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<span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hồ_dynasty_(1400–07)_and_Ming_conquest_(1407–27)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hồ_dynasty_(1400–07)_and_Ming_conquest_(1407–27)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Hồ dynasty (1400–07) and Ming conquest (1407–27)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hồ_dynasty_(1400–07)_and_Ming_conquest_(1407–27)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-15th_to_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#15th_to_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>15th to 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-15th_to_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Indochina_and_the_Latin_alphabet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Indochina_and_the_Latin_alphabet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>French Indochina and the Latin alphabet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Indochina_and_the_Latin_alphabet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Texts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Texts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_of_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Types of texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Characters</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Characters-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Characters subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Variant_characters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variant_characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Variant characters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variant_characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Borrowed_characters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Borrowed_characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Borrowed characters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Borrowed_characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locally_invented_characters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locally_invented_characters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Locally invented characters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locally_invented_characters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Example</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_encoding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_encoding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Computer encoding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_encoding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Texts_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Texts_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fonts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fonts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Fonts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fonts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chữ Nôm</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%88_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85" title="تشو نوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تشو نوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%AB-l%C3%A2m" title="Jī-lâm – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jī-lâm" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chu_Nom" title="Chu Nom – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Chu Nom" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%AF%94%EB%86%88" title="쯔놈 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="쯔놈" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksara_Nom" title="Aksara Nom – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Aksara Nom" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%83%A5%E3%83%8E%E3%83%A0" title="チュノム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チュノム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nom_yozuvi" title="Nom yozuvi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nom yozuvi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_n%C3%B4m" title="Chữ nôm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chữ nôm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8C%D1%8B-%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Тьы-ном – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тьы-ном" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B4m" title="Nôm – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nôm" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_n%C3%B4m" title="Chữ nôm – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Chữ nôm" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%8B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A1" title="จื๋อโนม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จื๋อโนม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chữ Nôm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%83%E5%AD%97" title="喃字 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="喃字" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%83%E5%AD%97" title="喃字 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="喃字" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%83%E5%AD%97" title="喃字 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="喃字" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%83%E5%AD%97" title="喃字 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="喃字" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chinese-based Vietnamese writing system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em; background:mistyrose;">Chữ Nôm<br /><div style="font-weight:normal"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1051880798">.mw-parser-output .vi-nom{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Nom Na Tong","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","HAN NOM A","HAN NOM B","Han-Nom Kai","TH-Khaai-TP0","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP0","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP0","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP0","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP0","TH-Ming-JP2","Sun-ExtA","Sun-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-UNI-H","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinA","HanaMinB","HanaMin","MingLiU","MingLiU-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","SimSun","SimSun-ExtB","FZKaiT-Extended","FZKaiT-Extended(SIP)",sans-serif}.mw-parser-output .vi-nom.ext{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP2","BabelStone Han","Sun-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinB","Han-Nom Kai",sans-serif}</style><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𡨸喃</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding-top:0.4em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m_(Kh%E1%BA%A3i_th%C6%B0).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m_%28Kh%E1%BA%A3i_th%C6%B0%29.svg/140px-Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m_%28Kh%E1%BA%A3i_th%C6%B0%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m_%28Kh%E1%BA%A3i_th%C6%B0%29.svg/210px-Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m_%28Kh%E1%BA%A3i_th%C6%B0%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m_%28Kh%E1%BA%A3i_th%C6%B0%29.svg/280px-Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m_%28Kh%E1%BA%A3i_th%C6%B0%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="61" data-file-height="86" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Script type</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">Logographic</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Time period</div></th><td class="infobox-data">13th century<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – 20th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Direction</th><td class="infobox-data">Top-to-bottom, columns from right to left (<a href="/wiki/Horizontal_and_vertical_writing_in_East_Asian_scripts" title="Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts">traditional</a>)<br />Left-to-right (modern)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Related scripts</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Parent systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="padding-top:0.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>)<ul><li>Chữ Nôm</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Child systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Nom Tay<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977252_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977252-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Sister systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESun2015552–553_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESun2015552–553-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="text-align:left; background:#eee;"><span style="font-size:90%"> This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</span></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Chu_nom.svg/26px-Chu_nom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Chu_nom.svg/39px-Chu_nom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Chu_nom.svg/52px-Chu_nom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="779" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a class="mw-selflink selflink">chữ Nôm</a> text.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support_(East_Asian)" title="Help:Multilingual support (East Asian)">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">chữ Nôm</a>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1233430381">.mw-parser-output .characters-body{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-content{padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{background-color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{background-color:lightpink;white-space:nowrap;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .blist ol li,.mw-parser-output .blist ul li{display:list-item;text-align:left;text-indent:hanging 1em;margin-left:1em}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks noprint characters-body"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_characters_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese characters"><img alt="Chinese characters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/220px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/330px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Chinese_characters_logo.svg/440px-Chinese_characters_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="177" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></i></span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Written Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Evolution of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_script_styles" title="Chinese script styles">script styles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_symbols_in_China" title="Neolithic symbols in China">Neolithic symbols in China</a></i></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">Large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">Small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">Bird-worm</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clerical_script" title="Clerical script">Clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_script_(East_Asia)" title="Cursive script (East Asia)">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-cursive_script" title="Semi-cursive script">Semi-cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_script" title="Regular script">Regular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_brush_script" title="Flat brush script">Flat brush</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_typography" title="East Asian typography">Modern typefaces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fangsong" title="Fangsong">Fangsong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_typefaces" title="Ming typefaces">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Gothic_typeface" title="East Asian Gothic typeface">Hei</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Properties and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_classification" title="Chinese character classification">classification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_components" title="Chinese character components">Components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_strokes" title="Chinese character strokes">Strokes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_order" title="Stroke order">order</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_character_radicals" title="Chinese character radicals">Radicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters#Printing_and_typefaces" title="Chinese characters">Orthography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jiu_zixing" title="Jiu zixing"><i>jiu zixing</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xin_zixing" title="Xin zixing"><i>xin zixing</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CJK_characters" title="CJK characters">Digital encoding</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed blist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Collation and standards</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Dictionary_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Kangxi Dictionary form"><i>Kangxi Dictionary</i> forms</a> (1716)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commonly_Used_Standard_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters">Commonly Used Characters</a></i> (PRC, 2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graphemes_of_Commonly-Used_Chinese_Characters" title="List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters">Commonly-Used Characters</a></i> (Hong Kong, 2007)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Southern_Min_Recommended_Characters" title="Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters">Nan Min Recommended Characters</a></i> (Taiwan, 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standard_Form_of_National_Characters" title="Standard Form of National Characters">Standard Form of National Characters</a></i> (Taiwan, 1982)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dy%C5%8D_kanji" title="Jōyō kanji"><i>Jōyō</i> kanji</a> (Japan, 2010)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Reforms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified characters">Simplified characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_round_of_simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Second round of simplified Chinese characters">second round</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional characters">Traditional characters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_traditional_and_simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters">debate</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_script_reform" title="Japanese script reform">Japanese script reform</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABjitai" title="Kyūjitai">kyūjitai</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Homograph#In_Chinese" title="Homograph">Homographs</a> and readings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings" title="Literary and colloquial readings">Literary and colloquial readings</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">Kanbun</a></i></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Variant_Chinese_characters" title="Variant Chinese characters">Variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters_of_Empress_Wu" title="Chinese characters of Empress Wu">Zetian characters</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Derived systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">man'yōgana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen script</a></li> <li>Khitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">small</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters_for_transcribing_Slavonic" title="Chinese characters for transcribing Slavonic">Slavonic transcription</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Chinese" title="Transliteration of Chinese">Transliteration of Chinese</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Template:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Template talk:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_characters_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese characters sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Chữ Nôm</b> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A8%B8%E5%96%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡨸喃">𡨸喃</a></span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="vi-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">[t͡ɕɨ˦ˀ˥<span class="wrap"> </span>nom˧˧]</a></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logographic</a> writing system formerly used to write the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a>. It uses <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> to represent <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a> and some native Vietnamese words, with other words represented by new characters created using a variety of methods, including <a href="/wiki/Phono-semantic_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Phono-semantic compound">phono-semantic compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102–103_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102–103-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This composite script was therefore highly complex and was accessible to less than five percent of the Vietnamese population who had mastered written Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199782–83_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199782–83-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although all formal writing in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> was done in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">classical Chinese</a> until the early 20th century (except for two brief interludes),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> chữ Nôm was widely used between the 15th and 19th centuries by the Vietnamese cultured elite for popular works in the vernacular, many in verse. One of the best-known pieces of <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_literature" title="Vietnamese literature">Vietnamese literature</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Ki%E1%BB%81u" class="mw-redirect" title="The Tale of Kiều">The Tale of Kiều</a></i>, was written in chữ Nôm by <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Du" title="Nguyễn Du">Nguyễn Du</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a> created by Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> missionaries, with the earliest known usage occurring in the 17th century, replaced chữ Nôm as the preferred way to record Vietnamese literature from the 1920s. While Chinese characters are still used for decorative, historic and ceremonial value, chữ Nôm has fallen out of mainstream use in modern Vietnam. In the 21st century, chữ Nôm is being used in Vietnam for historical and <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical</a> purposes. The <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_H%C3%A1n-N%C3%B4m_Studies" title="Institute of Hán-Nôm Studies">Institute of Hán-Nôm Studies</a> at <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> is the main research centre for pre-modern texts from Vietnam, both <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">Chinese-language texts written in Chinese characters</a> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span>) and Vietnamese-language texts in chữ Nôm. