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","140","11.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","11.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","7.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","6.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","4.8"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","60","4.8"],["makeMessage \u003Cmw.message.lua:76\u003E","40","3.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","40","3.2"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","3.2"],["[others]","260","20.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-lsb4r","timestamp":"20241122140458","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Pali","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pali","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q36727","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q36727","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-16T17:49:55Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T12:29:48Z","headline":"Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent"}</script> </body> </html>