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Vietnamese word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ</i></span> 'character' is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> word <span title="Tungag-language romanization"><i lang="lcm-Latn">dzi<sup>H</sup></i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:字">字</a></span>, meaning '[Chinese] character'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197726_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197726-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Nôm</i></span> 'Southern' is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> word <span title="Tungag-language romanization"><i lang="lcm-Latn">nom</i></span> <span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:南">南</a></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning 'south'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197727_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197727-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It could also be based on the dialectal pronunciation from the South Central dialects (most notably in the name of province of <i><a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_Nam_province" title="Quảng Nam province">Quảng Nam</a></i>, known locally as <i>Quảng Nôm</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many ways to write the name <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span> in chữ Nôm characters. The word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ</i></span> may be written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">字</span>, <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𫳘(⿰字宁)</span></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𡨸</span>, <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𫿰(⿰字文)</span></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𡦂(⿰字字)</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𲂯(⿰貝字)</span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𱚂(⿱字渚)</span>, or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">宁</span>, while <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Nôm</i></span> is written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">喃</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam" title="History of writing in Vietnam">History of writing in Vietnam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cover_page_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cover_page_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E.png/220px-Cover_page_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cover_page_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E.png/330px-Cover_page_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cover_page_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E.png/440px-Cover_page_of_%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Nam_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E5%A4%A7%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%8B%E8%AA%9E.png 2x" data-file-width="1861" data-file-height="2992" /></a><figcaption><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Quốc ngữ</i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">國語</span></span>) was used historically to refer to <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span>. Such as in the book, <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Đại Nam quốc ngữ</i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">大南國語</span></span>), a Literary Chinese – Vietnamese (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span>) dictionary.</figcaption></figure> <p><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Chữ Nôm</i></span> is the logographic writing system of the Vietnamese language. It is based on the Chinese writing system but adds a large number of new characters to make it fit the Vietnamese language. Common historical terms for chữ Nôm were <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Quốc Âm</i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">國音</span></span>, 'national sound') and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Quốc ngữ</i></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">國語</span></span>, 'national language'). </p><p>In Vietnamese, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a> are called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A8%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡨸">𡨸</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:漢">漢</a></span> 'Han characters'), <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nho</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A8%B8%E5%84%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡨸儒">𡨸儒</a></span> 'Confucian characters', due to the connection with <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>) and uncommonly as <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Hán tự</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E5%AD%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:漢字">漢字</a></span> 'Han characters').<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Hán văn</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%96%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:漢文">漢文</a></span>) refers literature written in Literary Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Hán Nôm</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2" class="extiw" title="wikt:漢">漢</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%96%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:喃">喃</a></span> 'Han and chữ Nôm characters')<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Vietnamese designates the whole body of premodern written materials from Vietnam, either written in Chinese (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Hán</i></span>) or in Vietnamese (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Nôm</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hán and Nôm could also be found in the same document side by side,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, in the case of translations of books on <a href="/wiki/Chinese_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese medicine">Chinese medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> history <i>Cổ Châu Pháp Vân phật bản hạnh ngữ lục</i> (1752) gives the story of early <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Buddhism in Vietnam</a> both in Hán script and in a parallel Nôm translation.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_Maiorica" title="Girolamo Maiorica">Girolamo Maiorica</a> (1605–1656) had also used parallel Hán and Nôm texts. </p><p>The term <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ Quốc ngữ</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A8%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡨸">𡨸</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:國">國</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E" class="extiw" title="wikt:語">語</a></span> 'national language script') refers to the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a> in current use, but was used to refer to chữ Nôm before the Vietnamese alphabet was widely used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tu_duc_thanh_che_tu_hoc_giai_nghia_ca.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Tu_duc_thanh_che_tu_hoc_giai_nghia_ca.jpg/250px-Tu_duc_thanh_che_tu_hoc_giai_nghia_ca.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="376" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Tu_duc_thanh_che_tu_hoc_giai_nghia_ca.jpg/375px-Tu_duc_thanh_che_tu_hoc_giai_nghia_ca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Tu_duc_thanh_che_tu_hoc_giai_nghia_ca.jpg/500px-Tu_duc_thanh_che_tu_hoc_giai_nghia_ca.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="1531" /></a><figcaption>A page from <i><a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%B1_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c_th%C3%A1nh_ch%E1%BA%BF_t%E1%BB%B1_h%E1%BB%8Dc_gi%E1%BA%A3i_ngh%C4%A9a_ca" title="Tự Đức thánh chế tự học giải nghĩa ca">Tự Đức thánh chế tự học giải nghĩa ca</a></i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">嗣德聖製字學解義歌</span>), a 19th-century primer for teaching Vietnamese children Chinese characters. The work is attributed to Emperor <a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%B1_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Tự Đức">Tự Đức</a>, the fourth emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty. In this primer, chữ Nôm is used to gloss the Chinese characters, for example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𡗶</span> is used to gloss <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">天</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Chinese characters were introduced to Vietnam after the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Han_conquest_of_Nanyue" title="Han conquest of Nanyue">conquered</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanyue" title="Nanyue">Nanyue</a> in 111 BC. Independence was achieved after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_B%E1%BA%A1ch_%C4%90%E1%BA%B1ng_(938)" title="Battle of Bạch Đằng (938)">Battle of Bạch Đằng</a> in 938, but <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Chinese">Literary Chinese</a> was <a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture#Vietnam" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">adopted</a> for official purposes in 1010.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For most of the period up to the early 20th century, formal writing was indistinguishable from contemporaneous classical Chinese works produced in China, Korea, and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Marr141_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marr141-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vietnamese scholars were thus intimately familiar with Chinese writing. In order to record their native language, they applied the structural principles of Chinese characters to develop <i>chữ Nôm</i>. The new script was mostly used to record folk songs and for other popular literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vietnamese written in <i>chữ Nôm</i> briefly replaced Chinese for official purposes under the <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Hồ dynasty</a> (1400–1407) and under the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Tây Sơn">Tây Sơn</a> (1778–1802), but in both cases this was swiftly reversed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_development">Early development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_early_inscriptions_in_Vietnam" title="List of early inscriptions in Vietnam">List of early inscriptions in Vietnam</a></div> <p>The use of Chinese characters to transcribe the Vietnamese language can be traced to an inscription with the two characters "<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B8%83" class="extiw" title="wikt:布">布</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%93%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:蓋">蓋</a></span>", as part of the posthumous title of <a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%B9ng_H%C6%B0ng" title="Phùng Hưng">Phùng Hưng</a>, a national hero who succeeded in briefly expelling the Chinese in the late 8th century. The two characters have literal Chinese meanings 'cloth' and 'cover', which make no sense in this context. They have thus been interpreted as a phonetic transcription, via their <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> pronunciations <i>bu<sup>H</sup> kaj<sup>H</sup></i>, of a Vietnamese phrase, either <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">vua cái</i></span> 'great king', or <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">bố cái</i></span> 'father and mother' (of the people).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197721–22_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197721–22-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Vietnam established its independence from China in the 10th century, <a href="/wiki/Dinh_Bo_Linh" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinh Bo Linh">Đinh Bộ Lĩnh</a> (r. 968–979), the founder of the <a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Đinh dynasty</a>, named the country <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Đại Cồ Việt</i></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:大">大</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9E%BF" class="extiw" title="wikt:瞿">瞿</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A" class="extiw" title="wikt:越">越</a></span>. The first and third Chinese characters mean 'great' and 'Viet'. The second character was often used to transcribe non-Chinese terms and names phonetically. In this context, cồ is an obsolete Vietnamese word for 'big'.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197722–23_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197722–23-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017141_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017141-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest surviving Nom inscription, dating from 1210, is a list naming 21 people and villages on a stele at the Tự Già Báo Ân pagoda in Tháp Miếu village (<a href="/wiki/M%C3%AA_Linh_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Mê Linh District">Mê Linh District</a>, Hanoi).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723–24_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723–24-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017138_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017138-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990395_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990395-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another stele at Hộ Thành Sơn in <a href="/wiki/Ninh_B%C3%ACnh_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Ninh Bình Province">Ninh Bình Province</a> (1343) lists 20 villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tran_Nhan_Tong" class="mw-redirect" title="Tran Nhan Tong">Trần Nhân Tông</a> (r. 1278–1293) ordered that Nôm be used to communicate his proclamations to the people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020104_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020104-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first literary writing in Vietnamese is said to have been an <a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">incantation</a> in verse composed in 1282 by the Minister of Justice <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Thuy%C3%AAn" title="Nguyễn Thuyên">Nguyễn Thuyên</a> and thrown into the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_(Asia)" title="Red River (Asia)">Red River</a> to expel a menacing <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four poems written in Nom from the Tran dynasty, two by Trần Nhân Tông and one each by <a href="/wiki/Huy%E1%BB%81n_Quang" title="Huyền Quang">Huyền Quang</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_%C4%90%C4%A9nh_Chi" title="Mạc Đĩnh Chi">Mạc Đĩnh Chi</a>, were collected and published in 1805.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990396_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990396-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Page_of_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_thuy%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_b%C3%A1o_ph%E1%BB%A5_m%E1%BA%ABu_%C3%A2n_tr%E1%BB%8Dng_kinh.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Page_of_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_thuy%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_b%C3%A1o_ph%E1%BB%A5_m%E1%BA%ABu_%C3%A2n_tr%E1%BB%8Dng_kinh.png/220px-Page_of_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_thuy%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_b%C3%A1o_ph%E1%BB%A5_m%E1%BA%ABu_%C3%A2n_tr%E1%BB%8Dng_kinh.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Page_of_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_thuy%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_b%C3%A1o_ph%E1%BB%A5_m%E1%BA%ABu_%C3%A2n_tr%E1%BB%8Dng_kinh.png/330px-Page_of_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_thuy%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_b%C3%A1o_ph%E1%BB%A5_m%E1%BA%ABu_%C3%A2n_tr%E1%BB%8Dng_kinh.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Page_of_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_thuy%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_b%C3%A1o_ph%E1%BB%A5_m%E1%BA%ABu_%C3%A2n_tr%E1%BB%8Dng_kinh.png/440px-Page_of_Ph%E1%BA%ADt_thuy%E1%BA%BFt_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i_b%C3%A1o_ph%E1%BB%A5_m%E1%BA%ABu_%C3%A2n_tr%E1%BB%8Dng_kinh.png 2x" data-file-width="2060" data-file-height="2453" /></a><figcaption>The fourth page of Phật thuyết đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh (佛說大報父母恩重經) which shows text in Literary Chinese alongside an earlier form of chữ Nôm (phonetic rebus) representing Old Vietnamese pronunciation. Some pairs of characters are used to represent the consonant clusters and polysyllabic that were present in Old Vietnamese. After the 15th century, polysyllabicity and <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflections</a> had completely died out in the Vietnamese language, giving a development phase for chữ Nôm.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Nôm text <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh</i></span> ('Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents') was printed around 1730, but conspicuously avoids the character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:利">利</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">lợi</i></span>, suggesting that it was written (or copied) during the reign of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_L%E1%BB%A3i" title="Lê Lợi">Lê Lợi</a> (1428–1433). Based on archaic features of the text compared with the Tran dynasty poems, including an exceptional number of words with initial consonant clusters written with pairs of characters, some scholars suggest that it is a copy of an earlier original, perhaps as early as the 12th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong201960_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong201960-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hồ_dynasty_(1400–07)_and_Ming_conquest_(1407–27)"><span id="H.E1.BB.93_dynasty_.281400.E2.80.9307.29_and_Ming_conquest_.281407.E2.80.9327.29"></span>Hồ dynasty (1400–07) and Ming conquest (1407–27)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hồ dynasty (1400–07) and Ming conquest (1407–27)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the seven years of the <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Hồ dynasty</a> (1400–07) Classical Chinese was discouraged in favor of vernacular Vietnamese written in Nôm, which became the official script. The emperor <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Qu%C3%BD_Ly" title="Hồ Quý Ly">Hồ Quý Ly</a> even ordered the translation of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Documents" title="Book of Documents">Book of Documents</a> into Nôm and pushed for reinterpretation of Confucian thoughts in his book <i>Minh đạo</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020104_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020104-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These efforts were reversed with the fall of the Hồ and <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Chinese_domination" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Chinese domination">Chinese conquest of 1407</a>, lasting twenty years, during which use of the vernacular language and demotic script were suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty_occupation_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming dynasty occupation of Vietnam">Ming dynasty occupation of Vietnam</a>, chữ Nôm printing blocks, texts and inscriptions were thoroughly destroyed; as a result the earliest surviving texts of chữ Nôm post-date the occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="15th_to_19th_century">15th to 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 15th to 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m,_p._38.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg/220px-Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg/330px-Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg/440px-Nh%E1%BA%ADt_d%E1%BB%A5ng_th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_%C4%91%C3%A0m%2C_p._38.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>A page from the bilingual dictionary <i>Nhật dụng thường đàm</i> (日用常談; 1851). Characters representing words in <i>Hán</i> (Chinese) are explained in <i>Nôm</i> (Vietnamese).</figcaption></figure> <p>Among the earlier works in Nôm of this era are the writings of <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Tr%C3%A3i" title="Nguyễn Trãi">Nguyễn Trãi</a> (1380–1442).<sup id="cite_ref-McLeod_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLeod-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The corpus of Nôm writings grew over time as did more scholarly compilations of the script itself. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh_Th%E1%BB%8B_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_Tr%C3%BAc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trịnh Thị Ngọc Trúc (page does not exist)">Trịnh Thị Ngọc Trúc</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh_Th%E1%BB%8B_Ng%E1%BB%8Dc_Tr%C3%BAc" class="extiw" title="vi:Trịnh Thị Ngọc Trúc">vi</a>]</span>, consort of King <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_Th%E1%BA%A7n_T%C3%B4ng" title="Lê Thần Tông">Lê Thần Tông</a>, is generally given credit for <i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%89_nam_ng%E1%BB%8Dc_%C3%A2m_gi%E1%BA%A3i_ngh%C4%A9a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chỉ nam ngọc âm giải nghĩa (page does not exist)">Chỉ nam ngọc âm giải nghĩa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%89_nam_ng%E1%BB%8Dc_%C3%A2m_gi%E1%BA%A3i_ngh%C4%A9a" class="extiw" title="vi:Chỉ nam ngọc âm giải nghĩa">vi</a>]</span></i></span></i> (指南玉音解義; 'guide to Southern Jade sounds: explanations and meanings'), a 24,000-character bilingual Hán-to-Nôm <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> compiled between the 15th and 18th centuries, most likely in 1641 or 1761.<sup id="cite_ref-chu_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chu-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Phan_2013_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phan_2013-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While almost all official writings and documents continued to be written in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">classical Chinese</a> until the early 20th century, Nôm was the preferred script for literary compositions of the cultural elites. Nôm reached its golden period with the Nguyễn dynasty in the 19th century as it became a vehicle for diverse genres, from novels to theatrical pieces, and instructional manuals. Although it was prohibited during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Minh_M%E1%BA%A1ng" title="Minh Mạng">Minh Mạng</a> (1820–1840),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> apogees of Vietnamese literature emerged with <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Du" title="Nguyễn Du">Nguyễn Du</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Ki%E1%BB%81u" class="mw-redirect" title="The Tale of Kiều">The Tale of Kiều</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Xu%C3%A2n_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Hồ Xuân Hương">Hồ Xuân Hương</a>'s poetry. Although literacy in premodern Vietnam was limited to just 3 to 5 percent of the population,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nearly every village had someone who could read Nôm aloud for the benefit of other villagers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus these Nôm works circulated orally in the villages, making it accessible even to the illiterates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chữ Nôm was the dominant script in <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Vietnam" title="Catholic Church in Vietnam">Vietnamese Catholic</a> literature until the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1838, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Taberd" title="Jean-Louis Taberd">Jean-Louis Taberd</a> compiled a Nôm dictionary, helping with the standardization of the script.<sup id="cite_ref-Taberd_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taberd-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reformist Catholic scholar <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_T%E1%BB%99" title="Nguyễn Trường Tộ">Nguyễn Trường Tộ</a> presented the Emperor <a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%B1_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Tự Đức">Tự Đức</a> with a series of unsuccessful petitions (written in classical Chinese, like all court documents) proposing reforms in several areas of government and society. His petition <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Tế cấp bát điều</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">濟急八條</span> 'Eight urgent matters', 1867), includes proposals on education, including a section entitled <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Xin khoan dung quốc âm</i></span> ('Please tolerate the national voice'). He proposed to replace classical Chinese with Vietnamese written using a script based on Chinese characters that he called <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Quốc âm Hán tự</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">國音漢字</span> 'Han characters with national pronunciations'), though he described this as a new creation, and did not mention chữ Nôm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977101–105_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977101–105-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Indochina_and_the_Latin_alphabet">French Indochina and the Latin alphabet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: French Indochina and the Latin alphabet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the latter half of the 19th century onwards, the <a href="/wiki/Cochinchina" title="Cochinchina">French colonial authorities</a> discouraged or simply banned the use of classical Chinese, and promoted the use of the Vietnamese alphabet, which they viewed as a stepping stone toward learning French. Language reform movements in other Asian nations stimulated Vietnamese interest in the subject. Following the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1905, Japan was increasingly cited as a model for modernization. The Confucian education system was compared unfavourably to the Japanese system of public education. According to a polemic by writer <a href="/wiki/Phan_Ch%C3%A2u_Trinh" title="Phan Châu Trinh">Phan Châu Trinh</a>, "so-called Confucian scholars" lacked knowledge of the modern world, as well as real understanding of Han literature. Their degrees showed only that they had learned how to write characters, he claimed.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The popularity of Hanoi's short-lived <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Free_School" title="Tonkin Free School">Tonkin Free School</a> suggested that broad reform was possible. In 1910, the colonial school system adopted a "Franco-Vietnamese curriculum", which emphasized French and alphabetic Vietnamese. The teaching of Chinese characters was discontinued in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-Chung_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chung-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On December 28, 1918, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh" title="Khải Định">Khải Định</a> declared that the traditional writing system no longer had official status.<sup id="cite_ref-Chung_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chung-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The traditional Civil Service Examination, which emphasized the command of classical Chinese, was dismantled in 1915 in <a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a> and was given for the last time at the imperial capital of <a href="/wiki/Hu%E1%BA%BF" title="Huế">Huế</a> on January 4, 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-Chung_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chung-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The examination system, and the education system based on it, had been in effect for almost 900 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Chung_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chung-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decline of the Chinese script also led to the decline of chữ Nôm given that Nôm and Chinese characters are so intimately connected.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977179_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977179-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the First World War, chữ Nôm gradually died out as the Vietnamese alphabet grew more and popular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977205_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977205-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an article published in 1935 (based on a lecture given in 1925), Georges Cordier estimated that 70% of literate persons knew the alphabet, 20% knew chữ Nôm and 10% knew Chinese characters.<sup id="cite_ref-Cordier_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cordier-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, estimates of the rate of literacy in the late 1930s range from 5% to 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977218_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977218-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1953, literacy (using the alphabet) had risen to 70%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977240_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977240-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Gin_people" title="Gin people">Gin people</a>, descendants of 16th-century migrants from Vietnam to islands off <a href="/wiki/Dongxing,_Guangxi" title="Dongxing, Guangxi">Dongxing</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, now speak a form of <a href="/wiki/Yue_Chinese" title="Yue Chinese">Yue Chinese</a> and Vietnamese, but their priests use songbooks and scriptures written in chữ Nôm in their ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Texts">Texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tale_of_Kieu,_vol._24,_p.22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tale_of_Kieu%2C_vol._24%2C_p.22.jpg/220px-Tale_of_Kieu%2C_vol._24%2C_p.22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tale_of_Kieu%2C_vol._24%2C_p.22.jpg/330px-Tale_of_Kieu%2C_vol._24%2C_p.22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tale_of_Kieu%2C_vol._24%2C_p.22.jpg/440px-Tale_of_Kieu%2C_vol._24%2C_p.22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>A page from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Kieu" title="The Tale of Kieu">The Tale of Kieu</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_Du" title="Nguyễn Du">Nguyễn Du</a>. This novel was first published in 1820 and is the best-known work in Nôm. The edition shown was printed in the late 19th century.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_literature#Nôm" title="Vietnamese literature">Vietnamese literature § Nôm</a></div> <ul><li><i>Đại Việt sử ký tiệp lục tổng tự.</i><sup id="cite_ref-history_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This history of Vietnam was written during the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tây Sơn dynasty</a>. The original is Hán, and there is also a Nôm translation.</li> <li>Nguyễn Du, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Kieu" title="The Tale of Kieu">The Tale of Kieu</a></i> (1820) The poem is full of obscure archaic words and Chinese borrowings, so that modern Vietnamese struggle to understand an alphabetic transcription without clarifications.</li> <li>Nguyễn Trãi, <i><a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_%C3%A2m_thi_t%E1%BA%ADp" title="Quốc âm thi tập">Quốc âm thi tập</a></i> ("National Language Poetry Compilation")</li> <li>Phạm Đình Hồ, <i>Nhật Dụng Thường Đàm</i> (1851). A Hán-to-Nôm dictionary for Vietnamese speakers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Chi%E1%BB%83u" title="Nguyễn Đình Chiểu">Nguyễn Đình Chiểu</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/L%E1%BB%A5c_V%C3%A2n_Ti%C3%AAn" title="Lục Vân Tiên">Lục Vân Tiên</a></i> (19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%B7ng_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_C%C3%B4n" title="Đặng Trần Côn">Đặng Trần Côn</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Chinh_Ph%E1%BB%A5_Ng%C3%A2m_Kh%C3%BAc" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinh Phụ Ngâm Khúc">Chinh Phụ Ngâm Khúc</a></i> (18th century)</li> <li>Various poems by <a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_Xu%C3%A2n_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Hồ Xuân Hương">Hồ Xuân Hương</a> (18th century)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_and_Crafts_of_the_People_of_Annam" title="Mechanics and Crafts of the People of Annam">Mechanics and Crafts of the People of Annam</a></i> – French manuscript with illustrations depicting Vietnamese culture in French Indochina, the illustrations are described in chữ Nôm.</li> <li>Ngô Thì Nhậm, <a href="/wiki/Tam_thi%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%B1" title="Tam thiên tự">Tam thiên tự</a> – Used to teach beginners Chinese characters and chữ Nôm.</li> <li>Nguyễn Phúc Hồng Nhậm, <a href="/wiki/T%E1%BB%B1_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c_th%C3%A1nh_ch%E1%BA%BF_t%E1%BB%B1_h%E1%BB%8Dc_gi%E1%BA%A3i_ngh%C4%A9a_ca" title="Tự Đức thánh chế tự học giải nghĩa ca">Tự Đức thánh chế tự học giải nghĩa ca</a> – a 32,004 character bilingual Literary Chinese – Vietnamese character dictionary.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_texts">Types of texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Types of texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Giải âm</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">解音</span>) - a category of chữ Nôm texts that translates the "sounds" (word-for-word) of the original Literary Chinese text.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include <a href="/wiki/Tam_thi%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%B1" title="Tam thiên tự">Tam thiên tự giải âm</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">三千字解音</span>), etc. Often these translations attempt to match the word order as the original Literary Chinese text with no regard for Vietnamese syntax). There is significant diversity within works called <i>giải âm</i> (even within a single text), with some coming fairly close to the modern concept of translation, while some are closer to annotations with "word-matching" between Literary Chinese and Vietnamese, with little to no regard to the structure or syntax of Vietnamese.</li></ul> <p>Here is a line in <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Tam tự kinh lục bát diễn âm</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">三字經六八演音</span>), a Vietnamese translation of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Character_Classic" title="Three Character Classic">Three Character Classic</a>. It features the original text on the top of the page and the Vietnamese translation on the bottom. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>人不𭓇不知理 (Nhân bất học bất tri lý) </p><p>𠊚空𭓇別𨤰夷麻推 (Người không học biết nhẽ gì mà suy) </p><p> Without learning, one does not understand reason.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <ul><li><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Diễn âm</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">演音</span>) - synonym of <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">giải âm</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">解音</span>).</li></ul> <ul><li><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Giải nghĩa</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">解義</span>) - a category of chữ Nôm texts that translates the "meaning", often having no regard for Literary Chinese syntax.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Chỉ nam ngọc âm giải nghĩa</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">指南玉音解義</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <i>giải nghĩa or diễn nghĩa</i> works focus on extracting as much meaning as possible from the source texts, with little to no regard to the structure and syntax of Literary Chinese.</li> <li><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Diễn nghĩa</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">演義</span>) - synonym of <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">giải nghĩa</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">解義</span>).</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Second_page_of_Tam_t%E1%BB%B1_kinh_l%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t_di%E1%BB%85n_%C3%A2m_%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%B6%93%E5%85%AD%E5%85%AB%E6%BC%94%E9%9F%B3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Second_page_of_Tam_t%E1%BB%B1_kinh_l%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t_di%E1%BB%85n_%C3%A2m_%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%B6%93%E5%85%AD%E5%85%AB%E6%BC%94%E9%9F%B3.jpg/220px-Second_page_of_Tam_t%E1%BB%B1_kinh_l%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t_di%E1%BB%85n_%C3%A2m_%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%B6%93%E5%85%AD%E5%85%AB%E6%BC%94%E9%9F%B3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Second_page_of_Tam_t%E1%BB%B1_kinh_l%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t_di%E1%BB%85n_%C3%A2m_%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%B6%93%E5%85%AD%E5%85%AB%E6%BC%94%E9%9F%B3.jpg/330px-Second_page_of_Tam_t%E1%BB%B1_kinh_l%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t_di%E1%BB%85n_%C3%A2m_%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%B6%93%E5%85%AD%E5%85%AB%E6%BC%94%E9%9F%B3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Second_page_of_Tam_t%E1%BB%B1_kinh_l%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t_di%E1%BB%85n_%C3%A2m_%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%B6%93%E5%85%AD%E5%85%AB%E6%BC%94%E9%9F%B3.jpg/440px-Second_page_of_Tam_t%E1%BB%B1_kinh_l%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t_di%E1%BB%85n_%C3%A2m_%E4%B8%89%E5%AD%97%E7%B6%93%E5%85%AD%E5%85%AB%E6%BC%94%E9%9F%B3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1711" /></a><figcaption>The second page of <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Tam tự kinh lục bát diễn âm</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">三字經六八演音</span>) with the original Literary Chinese text on the top, and Vietnamese translation on the bottom. The Vietnamese text is written in chữ Nôm and <a href="/wiki/L%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t" title="Lục bát">lục bát</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">六八</span>) verse form.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characters">Characters</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Characters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vietnamese is a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal language</a>, like Chinese, and has nearly 5,000 distinct syllables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In chữ Nôm, each monosyllabic word of Vietnamese was represented by a character, either borrowed from Chinese or locally created. The resulting system was even more difficult to use than the Chinese script.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As an <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic language</a>, Vietnamese was a better fit for a character-based script than Japanese and Korean, with their <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative">agglutinative</a> morphology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Partly for this reason, there was no development of a phonetic system that could be taught to the general public, like Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">kana</a> syllabary or the Korean <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">hangul</a> alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141–142_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141–142-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, most Vietnamese literati viewed Chinese as the proper medium of civilized writing, and had no interest in turning Nôm into a form of writing suitable for mass communication.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variant_characters">Variant characters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Variant characters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chữ Nôm has never been standardized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019153_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019153-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, a Vietnamese word could be represented by several Nôm characters. For example, the very word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ</i></span> ('character', 'script'), a Chinese loanword, can be written as either <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:字">字</a></span> (Chinese character), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𡦂</span> (Vietnamese-only compound-semantic character) or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𡨸</span> (Vietnamese-only semantic-phonetic character). For another example, the word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">giữa</i></span> ('middle'; 'in between') can be written either as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𡨌</span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰守中</span>) or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𫡉</span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰字中</span>). Both characters were invented for Vietnamese and have a semantic-phonetic structure, the difference being the phonetic indicator (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%88" class="extiw" title="wikt:守">守</a></span> vs. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:字">字</a></span>). </p><p>Another example of a Vietnamese word that is represented by several Nôm characters is the word for moon, <i>trăng</i>. It can be represented by a Chinese character that is phonetically similar to trăng, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">菱</span> (lăng), a chữ Nôm character, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𢁋</span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿱巴陵</span>) which is composed of two phonetic components <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">巴</span> (ba) and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">陵</span> (lăng) for the Middle Vietnamese <i>blăng</i>, or a chữ Nôm character, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𦝄</span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰月夌</span>) composed of a phonetic component <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">夌</span> (lăng) and a semantic component meaning <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">月</span> ('moon'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Borrowed_characters">Borrowed characters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Borrowed characters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Vietnamese reading">Sino-Vietnamese reading</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C%C3%A2n_kh%C4%83n.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/C%C3%A2n_kh%C4%83n.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="302" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption>Characters for <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">cân</i></span> (top) and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">khăn</i></span> (bottom), meaning turban/towel, in <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Tự Đức thánh chế tự học giải nghĩa ca.</i></span> The character for <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">khăn</i></span> has a diacritic to indicate different pronunciation.</figcaption></figure> <p>Unmodified Chinese characters were used in chữ Nôm in three different ways. </p> <ul><li>A large proportion of Vietnamese vocabulary had been borrowed from Chinese during the Tang period. Such <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary</a> could be written with the original Chinese character for each word, for example:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780–81_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199780–81-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BD%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:役">役</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">dịch</i></span> ('service', 'corvée'), from Early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> (EMC) <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/jwiajk/</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991371_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991371-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC" class="extiw" title="wikt:本">本</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">bản</i></span> ('root', 'foundation'), from EMC <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pənˀ/</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199132_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199132-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A0%AD" class="extiw" title="wikt:頭">頭</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">đầu</i></span> ('head'), from EMC <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dəw/</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991311_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991311-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>One way to represent a native Vietnamese word was to use a Chinese character for a Chinese word with a similar meaning. For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">本</span> may also represent <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">vốn</i></span> ('capital, funds'). In this case, the word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">vốn</i></span> is actually an earlier Chinese loan that has become accepted as Vietnamese; William Hannas claims that all such readings are similar early loans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780–81_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199780–81-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Alternatively, a native Vietnamese word could be written using a Chinese character for a Chinese word with a similar sound, regardless of the meaning of the Chinese word. For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:沒">沒</a></span> (Early Middle Chinese <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mət/</span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991218_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991218-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) may represent the Vietnamese word <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">một</i></span> ('one').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199780-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The first two categories are similar to the <i><a href="/wiki/On%27yomi" title="On'yomi">on</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Kun%27yomi" title="Kun'yomi"><i>kun</i> readings</a> of Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kanji#Readings" title="Kanji">kanji</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199780-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third is similar to <i><a href="/wiki/Ateji" title="Ateji">ateji</a></i>, in which characters are used only for their sound value, or the <a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a> script that became the origin of <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a>. </p><p>When a character would have two readings, a diacritic may be added to the character to indicate the "indigenous" reading. The two most common alternate reading diacritical marks are <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">cá</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𖿰</span>), (a variant form of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">个</span>) and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nháy</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𖿱</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus when <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">本</span> is meant to be read as <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">vốn</i></span>, it is written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">本<sup>𖿱</sup></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a diacritic at the upper right corner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199781_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199781-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nh%C3%A1yExample.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nh%C3%A1yExample.png/220px-Nh%C3%A1yExample.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nh%C3%A1yExample.png/330px-Nh%C3%A1yExample.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nh%C3%A1yExample.png/440px-Nh%C3%A1yExample.png 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="780" /></a><figcaption>Here is the character tự 自 is written with the nháy mark (𖿱) showing to use its alternative reading từ or vice versa. (Depending on the context, the alternative reading could also be tợ instead)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Th%C3%A1u_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5m_%E5%9C%8B.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Th%C3%A1u_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5m_%E5%9C%8B.png/220px-Th%C3%A1u_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5m_%E5%9C%8B.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Th%C3%A1u_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5m_%E5%9C%8B.png/330px-Th%C3%A1u_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5m_%E5%9C%8B.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Th%C3%A1u_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5m_%E5%9C%8B.png 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>An example of what <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">tháu đấm</i></span> would be with the character <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">quốc</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">國</span>) which was written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">王</span> with two dots on its left and right side.</figcaption></figure><p> Other alternate reading diacritical marks include <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">tháu đấm</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">草𢶸</span>) where a character is represented by a simplified variant with two points on either side of the character.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Activities_of_Tonkin_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Activities_of_Tonkin_3.png/220px-Activities_of_Tonkin_3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Activities_of_Tonkin_3.png/330px-Activities_of_Tonkin_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Activities_of_Tonkin_3.png/440px-Activities_of_Tonkin_3.png 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="2161" /></a><figcaption>Usage of diacritical mark nháy (𖿱) can be seen here. The character yết (揭) with the mark ' 𖿱 ' changes the reading to xiết <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">揭<sup>𖿱</sup></span> (Middle left). For lâm (林) with the mark ' 𖿱 ' changes the reading to chấm <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">林<sup>𖿱</sup></span> (Middle right).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Locally_invented_characters">Locally invented characters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Locally invented characters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%F0%A0%8A%9B%E8%B6%8A.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%F0%A0%8A%9B%E8%B6%8A.png/220px-%F0%A0%8A%9B%E8%B6%8A.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/%F0%A0%8A%9B%E8%B6%8A.png 1.5x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption>The Nôm character for <i>người</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A0%8A%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:𠊛">𠊛</a></span>), a term for people or humans (in general). The radical <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%9D%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:㝵">㝵</a></span> on the left suggests that the pronunciation of the character is linked to that of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">㝵</span> ngại. The radical <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a></span> on the right suggests that the meaning of the character is linked to people. (The character after is the word Việt 越 meaning "Vietnamese"). The two characters mean "Vietnamese people".</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to the few hundred Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kokuji" title="Kokuji">kokuji</a> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">国字</span></span>) and handful of Korean <a href="/wiki/Gukja" class="mw-redirect" title="Gukja">gukja</a> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">국자</span></span>, <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">國字</span></span>), which are mostly rarely used characters for indigenous natural phenomena, Vietnamese scribes created thousands of new characters, used throughout the language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199779_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199779-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in the Chinese writing system, the most common kind of invented character in Nôm is the phono-semantic compound, made by combining two characters or components, one suggesting the word's meaning and the other its approximate sound. For example,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199781_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199781-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A0%80%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:𠀧">𠀧</a></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ba</i></span> 'three') is composed of the phonetic part <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:巴">巴</a></span> (Sino-Vietnamese reading: <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ba</i></span>) and the semantic part <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:三">三</a></span> 'three'. 'Father' is also <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ba</i></span>, but written as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:爸">爸</a> (⿱<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%88%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:父">父</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:巴">巴</a></span>), while 'turtle' is <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">con ba ba</i></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A5%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡥵">𡥵</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9A%86" class="extiw" title="wikt:蚆">蚆</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%9A%86" class="extiw" title="wikt:蚆">蚆</a></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AA%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:媄">媄</a></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">mẹ</i></span> 'mother') has <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A5%B3" class="extiw" title="wikt:女">女</a></span> 'woman' as semantic component and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E" class="extiw" title="wikt:美">美</a></span> (Sino-Vietnamese reading: <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">mỹ</i></span>) as phonetic component.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>A smaller group consists of semantic compound characters, which are composed of two Chinese characters representing words of similar meaning. For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%97%B6" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡗶">𡗶</a></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">giời</i></span> or <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trời</i></span> 'sky', 'heaven') is composed of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9" class="extiw" title="wikt:天">天</a></span> ('sky') and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8A" class="extiw" title="wikt:上">上</a></span> ('upper').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199781_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199781-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020103_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020103-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few characters were obtained by modifying Chinese characters related either semantically or phonetically to the word to be represented. For example, </p> <ul><li>the Nôm character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A7%98%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:𧘇">𧘇</a></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ấy</i></span> 'that', 'those') is a simplified form of the Chinese character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:衣">衣</a></span> (Sino-Vietnamese reading: <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ý</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the Nôm character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%AB%9C%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:𫜵">𫜵</a></span> (<span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">làm</i></span> 'work', 'labour') is a simplified form of the Chinese character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BF%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:濫">濫</a></span> (Sino-Vietnamese reading: <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">lạm</i></span>) (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BF%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:濫">濫</a></span> > <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%AA%B5%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:𪵯">𪵯</a></span> > <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%AB%9C%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:𫜵">𫜵</a></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the Nôm character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A0%AC%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:𠬠">𠬠</a></span> (một 'one') comes from the right part of the Chinese character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%A1" class="extiw" title="wikt:没">没</a></span> (Sino-Vietnamese reading: <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">một</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example">Example</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an example of the way chữ Nôm was used to record Vietnamese, the first two lines of the <i><a href="/wiki/Tale_of_Kieu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tale of Kieu">Tale of Kiều</a></i> (1871 edition), written in the traditional <a href="/wiki/L%E1%BB%A5c_b%C3%A1t" title="Lục bát">six-eight form</a> of Vietnamese verse, consist of 14 characters:<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𤾓</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Trăm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hundred</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𢆥</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">năm</p><p style="margin: 0px;">year</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𥪞</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">trong</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𡎝</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">cõi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">world</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𠊛</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">người</p><p style="margin: 0px;">person</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">些</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ta,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">our</p></div><p style="display: none;">𤾓𢆥𥪞𡎝𠊛些</p><p style="display: none;">Trăm năm trong cõi người ta,</p><p style="display: none;">hundred year in world person our</p><p style="clear: left;">A hundred years—in this life span on earth,</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𡨸</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Chữ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">word</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">才</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tài</p><p style="margin: 0px;">talent</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𡨸</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">chữ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">word</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">命</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">mệnh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">destiny</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">窖</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khéo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">clever</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">𱺵</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">là</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to be</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">恄</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ghét</p><p style="margin: 0px;">hate</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="vi" style="margin: 0px;">饒</p><p lang="vi-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nhau.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">each other</p></div><p style="display: none;">𡨸才𡨸命窖𱺵恄饒</p><p style="display: none;">Chữ tài chữ mệnh khéo là ghét nhau.</p><p style="display: none;">word talent word destiny clever {to be} hate {each other}</p><p style="clear: left;">talent and destiny are apt to feud.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Derivations of Nôm characters in the first two lines </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>character</th> <th>word</th> <th>gloss</th> <th>derivation </th></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A4%BE%93" class="extiw" title="wikt:𤾓">𤾓</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿱百林)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trăm</i></span></td> <td>hundred </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%99%BE" class="extiw" title="wikt:百">百</a></span> 'hundred' and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9E%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:林">林</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">lâm</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A2%86%A5" class="extiw" title="wikt:𢆥">𢆥</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿰南年)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">năm</i></span></td> <td>year </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:南">南</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nam</i></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:年">年</a></span> 'year' </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A5%AA%9E" class="extiw" title="wikt:𥪞">𥪞</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿺竜內)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trong</i></span></td> <td>in </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AB%9C" class="extiw" title="wikt:竜">竜</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">long</i></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:內">內</a></span> 'inside' </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%8E%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡎝">𡎝</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿰土癸)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">cõi</i></span></td> <td>world </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%9C%9F" class="extiw" title="wikt:土">土</a></span> 'earth' and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%99%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:癸">癸</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">quý</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A0%8A%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:𠊛">𠊛</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿰㝵人)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">người</i></span></td> <td>person </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%9D%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:㝵">㝵</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ngại</i></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a></span> 'person' </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#ffd"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:些">些</a></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ta</i></span></td> <td>our </td> <td>character of homophone Sino-Vietnamese <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ta</i></span> 'little, few; rather, somewhat' </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A8%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡨸">𡨸</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿰宁字)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ</i></span></td> <td>word </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:宁">宁</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trữ</i></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:字">字</a></span> 'character; word' </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#dfd"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%89%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:才">才</a></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">tài</i></span></td> <td>talent </td> <td>Sino-Vietnamese word </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A1%A8%B8" class="extiw" title="wikt:𡨸">𡨸</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿰宁字)</span></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">chữ</i></span></td> <td>word </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:宁">宁</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">trữ</i></span> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AD%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:字">字</a></span> 'character; word' </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#dfd"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%91%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:命">命</a></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">mệnh</i></span></td> <td>destiny </td> <td>Sino-Vietnamese word </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#ffd"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AA%96" class="extiw" title="wikt:窖">窖</a></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">khéo</i></span></td> <td>clever </td> <td>variant character of the near-homophone Sino-Vietnamese <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AB%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:竅">竅</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">khiếu</i></span> 'hole', Sino-Vietnamese reading of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%AA%96" class="extiw" title="wikt:窖">窖</a></span> is <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">giáo</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#ffd"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%B1%BA%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:𱺵">𱺵</a></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">(⿱罒𪜀)</span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">là</i></span></td> <td>to be </td> <td>simplified form of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:羅">羅</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">là</i></span> 'to be', using the character of near-homophone Sino-Vietnamese <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">la</i></span> 'net for catching birds' </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#fed"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%81%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:恄">恄</a></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">ghét</i></span></td> <td>hate </td> <td>compound of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:忄">忄</a></span> 'heart' classifier and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:吉">吉</a></span> <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">cát</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:#ffd"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A5%92" class="extiw" title="wikt:饒">饒</a></span></td> <td><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nhau</i></span></td> <td>each other </td> <td>character of near-homophone Sino-Vietnamese <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nhiêu</i></span> 'bountiful, abundant, plentiful' </td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VietnameseVocabComparsion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/VietnameseVocabComparsion.png/220px-VietnameseVocabComparsion.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/VietnameseVocabComparsion.png/330px-VietnameseVocabComparsion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/VietnameseVocabComparsion.png/440px-VietnameseVocabComparsion.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Chữ Hán characters compared to chữ Nôm characters.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computer_encoding">Computer encoding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Computer encoding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1993, the Vietnamese government released an 8-bit coding standard for alphabetic Vietnamese (<a href="/wiki/TCVN_5712" class="mw-redirect" title="TCVN 5712">TCVN 5712</a>:1993, or VSCII), as well as a 16-bit standard for Nôm (TCVN 5773:1993).<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This group of glyphs is referred to as "V0." In 1994, the <a href="/wiki/Ideographic_Rapporteur_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographic Rapporteur Group">Ideographic Rapporteur Group</a> agreed to include Nôm characters as part of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-unicode_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unicode-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A revised standard, TCVN 6909:2001, defines 9,299 glyphs.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About half of these glyphs are specific to Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nôm characters not already encoded were added to <a href="/wiki/CJK_Unified_Ideographs_Extension_B" title="CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B"><abbr title="Chinese/Japanese/Korean">CJK</abbr> Unified Ideographs Extension B</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (These characters have five-digit <a href="/wiki/Hexadecimal" title="Hexadecimal">hexadecimal</a> code points. The characters that were encoded earlier have four-digit hex.) </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Code</th> <th>Characters</th> <th>Unicode block</th> <th>Standard</th> <th>Date</th> <th>V Source</th> <th>Sources </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">V0</td> <td>2,246</td> <td>Basic Block (593), A (138), B (1,515)</td> <td>TCVN 5773:1993</td> <td>2001</td> <td>V0-3021 to V0-4927</td> <td>5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">V1</td> <td>3,311</td> <td>Basic Block (3,110), C (1)</td> <td>TCVN 6056:1995</td> <td>1999</td> <td>V1-4A21 to V1-6D35</td> <td>2, 5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">V2</td> <td>3,205</td> <td>Basic Block (763), A (151), B (2,291)</td> <td>VHN 01:1998</td> <td>2001</td> <td>V2-6E21 to V2-9171</td> <td>2, 5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">V3</td> <td>535</td> <td>Basic Block (91), A (19), B (425)</td> <td>VHN 02:1998</td> <td>2001</td> <td>V3-3021 to V3-3644</td> <td>Manuscripts </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">V4</td> <td>785 (encoded)</td> <td>Extension C</td> <td>Defined as sources 1, 3, and 6</td> <td>2009</td> <td>V4-4021 to V4-4B2F</td> <td>1, 3, 6 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">V04</td> <td>1,028</td> <td>Extension E</td> <td>Unencoded V4 and V6 characters</td> <td>Projected</td> <td>V04-4022 to V04-583E</td> <td>V4: 1, 3, 6;<br />V6: 4, manuscripts </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">V5</td> <td>~900</td> <td colspan="2">Proposed in 2001, but already coded</td> <td>2001</td> <td>None</td> <td>2, 5 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7"><small><b>Sources</b>: Nguyễn Quang Hồng,<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/unibook/">Unibook Character Browser</a>", Unicode, Inc., "Code Charts – CJK Ext. E" (N4358-A).<sup id="cite_ref-CJK-E_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CJK-E-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Characters were extracted from the following sources: </p> <ol><li>Hoàng Triều Ân, <i>Tự điển chữ Nôm Tày</i> [Nôm of the Tay People], 2003.</li> <li>Institute of Linguistics, <i>Bảng tra chữ Nôm</i> [Nôm Index], Hanoi, 1976.</li> <li>Nguyễn Quang Hồng, editor, <i>Tự điển chữ Nôm</i> [Nôm Dictionary], 2006.</li> <li>Father Trần Văn Kiệm, <i>Giúp đọc Nôm và Hán Việt</i> [Help with Nôm and Sino-Vietnamese], 2004.</li> <li>Vũ Văn Kính & Nguyễn Quang Xỷ, <i>Tự điển chữ Nôm</i> [Nôm Dictionary], Saigon, 1971.</li> <li>Vũ Văn Kính, <i>Bảng tra chữ Nôm miền Nam</i> [Table of Nôm in the South], 1994.</li> <li>Vũ Văn Kính, <i>Bảng tra chữ Nôm sau thế kỷ XVII</i> [Table of Nôm After the 17th Century], 1994.</li> <li>Vũ Văn Kính, <i>Đại tự điển chữ Nôm</i> [Great Nôm Dictionary], 1999.</li> <li>Nguyễn Văn Huyên, <i>Góp phần nghiên cứu văn hoá Việt Nam</i> [Contributions to the Study of Vietnamese Culture], 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The V2, V3, and V4 proposals were developed by a group at the Han-Nom Research Institute led by Nguyễn Quang Hồng.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> V4, developed in 2001, includes over 400 ideograms formerly used by the <a href="/wiki/Tay_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tay people">Tày people</a> of northern Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_language" title="Tày language">Tày language</a> to get its own registration code.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> V5 is a set of about 900 characters proposed in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As these characters were already part of Unicode, the IRG concluded that they could not be edited and no Vietnamese code was added.<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (This is despite the fact that national codes were added retroactively for version 3.0 in 1999.) The Nôm Na Group, led by Ngô Thanh Nhàn, published a set of nearly 20,000 Nôm characters in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-Ngô_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ngô-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This set includes both the characters proposed earlier and a large group of additional characters referred to as "V6".<sup id="cite_ref-Hong_96-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are mainly Han characters from Trần Văn Kiệm's dictionary which were already assigned code points. Character readings were determined manually by Hồng's group, while Nhàn's group developed software for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-VNPF_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VNPF-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of the two groups was integrated and published in 2008 as the <i>Hán Nôm Coded Character Repertoire</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-VNPF_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VNPF-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Character</th> <th>Composition</th> <th>Nôm reading</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese</a> reading</th> <th>Meaning</th> <th>Code point</th> <th>V Source</th> <th>Other sources </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-size:140%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%90%A7" class="extiw" title="wikt:吧">吧</a></span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:口">口</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B7%B4" class="extiw" title="wikt:巴">巴</a></span></td> <td>và</td> <td>ba</td> <td>(slightly formal) and</td> <td>U+5427</td> <td>V0-3122</td> <td>G0,J,KP,K,T </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-size:140%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%82%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:傷">傷</a></span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BB" class="extiw" title="wikt:亻">亻</a>⿱<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A0%82%89" class="extiw" title="wikt:𠂉">𠂉</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%98%9C" class="extiw" title="wikt:昜">昜</a></span></td> <td>thương</td> <td>thương</td> <td>wound, injury, to love non-romantically</td> <td>U+50B7</td> <td>V1-4C22</td> <td>G1,J,KP,K,T </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-size:140%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%A0%8A%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:𠊛">𠊛</a></span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%9D%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:㝵">㝵</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:人">人</a></span></td> <td>người</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>people</td> <td>U+2029B</td> <td>V2-6E4F</td> <td>None </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-size:140%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%A4%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:㤝">㤝</a></span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:忄">忄</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%85%85" class="extiw" title="wikt:充">充</a></span></td> <td>suông</td> <td>song</td> <td>plain, bland</td> <td>U+391D</td> <td>V3-313D</td> <td>G3,KP,K,T </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-size:140%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%AB%8B%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:𫋙">𫋙</a></span></span></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%99%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:虫">虫</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BC%B7" class="extiw" title="wikt:強">強</a></span></td> <td>càng</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>claw, pincer</td> <td>U+2B2D9</td> <td>V4-536F</td> <td>None </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;"><span style="font-size:140%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%AB%A1%AF" class="extiw" title="wikt:𫡯">𫡯</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">⿰<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9C%9D" class="extiw" title="wikt:朝">朝</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B9%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:乙">乙</a></span></td> <td>chàu</td> <td>N/A</td> <td>wealth</td> <td>U+2B86F</td> <td>V4-405E</td> <td>None </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="8"><small><b>Key:</b> G0 = China (<a href="/wiki/GB_2312" title="GB 2312">GB 2312</a>); G1 = China (<a href="/wiki/GB_12345" title="GB 12345">GB 12345</a>); G3 = China (GB 7589); GHZ = <i><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Da_Zidian" title="Hanyu Da Zidian">Hanyu Da Zidian</a></i>; J = Japan; KP= North Korea; K = South Korea; T = Taiwan.<br /><b>Sources</b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?">Unihan Database</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nomfoundation.org/">Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation</a>, "Code Charts – CJK Ext. E" (N4358-A).<sup id="cite_ref-CJK-E_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CJK-E-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Han-Viet readings are from <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hanviet.org/">Hán Việt Từ Điển</a></i>.</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The characters that do not exist in Chinese have <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese</a> readings that are based on the characters given in parentheses. The common character for <i>càng</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">強</span>) contains the radical <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">虫</span> (insects).<sup id="cite_ref-kiem_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kiem-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This radical is added redundantly to create <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𫋙</span>, a rare variation shown in the chart above. The character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">𫡯</span> (<i>chàu</i>) is specific to the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_people" title="Tày people">Tày people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-An_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-An-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been part of the Unicode standard only since version 8.0 of June 2015, so there is still very little font and <a href="/wiki/Input_method" title="Input method">input method</a> support for it. It is a variation of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">朝</span>, the corresponding character in Vietnamese.<sup id="cite_ref-NomFoundation_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NomFoundation-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/48px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/64px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Vietnam" title="Portal:Vietnam">Vietnam portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, 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.reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The reconstruction of Middle Chinese used here is Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The word is still used in some dialects of Vietnamese, and is found fossilized in some words such as gà cồ 𪃿瞿 and cồ cộ 瞿椇. It is also used with the meaning of 'big' in the text, Cư Trần lạc đạo phú 居塵樂道賦, Đệ thất hội 第七會, where it reads 勉德瞿經裴兀扲戒咹㪰 (Mến đức cồ kiêng bùi ngọt cầm giới ăn chay). Other variant characters for cồ include 𡚝 (⿱大瞿) and 𬯵 (⿱賏瞿).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Hộ Thành Sơn inscription was mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Maspero" title="Henri Maspero">Henri Maspero</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaspero19127n._1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaspero19127n._1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mention was often cited, including by DeFrancis and Thompson, but according to Nguyễn Đình Hoà no-one has been able to find the inscription that Maspero referred to.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990395_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990395-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The original line in the Chinese version is 人不學，不知義.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Properly written <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">本𖿱</span>. The <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">cá</i></span> and <span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">nháy</i></span> marks were added to the <a href="/wiki/Ideographic_Symbols_and_Punctuation" title="Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation">Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation</a> block in Unicode 13.0, but they are poorly supported as of April 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom"><sup>‹</sup></span> is a visual approximation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The character <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">媄</span> is also used in Chinese as an alternate form of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798"><span lang="vi-Hani" class="vi-nom">美</span> 'beautiful'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This character is only used in the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_language" title="Tày language">Tày language</a>, the Vietnamese variant is 𢀭 giàu.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017569_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 569.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977252-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977252_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESun2015552–553-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESun2015552–553_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSun2015">Sun 2015</a>, pp. 552–553.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2009" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Khuê (2009). <i>Chữ Nôm: cơ sở và nâng cao</i>. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ch%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m%3A+c%C6%A1+s%E1%BB%9F+v%C3%A0+n%C3%A2ng+cao&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+h%E1%BB%8Dc+Qu%E1%BB%91c+gia+Th%C3%A0nh+ph%E1%BB%91+H%E1%BB%93+Ch%C3%AD+Minh&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=Khu%C3%AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020102–103-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020102–103_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, pp. 102–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199782–83-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199782–83_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197732,_38_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, pp. 32, 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197726-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197726_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1995" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn (1995). <i>Giáo trình lịch sử ngữ âm tiếng Việt (sơ thảo)</i>. Nhà xuất bản Giáo dục. p. 47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gi%C3%A1o+tr%C3%ACnh+l%E1%BB%8Bch+s%E1%BB%AD+ng%E1%BB%AF+%C3%A2m+ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t+%28s%C6%A1+th%E1%BA%A3o%29&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+Gi%C3%A1o+d%E1%BB%A5c&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=T%C3%A0i+C%E1%BA%A9n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197727-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197727_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2009" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Khuê (2009). <i>Chữ Nôm: cơ sở và nâng cao</i>. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. pp. 5, 215.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ch%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m%3A+c%C6%A1+s%E1%BB%9F+v%C3%A0+n%C3%A2ng+cao&rft.pages=5%2C+215&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+h%E1%BB%8Dc+Qu%E1%BB%91c+gia+Th%C3%A0nh+ph%E1%BB%91+H%E1%BB%93+Ch%C3%AD+Minh&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=Khu%C3%AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nguoiquangnam.vn/toi-viet/mi-o-quang-nom-hay-quang-nam-561.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Mi ở Quảng Nôm hay Quảng Nam?"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Người Quảng Nam</i>. 6 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di+Qu%E1%BA%A3ng+Nam&rft.atitle=%22Mi+%E1%BB%9F+Qu%E1%BA%A3ng+N%C3%B4m+hay+Qu%E1%BA%A3ng+Nam%3F%22&rft.date=2016-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnguoiquangnam.vn%2Ftoi-viet%2Fmi-o-quang-nom-hay-quang-nam-561.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVũ2005" class="citation book cs1">Vũ, Văn Kính (2005). <i>Đại tự điển chữ Nôm</i>. Nhà xuất bản Văn nghệ Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. pp. 293, 899.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i+t%E1%BB%B1+%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n+ch%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m&rft.pages=293%2C+899&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+V%C4%83n+ngh%E1%BB%87+Th%C3%A0nh+ph%E1%BB%91+H%E1%BB%93+Ch%C3%AD+Minh&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=V%C5%A9&rft.aufirst=V%C4%83n+K%C3%ADnh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễnĐặngNguyễnLê2009" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Hữu Vinh; Đặng, Thế Kiệt; Nguyễn, Doãn Vượng; Lê, Văn Đặng; Nguyễn, Văn Sâm; Nguyễn, Ngọc Bích; Trần, Uyên Thi (2009). <i>Tự điển chữ Nôm trích dẫn</i>. Viện Việt-học. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vietnamtudien.org/chunom-trichdan/tr0248.png">248</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vietnamtudien.org/chunom-trichdan/tr0249.png">249</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vietnamtudien.org/chunom-trichdan/tr0866.png">866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%E1%BB%B1+%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n+ch%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m+tr%C3%ADch+d%E1%BA%ABn&rft.pages=248%2C+249%2C+866&rft.pub=Vi%E1%BB%87n+Vi%E1%BB%87t-h%E1%BB%8Dc&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=H%E1%BB%AFu+Vinh&rft.au=%C4%90%E1%BA%B7ng%2C+Th%E1%BA%BF+Ki%E1%BB%87t&rft.au=Nguy%E1%BB%85n%2C+Do%C3%A3n+V%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng&rft.au=L%C3%AA%2C+V%C4%83n+%C4%90%E1%BA%B7ng&rft.au=Nguy%E1%BB%85n%2C+V%C4%83n+S%C3%A2m&rft.au=Nguy%E1%BB%85n%2C+Ng%E1%BB%8Dc+B%C3%ADch&rft.au=Tr%E1%BA%A7n%2C+Uy%C3%AAn+Thi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2001" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn (2001). <i>Nguồn gốc và quá trình hình thành cách đọc Hán Việt</i>. 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Văn Mới. pp. 141, 228.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vi%E1%BB%87t-nam+t%E1%BB%B1-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n&rft.pages=141%2C+228&rft.pub=V%C4%83n+M%E1%BB%9Bi&rft.date=1954&rft.au=H%E1%BB%99i+Khai-tr%C3%AD+ti%E1%BA%BFn-%C4%91%E1%BB%A9c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFĐào2005" class="citation book cs1">Đào, Duy Anh (2005). <i>Hán-Việt từ-điển giản yếu</i>. Nhà xuất bản Văn hoá Thông tin. p. 281.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A1n-Vi%E1%BB%87t+t%E1%BB%AB-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n+gi%E1%BA%A3n+y%E1%BA%BFu&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+V%C4%83n+ho%C3%A1+Th%C3%B4ng+tin&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=%C4%90%C3%A0o&rft.aufirst=Duy+Anh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHội_Khai-trí_tiến-đức1954" class="citation book cs1">Hội Khai-trí tiến-đức (1954). <i>Việt-nam tự-điển</i>. Văn Mới. p. 228.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vi%E1%BB%87t-nam+t%E1%BB%B1-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=V%C4%83n+M%E1%BB%9Bi&rft.date=1954&rft.au=H%E1%BB%99i+Khai-tr%C3%AD+ti%E1%BA%BFn-%C4%91%E1%BB%A9c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFĐào2005" class="citation book cs1">Đào, Duy Anh (2005). <i>Hán-Việt từ-điển giản yếu</i>. Nhà xuất bản Văn hoá Thông tin. pp. 281, 900.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=H%C3%A1n-Vi%E1%BB%87t+t%E1%BB%AB-%C4%91i%E1%BB%83n+gi%E1%BA%A3n+y%E1%BA%BFu&rft.pages=281%2C+900&rft.pub=Nh%C3%A0+xu%E1%BA%A5t+b%E1%BA%A3n+V%C4%83n+ho%C3%A1+Th%C3%B4ng+tin&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=%C4%90%C3%A0o&rft.aufirst=Duy+Anh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrần2012" class="citation journal cs1">Trần, Văn Chánh (January 2012). "Tản mạn kinh nghiệm học chữ Hán cổ". <i>Suối Nguồn, Tập 3&4</i>. Nhà xuất bản Tổng hợp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh: 82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Su%E1%BB%91i+Ngu%E1%BB%93n%2C+T%E1%BA%ADp+3%264&rft.atitle=T%E1%BA%A3n+m%E1%BA%A1n+kinh+nghi%E1%BB%87m+h%E1%BB%8Dc+ch%E1%BB%AF+H%C3%A1n+c%E1%BB%95&rft.pages=82&rft.date=2012-01&rft.aulast=Tr%E1%BA%A7n&rft.aufirst=V%C4%83n+Ch%C3%A1nh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asian research trends: a humanities and social science review – No 8 to 10 – Page 140 Yunesuko Higashi Ajia Bunka Kenkyū Sentā (Tokyo, Japan) – 1998 "Most of the source materials from premodern Vietnam are written in Chinese, obviously using Chinese characters; however, a portion of the literary genre is written in Vietnamese, using chu nom. Therefore, han nom is the term designating the whole body of premodern written materials.."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vietnam Courier 1984 Vol20/21 Page 63 "Altogether about 15,000 books in Han, Nom and Han—Nom have been collected. These books include royal certificates granted to deities, stories and records of deities, clan histories, family genealogies, records of cutsoms, land registers, ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khắc Mạnh Trịnh, <i>Nghiên cứu chữ Nôm: Kỷ yếu Hội nghị Quốc tế về chữ Nôm</i> Viện nghiên cứu Hán Nôm (Vietnam), Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation – 2006 "The Di sản Hán Nôm notes 366 entries which are solely on either medicine or pharmacy; of these 186 are written in Chinese, 50 in Nôm, and 130 in a mixture of the two scripts. Many of these entries ... Vietnam were written in either Nôm or Hán-Nôm rather than in 'pure' Chinese. My initial impression was that the percentage of texts written in Nôm was even higher. This is because for the particular medical subject I wished to investigate-<a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>-the percentage of texts written in Nom or Hán-Nôm is even higher than is the percentage of texts in Nôm and Hán-Nôm for general medical and pharmaceutical .."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wynn Wilcox <i>Vietnam and the West: New Approaches</i> 2010– Page 31 "At least one Buddhist text, the Cổ Châu Pháp Vân phật bản hạnh ngữ lục (CCPVP), preserves a story in Hán script about the early years of Buddhist influence in Vietnam and gives a parallel Nôm translation."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778–79,_82_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 78–79, 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marr141-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marr141_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarr1984">Marr 1984</a>, p. 141: "Because the Chinese characters were pronounced according to Vietnamese preferences, and because certain stylistic modifications occurred over time, later scholars came to refer to a hybrid "Sino-Vietnamese" (Han-Viet) language. However, there would seem to be no more justification for this term than for a fifteenth-century "Latin-English" versus the Latin written contemporaneously in Rome."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarr1984">Marr 1984</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197721–22-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197721–22_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith Weller Taylor <i>The Birth of Vietnam</i> 1976 – Page 220 "The earliest example of Vietnamese character writing, as we have noted earlier, is for the words bo and cai in the posthumous title given to Phung Hung."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197722–23-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197722–23_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017141-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017141_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan2017">Kiernan 2017</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723–24-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723–24_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017138-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2017138_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernan2017">Kiernan 2017</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990395-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990395_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990395_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNguyễn1990">Nguyễn 1990</a>, p. 395.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197723_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurence C. Thompson A Vietnamese Reference Grammar 1987 Page 53 "This stele at Ho-thành-sơn is the earliest irrefutable piece of evidence of this writing system, which is called in Vietnamese chữ nôm (chu 'written word', nom 'popular language'), probably ultimately related to nam 'south'-note that the ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaspero19127n._1-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaspero19127n._1_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaspero1912">Maspero 1912</a>, p. 7, n. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020104-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020104_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020104_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990396-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENguyễn1990396_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNguyễn1990">Nguyễn 1990</a>, p. 396.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2513850220937355">Sesquisyllabicity, Chữ Nôm, and the Early Modern embrace of vernacular writing in Vietnam</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGong201960-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGong201960_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGong2019">Gong 2019</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 83: "An exception was during the brief Hồ dynasty (1400–07), when Chinese was abolished and chữ Nôm became the official script, but the subsequent Chinese invasion and twenty-year occupation put an end to that (Helmut Martin 1982:34)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark W. McLeod, Thi Dieu Nguyen <i>Culture and Customs of Vietnam</i> 2001 Page 68 – "In part because of the ravages of the Ming occupation — the invaders destroyed or removed many Viet texts and the blocks for printing them — the earliest body of nom texts that we have dates from the early post-occupation era ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLeod-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McLeod_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark W. McLeod, Thi Dieu Nguyen, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2TerRF1j74C&dq=">Culture and Customs of Vietnam</a></i>, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chu-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chu_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Viết Luân Chu, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-XZuAAAAMAAJ&q=">Thanh Hóa, thế và lực mới trong thế kỷ XXI</a></i>, 2003, p. 52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phan_2013-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Phan_2013_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhan2013" class="citation journal cs1">Phan, John (2013). "Chữ Nôm and the Taming of the South: A Bilingual Defense for Vernacular Writing in the <i><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Chỉ Nam Ngọc Âm Giải Nghĩa</i></span></i>". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Vietnamese_Studies" title="Journal of Vietnamese Studies">Journal of Vietnamese Studies</a></i>. <b>8</b> (1). Oakland, California: University of California Press: 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fvs.2013.8.1.1">10.1525/vs.2013.8.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/vs.2013.8.1.1">10.1525/vs.2013.8.1.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vietnamese+Studies&rft.atitle=Ch%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m+and+the+Taming+of+the+South%3A+A+Bilingual+Defense+for+Vernacular+Writing+in+the+%3Cspan+title%3D%22Vietnamese-language+text%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22vi%22%3ECh%E1%BB%89+Nam+Ng%E1%BB%8Dc+%C3%82m+Gi%E1%BA%A3i+Ngh%C4%A9a%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fvs.2013.8.1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1525%2Fvs.2013.8.1.1%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Phan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017570_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 570.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. N. Ngô "The Vietnamese Language Learning Framework" – <i>Journal of Southeast Asian Language and Teaching</i>, 2001 "... to a word, is most frequently represented by combining two Chinese characters, one of which indicates the sound and the other the meaning. From the fifteenth to the nineteenth century many major works of Vietnamese poetry were composed in chữ nôm, including Truyện Kiều"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199778-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199778_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984142_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarr1984">Marr 1984</a>, p. 142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis197744–46_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, pp. 44–46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrowski2010" class="citation book cs1">Ostrowski, Brian Eugene (2010). "The Rise of Christian Nôm Literature in Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Fusing European Content and Local Expression". In Wilcox, Wynn (ed.). <i>Vietnam and the West: New Approaches</i>. Ithaca, New York: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_Southeast_Asia_Program#SEAP_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornell Southeast Asia Program">SEAP Publications</a>, Cornell University Press. pp. 23, 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780877277828" title="Special:BookSources/9780877277828"><bdi>9780877277828</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Christian+N%C3%B4m+Literature+in+Seventeenth-Century+Vietnam%3A+Fusing+European+Content+and+Local+Expression&rft.btitle=Vietnam+and+the+West%3A+New+Approaches&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pages=23%2C+38&rft.pub=SEAP+Publications%2C+Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780877277828&rft.aulast=Ostrowski&rft.aufirst=Brian+Eugene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taberd-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taberd_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taberd, J.L. (1838), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nomfoundation.org/nom-tools/Taberd-Dictionary">Dictionarium Anamitico-Latinum</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130626064515/http://staging.nomfoundation.org/taberd/">Archived</a> 2013-06-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. This is a revision of a dictionary compiled by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pigneau_de_Behaine" title="Pierre Pigneau de Behaine">Pierre Pigneau de Behaine</a> in 1772–1773. It was reprinted in 1884.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977101–105-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977101–105_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, pp. 101–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTruong1967" class="citation book cs1">Truong, Buu Lâm (1967). <i>Patterns of Vietnamese Response to Foreign Interventions, 1858–1900</i>. Yale Southeast Asian Studies Monograph. Vol. 11. New Haven: Yale University. pp. 99–102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Vietnamese+Response+to+Foreign+Interventions%2C+1858%E2%80%931900&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.series=Yale+Southeast+Asian+Studies+Monograph&rft.pages=99-102&rft.pub=Yale+University&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Truong&rft.aufirst=Buu+L%C3%A2m&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quyền Vương Đình (2002), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uB2OAAAAMAAJ">Văn bản quản lý nhà nước và công tác công văn, giấy tờ thời phong kiến Việt Nam</a></i>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phan Châu Trinh, "Monarchy and Democracy", <i>Phan Châu Trinh and His Political Writings</i>, SEAP Publications, 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87727-749-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87727-749-1">978-0-87727-749-1</a>, p. 126. This is a translation of a lecture Chau gave in Saigon in 1925. "Even at this moment, the so-called "Confucian scholars (i.e. those who have studied Chinese characters, and in particular, those who have passed the degrees of <i>cử nhân</i> [bachelor] and <i>tiến sĩ</i> [doctorate]) do not know anything, I am sure, of Confucianism. Yet every time they open their mouths they use Confucianism to attack modern civilization – a civilization they do not comprehend even a tiny bit."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chung-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chung_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chung_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chung_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chung_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhùng2009" class="citation web cs1">Phùng, Thành Chủng (November 12, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091215151351/http://damau.org/archives/10281">"Hướng tới 1000 năm Thăng Long-Hà Nội"</a> [Towards 1000 years of Thang Long-Hanoi]. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://damau.org/archives/10281">the original</a> on December 15, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=H%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bng+t%E1%BB%9Bi+1000+n%C4%83m+Th%C4%83ng+Long-H%C3%A0+N%E1%BB%99i&rft.date=2009-11-12&rft.aulast=Ph%C3%B9ng&rft.aufirst=Th%C3%A0nh+Ch%E1%BB%A7ng&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdamau.org%2Farchives%2F10281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977179-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977179_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977205-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977205_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cordier-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cordier_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cordier, Georges (1935), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5658111f/f127"><i>Les trois écritures utilisées en Annam: chu-nho, chu-nom et quoc-ngu (conférence faite à l'Ecole Coloniale, à Paris, le 28 mars 1925)</i></a>, Bulletin de la Société d'Enseignement Mutuel du Tonkin 15: 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977218-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977218_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977240-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1977240_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeFrancis1977">DeFrancis 1977</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrichDiamond1994" class="citation book cs1">Friedrich, Paul; Diamond, Norma, eds. (1994). "Jing". <i>Encyclopedia of World Cultures, volume 6: Russia and Eurasia / China</i>. New York: G.K. Hall. p. 454. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8161-1810-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8161-1810-8"><bdi>0-8161-1810-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jing&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Cultures%2C+volume+6%3A+Russia+and+Eurasia+%2F+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=454&rft.pub=G.K.+Hall&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8161-1810-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-history-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-history_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.nomfoundation.org/collection/1/volume/115/">Đại Việt sử ký tiệp lục tổng tự</a></i>, NLVNPF-0105 R.2254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShimizu2020" class="citation journal cs1">Shimizu, Masaaki (4 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2513850220936774">"Sino-Vietnamese initials reflected in the phonetic components of 15th-century Nôm character"</a>. <i>Journal of Chinese Writing Systems</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 183–195. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2513850220936774">10.1177/2513850220936774</a> – via SageJournals. <q>The material used in this study is obviously older than the poems of Nguyễn Trãi and belongs to the text type called giải âm 解音, which includes word-for-word translations of Chinese texts into Vietnamese.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Writing+Systems&rft.atitle=Sino-Vietnamese+initials+reflected+in+the+phonetic+components+of+15th-century+N%C3%B4m+character&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=183-195&rft.date=2020-08-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2513850220936774&rft.aulast=Shimizu&rft.aufirst=Masaaki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F2513850220936774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXun2020" class="citation journal cs1">Xun, Gong (4 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-171-209">"Chinese loans in Old Vietnamese with a sesquisyllabic phonology"</a>. <i>Journal of Language Relationship</i>. <b>17</b> (1–2): 58–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-171-209">10.31826/jlr-2019-171-209</a></span>. <q>The document, 佛說大報父母恩重經 Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents", henceforth Đại báo), is held in the Société asiatique, Paris. It is a version of a popular Chinese apochyphon more commonly known under the title 父母恩重難報經 Fùmǔ Ēnzhòng Nánbàojīng, Phụ mẫu ân trọng nan báo kinh ("Sūtra on the Difficulty of Repaying the Heavy Debt to Parents"), in which the Chinese text is accompanied by a vernacular translation (called 解音 giải âm in Vietnam) in a rudimentary form of Chữ Nôm, where vernacular words are written with Chinese characters and modified versions thereof.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+Relationship&rft.atitle=Chinese+loans+in+Old+Vietnamese+with+a+sesquisyllabic+phonology&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=58-59&rft.date=2020-03-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-171-209&rft.aulast=Xun&rft.aufirst=Gong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.31826%252Fjlr-2019-171-209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhan2014" class="citation cs2">Phan, John D. (2014-01-01), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004279278/B9789004279278_005.xml">"4 Rebooting the Vernacular in Seventeenth-Century Vietnam"</a>, <i>Rethinking East Asian Languages, Vernaculars, and Literacies, 1000–1919</i>, Brill, p. 122, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004279278_005">10.1163/9789004279278_005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27927-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27927-8"><bdi>978-90-04-27927-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-20</span></span>, <q>Thus, the Literary Sinitic preface overtly claims the present dictionary to be an explication (giải nghĩa 解義) of Sĩ Nhiếp's original work—that is, the vernacular glossary to southern songs and poems entitled Guide to Collected Works (Chỉ nam phẩm vị 指南品彙).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rethinking+East+Asian+Languages%2C+Vernaculars%2C+and+Literacies%2C+1000%E2%80%931919&rft.atitle=4+Rebooting+the+Vernacular+in+Seventeenth-Century+Vietnam&rft.pages=122&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004279278_005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-27927-8&rft.aulast=Phan&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004279278%2FB9789004279278_005.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141–142-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarr1984141–142_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarr1984">Marr 1984</a>, pp. 141–142.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHandel2019153-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHandel2019153_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHandel2019">Handel (2019)</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199780–81-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780–81_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780–81_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, pp. 80–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991371-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991371_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank 1991</a>, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199132-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank199132_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank 1991</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991311-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991311_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank 1991</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991218-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1991218_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1991">Pulleyblank 1991</a>, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199780-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199780_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsNgô_Thanh_Nhàn2017" class="citation web cs1">Collins, Lee; Ngô Thanh Nhàn (6 November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17373r-viet-alt-reading-marks.pdf">"Proposal to Encode Two Vietnamese Alternate Reading Marks"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proposal+to+Encode+Two+Vietnamese+Alternate+Reading+Marks&rft.date=2017-11-06&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Lee&rft.au=Ng%C3%B4+Thanh+Nh%C3%A0n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2017%2F17373r-viet-alt-reading-marks.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199781-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199781_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199781_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199781_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2019" class="citation journal cs1">Nguyễn, Tuấn Cường (7 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177/251385021986116">"Research of square scripts in Vietnam: An overview and prospects"</a>. <i>Journal of Chinese Writing Systems</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F251385021986116">10.1177/251385021986116</a> (inactive 2024-11-02) – via SageJournals.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Writing+Systems&rft.atitle=Research+of+square+scripts+in+Vietnam%3A+An+overview+and+prospects&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2019-10-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F251385021986116&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=Tu%E1%BA%A5n+C%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%2F251385021986116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHannas199779-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHannas199779_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHannas1997">Hannas 1997</a>, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020103-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020103_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn2009" class="citation book cs1">Nguyễn, Khuê (2009). <i>Chữ Nôm: cơ sở và nâng cao</i>. 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The character list for the 1993 standard is given in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.nyu.edu/~nhan/npct-2.1.pdf">Nôm Proper Code Table: Version 2.1</a> by Ngô Thanh Nhàn.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-unicode-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-unicode_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/uni2book/appA.pdf">Han Unification History</a>", <i>The Unicode Standard, Version 5.0</i> (2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hong-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hong_96-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Vietnamese)</span> Nguyễn Quang Hồng, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nomfoundation.org/vn/du-an-nom/Kho-chu-Han-Nom-ma-hoa/Gioi-thieu-Kho-chu-Han-Nom-ma-hoa">Giới thiệu Kho chữ Hán Nôm mã hoá</a>" [Hán Nôm Coded Character Repertoire Introduction], <i>Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CJK-E-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CJK-E_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CJK-E_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n4358-A.pdf">Code Charts – CJK Ext. E</a>", (N4358-A), JTC1/SC2/WG2, Oct. 10, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ngô-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ngô_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thanh Nhàn Ngô, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Manual_the_N%C3%B4m_Na_Coded_Character_Set.html?id=YyIOHAAACAAJ">Manual, the Nôm Na Coded Character Set</a></i>, Nôm Na Group, Hanoi, 2005. The set contains 19,981 characters.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VNPF-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VNPF_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VNPF_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Institute of Hán-Nôm Studies and Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nomfoundation.org/nom-tools/Nom-Books/54-Han_Nom_Coded_Character_Repertoire">Kho Chữ Hán Nôm Mã Hoá</a></i> [Hán Nôm Coded Character Repertoire] (2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kiem-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kiem_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Vietnamese)</span> Trần Văn Kiệm, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nomfoundation.org/nom-tools/Nom-Dictionary">Giúp đọc Nôm và Hán Việt</a></i> [Help with Nom and Sino-Vietnamese], 2004, "Entry càng", p. 290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-An-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-An_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoàng Triều Ân, <i>Tự điển chữ Nôm Tày</i> [Nom of the Tay People], 2003, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NomFoundation-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NomFoundation_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nomfoundation.org/common/nom_details.php?codepoint=63830&img=1">Detailed information: V+63830"</a>, Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation.<br />"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nomfoundation.org/common/show_radical.php?radical=0005&img=1">List of Unicode Radicals</a>", VNPF.<br />Kiệm, 2004, p. 424, "Entry giàu."<br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vdict.com/gi%C3%A0u,2,0,0.html">Entry giàu</a>", VDict.com.</span> </li> </ol></div> <dl><dt>Works cited</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1977" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_DeFrancis" title="John DeFrancis">DeFrancis, John</a> (1977), <i>Colonialism and language policy in Viet Nam</i>, Mouton, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7643-7"><bdi>978-90-279-7643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonialism+and+language+policy+in+Viet+Nam&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-90-279-7643-7&rft.aulast=DeFrancis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGong2019" class="citation cs2">Gong, Xun (2019), "Chinese loans in Old Vietnamese with a sesquisyllabic phonology", <i>Journal of Language Relationship</i>, <b>17</b> (1–2): 55–72, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-171-209">10.31826/jlr-2019-171-209</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+Relationship&rft.atitle=Chinese+loans+in+Old+Vietnamese+with+a+sesquisyllabic+phonology&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=55-72&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2Fjlr-2019-171-209&rft.aulast=Gong&rft.aufirst=Xun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandel2019" class="citation cs2">Handel, Zev (2019), <i>Sinography: The Borrowing and Adaptation of the Chinese Script</i>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38632-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38632-7"><bdi>978-90-04-38632-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sinography%3A+The+Borrowing+and+Adaptation+of+the+Chinese+Script&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-90-04-38632-7&rft.aulast=Handel&rft.aufirst=Zev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannas1997" class="citation cs2">Hannas, Wm. C. (1997), <i>Asia's Orthographic Dilemma</i>, University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1892-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1892-0"><bdi>978-0-8248-1892-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%27s+Orthographic+Dilemma&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1892-0&rft.aulast=Hannas&rft.aufirst=Wm.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan2017" class="citation cs2">Kiernan, Ben (2017), <i>Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516076-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516076-5"><bdi>978-0-19-516076-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam%3A+A+History+from+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-516076-5&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornicki2017" class="citation cs2">Kornicki, Peter (2017), "Sino-Vietnamese literature", in Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE)</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 568–578, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1"><bdi>978-0-199-35659-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sino-Vietnamese+literature&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Classical+Chinese+Literature+%281000+BCE-900+CE%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=568-578&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-199-35659-1&rft.aulast=Kornicki&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2020" class="citation cs2">Li, Yu (2020), <i>The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective</i>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-069906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-00-069906-7"><bdi>978-1-00-069906-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Writing+System+in+Asia%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Perspective&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-00-069906-7&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Yu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarr1984" class="citation cs2">Marr, David G. (1984), <i>Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945</i>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-90744-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-90744-7"><bdi>978-0-520-90744-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese+Tradition+on+Trial%2C+1920%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-520-90744-7&rft.aulast=Marr&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaspero1912" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Maspero" title="Henri Maspero">Maspero, Henri</a> (1912), "Etudes sur la phonétique historique de la langue annamite. Les initiales", <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i>, <b>12</b>: 1–124, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbefeo.1912.2713">10.3406/befeo.1912.2713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+l%27%C3%89cole+fran%C3%A7aise+d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient&rft.atitle=Etudes+sur+la+phon%C3%A9tique+historique+de+la+langue+annamite.+Les+initiales&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=1-124&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fbefeo.1912.2713&rft.aulast=Maspero&rft.aufirst=Henri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1990" class="citation cs2">Nguyễn, Đình Hoà (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/3334hNziIVU.pdf">"Graphemic borromings from Chinese: the case of chữ nôm – Vietnam's demotic script"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology</i>, <b>61</b> (2): 383–432.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Institute+of+History+and+Philology&rft.atitle=Graphemic+borromings+from+Chinese%3A+the+case+of+ch%E1%BB%AF+n%C3%B4m+%E2%80%93+Vietnam%27s+demotic+script&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=383-432&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C3%ACnh+Ho%C3%A0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffile%2F3334hNziIVU.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1991" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin George</a> (1991), <i>Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin</i>, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0366-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-0366-3"><bdi>978-0-7748-0366-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexicon+of+reconstructed+pronunciation+in+early+Middle+Chinese%2C+late+Middle+Chinese%2C+and+early+Mandarin&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7748-0366-3&rft.aulast=Pulleyblank&rft.aufirst=Edwin+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSun2015" class="citation cs2">Sun, Hongkai (2015), "Language policy of China's minority languages", in Sun, Chaofen; Yang, William (eds.), <i>The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 541–553, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19985-634-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19985-634-3"><bdi>978-0-19985-634-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+policy+of+China%27s+minority+languages&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=541-553&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19985-634-3&rft.aulast=Sun&rft.aufirst=Hongkai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Chʻen, Ching-ho (n. d.). <i>A Collection of Chữ Nôm Scripts with Pronunciation in Quốc-Ngữ</i>. Tokyo: Keiô University.</li> <li>Nguyễn, Đình Hoà (2001). <i>Chuyên Khảo Về Chữ Nôm = Monograph on Nôm Characters</i>. Westminster, California: Institute of Vietnamese Studies, Viet-Hoc Pub. Dept.. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9716296-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9716296-0-9">0-9716296-0-9</a></li> <li>Nguyễn, N. B. (1984). <i>The State of Chữ Nôm Studies: The Demotic Script of Vietnam</i>. Vietnamese Studies Papers. [Fairfax, Virginia]: Indochina Institute, George Mason University.</li> <li>O'Harrow, S. (1977). <i>A Short Bibliography of Sources on "Chữ-Nôm"</i>. Honolulu: Asia Collection, University of Hawaii.</li> <li>Schneider, Paul 1992. <i>Dictionnaire Historique Des Idéogrammes Vietnamiens</i> / (licencié en droit Nice, France : Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, R.I.A.S.E.M.)</li> <li>Zhou Youguang <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-CN">周有光</span></span> (1998). <i>Bijiao wenzi xue chutan</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-CN">比較文字学初探</span></span> "A Comparative Study of Writing Systems"). Beijing: Yuwen chubanshe.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.academia.edu/6797639/Rebooting_the_Vernacular_in_17th-century_Vietnam">http://www.academia.edu/6797639/Rebooting_the_Vernacular_in_17th-century_Vietnam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chunom.org/">Chunom.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201219114837/https://chunom.org/">Archived</a> 2020-12-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "This site is about Chữ Nôm, the classical writing system of Vietnam."</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nomfoundation.org/">Vietnamese Nôm Preservation Foundation</a>. Features a character dictionary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chunom.htm">Chữ Nôm</a>, Omniglot</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cjvlang.com/Writing/writsys/writviet.html">The Vietnamese Writing System</a>, Bathrobe's Chinese, Japanese & Vietnamese Writing Systems</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hannom-rcv.org/">Han-Nom Revival Committee of Vietnam</a> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in Vietnamese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20141219055417/http://www.hannom-rcv.org/wi/">VinaWiki</a> – wiki encyclopedia in chữ Nôm with many articles transliterated from the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Wikipedia" title="Vietnamese Wikipedia">Vietnamese Wikipedia</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Vietnamese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hannom.org.vn/">Han-Nom Research Institute</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Vietnamese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chunom.org/pages/tdcntd/"><i>Tự Điển Chữ Nôm Trích Dẫn</i></a> – Dictionary of Nôm characters with excerpts, Institute of Vietnamese Studies, 2009</li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Vietnamese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070503043351/http://ngonngu.net/index.php?fld=nnh&sub=nguam&pst=cv_lstv_01">Vấn đề chữ viết nhìn từ góc độ lịch sử tiếng Việt</a>, Trần Trí Dõi</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001875760"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">越南北屬時期漢字文獻異體字整理與研究</span></span></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://transliterationtools.blogspot.com/2024/03/vietnamese-conversion-tool.html">Chữ Nôm to Vietnamese Latin Converter</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Bianchi, Brent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.library.yale.edu/SoutheastAsiaCollection/southeastasiaspecialcollections">"Southeast Asia Collection: Hán Nôm Studies 研究漢喃"</a>. <i>Yale University Library Research Guides</i>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-04-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yale+University+Library+Research+Guides&rft.atitle=Southeast+Asia+Collection%3A+H%C3%A1n+N%C3%B4m+Studies+%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%BC%A2%E5%96%83&rft.aulast=Bianchi&rft.aufirst=Brent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguides.library.yale.edu%2FSoutheastAsiaCollection%2Fsoutheastasiaspecialcollections&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Texts_2">Texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sea.lib.niu.edu/islandora/object/SEAImages%3ANLVNPFManuscripts">"The Hán-Nôm Special Collection Digitization Project"</a>. <i>Southeast Asia Digital library</i>. Northern Illinois University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Southeast+Asia+Digital+library&rft.atitle=The+H%C3%A1n-N%C3%B4m+Special+Collection+Digitization+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsea.lib.niu.edu%2Fislandora%2Fobject%2FSEAImages%253ANLVNPFManuscripts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACh%E1%BB%AF+N%C3%B4m" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nomfoundation.org/nom-project/Digital-Library-of-Han-Nom?uiLang=en">The Digital Library of Hán-Nôm</a>, digitized manuscripts held by the National Library of Vietnam.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software">Software</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of software tools that can produce chữ Nôm characters simply by typing Vietnamese words in chữ quốc ngữ: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060505105536/http://www.viethoc.com/hannom/bango_intro.php">HanNomIME</a>, a Windows-based Vietnamese keyboard driver that supports Hán characters and chữ Nôm.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120618040841/http://herr.atspace.eu/">Vietnamese Keyboard Set</a> which enables chữ Nôm and Hán typing on Mac OS X.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://winvnkey.sourceforge.net/">WinVNKey</a>, a Windows-based Vietnamese multilingual keyboard driver that supports typing chữ Nôm in addition to Traditional and Simplified Chinese.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chunom.org/ime/">Chunom.org Online Editor</a>, a browser-based editor for typing chữ Nôm.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bogo.hannom.org/">Bộ gõ Hán Nôm: Phương Viên</a>, a rime-based IME for typing chữ Nôm.</li></ul> <p>Other entry methods: </p> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in Chinese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinesecj.com/forum/viewthread.php?tid=2596&extra=page%3D1"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">倉頡之友《倉頡平台2012》</span></span></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131214123307/http://www.chinesecj.com/forum/viewthread.php?tid=2596&extra=page%3D1">Archived</a> 2013-12-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Cangjie_input_method" title="Cangjie input method">Cangjie input method</a> for Windows that allows keyboard entry of all <a href="/wiki/Han_unification" title="Han unification">Unicode CJK characters</a> by character shape. Supports over 70,000 characters. Users may add their own characters and character combinations.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fonts">Fonts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Fonts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fonts with a sufficient coverage of Chữ Nôm characters include <i>Han-Nom Gothic</i>, <i>Han-Nom Minh</i>, <i>Han-Nom Ming</i>, <i>Han-Nom Kai</i>, <i>Nom Na Tong</i>, <i>STXiHei</i> (<i>Heiti TC</i>), <i>MingLiU</i> plus<i> MingLiU-ExtB</i>, <i>Han Nom A</i> plus <i>Han Nom B</i>, <i>FZKaiT-Extended</i> plus <i>FZKaiT-Extended(SIP)</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Mojiky%C5%8D" title="Mojikyō">Mojikyō</a> fonts which require special software. The following web pages are collections of URLs from which Chữ Nôm capable fonts can be downloaded: </p> <ul><li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chunom.org/pages/fonts/">Fonts for Chu Nom</a></i> on <i>chunom.org</i>.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hannom-rcv.org/font.html#e">Han-Nom Fonts</a></i> on <i>hannom-rcv.org</i>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modi_script" title="Modi script">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golmol script (page does not exist)">Golmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Himmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Himmol script (page does not exist)">Himmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kummol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kummol script (page does not exist)">Kummol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kvemmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kvemmol script (page does not exist)">Kvemmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachumol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachumol script (page does not exist)">Pachumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C3%AA_script" title="Umê script">Umê</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buda_script" title="Buda script">Buda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leke_script" title="Leke script">Leke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_script" title="Pyu script">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Le_script" title="Tai Le script">Tai Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Tai_Lue_alphabet" title="New Tai Lue alphabet">New Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Noi_script" title="Tai Noi script">Tai Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Tay_script" title="Lai Tay script">Lai Tay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Incung_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Incung script (page does not exist)">Incung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembak_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembak script (page does not exist)">Lembak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogan_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ogan script (page does not exist)">Ogan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasemah_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasemah script (page does not exist)">Pasemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Rejang script">Rejang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serawai_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serawai script (page does not exist)">Serawai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyd%27s_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dham_script" title="Dham script">Dham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollard_script" title="Pollard script">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_language" title="Qiang language">Rma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic" title="Bosnian Cyrillic">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veso_Bey_alphabet" title="Veso Bey alphabet">Veso Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddare_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlac" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlac">Interlac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_script" title="Luo script">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language#Script" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Onal" title="Ol Onal">Ol Onal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pau_Cin_Hau_script" title="Pau Cin Hau script">Pau Cin Hau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ideograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems#Ojibwe_"hieroglyphs"" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chữ Nôm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khom_script_(Ong_Kommadam)" title="Khom script (Ong Kommadam)">Khom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam#Quốc_Âm_Tân_Tự" title="History of writing in Vietnam">Quốc Âm Tân Tự</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sign_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si5s" title="Si5s">si5s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_syllabary" title="Bété syllabary">Bété</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iban_language#Alphabet" title="Iban language">Iban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language#Lisu_syllabary" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loma_language#writing_systems" title="Loma language">Loma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Modern_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Braille" title="Template:Braille"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Braille" title="Template talk:Braille"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Braille" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Braille"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:French-ordered_braille_alphabets" title="Category:French-ordered braille alphabets">French-ordered</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odia_Braille" title="Odia Braille">Odia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Blindness_organizations" title="Category:Blindness organizations">Blindness organizations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_for_the_blind" title="Category:Schools for the blind">Schools for the blind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a 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