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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Israel_(1500–586_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Israel_(1500–586_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ancient Israel (1500–586 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_Israel_(1500–586_BCE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ancient Israel (1500–586 BCE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Israel_(1500–586_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_early_Israelites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_early_Israelites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>The early Israelites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_early_Israelites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Babylonian_captivity_(c._587–538_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Babylonian_captivity_(c._587–538_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>The Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Babylonian_captivity_(c._587–538_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Temple_period_(538_BCE–70_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Temple_period_(538_BCE–70_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Second Temple period (538 BCE–70 CE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_Temple_period_(538_BCE–70_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Second Temple period (538 BCE–70 CE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_Temple_period_(538_BCE–70_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persian_period_(c._538–332_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_period_(c._538–332_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Persian period (c. 538–332 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_period_(c._538–332_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hellenistic_period_(c._332–110_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hellenistic_period_(c._332–110_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Hellenistic_period_(c._332–110_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hasmonean_Kingdom_(110–63_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hasmonean_Kingdom_(110–63_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The Hasmonean Kingdom (110–63 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Hasmonean_Kingdom_(110–63_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Roman_period_(63_BCE_–_135_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Roman_period_(63_BCE_–_135_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>The Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Roman_period_(63_BCE_–_135_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Diaspora_during_the_Second_Temple_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Diaspora_during_the_Second_Temple_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>The Diaspora during the Second Temple period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Diaspora_during_the_Second_Temple_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Talmudic_period_(70–640_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Talmudic_period_(70–640_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Talmudic period (70–640 CE)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Talmudic_period_(70–640_CE)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Talmudic period (70–640 CE) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Talmudic_period_(70–640_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diaspora_Revolt_(115–117_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diaspora_Revolt_(115–117_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diaspora_Revolt_(115–117_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bar_Kokhba_revolt_(132–136_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bar_Kokhba_revolt_(132–136_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bar_Kokhba_revolt_(132–136_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Roman_period_in_the_Land_of_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Roman_period_in_the_Land_of_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Late Roman period in the Land of Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Roman_period_in_the_Land_of_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Jews_of_pre-Muslim_Babylonia_(219–638_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Jews_of_pre-Muslim_Babylonia_(219–638_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>The Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Jews_of_pre-Muslim_Babylonia_(219–638_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Byzantine_period_(324–638_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Byzantine_period_(324–638_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>The Byzantine period (324–638 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Byzantine_period_(324–638_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diaspora_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diaspora_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Diaspora communities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diaspora_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The Medieval period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Medieval_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Medieval period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Islamic_period_(638–1099)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Islamic_period_(638–1099)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>The Islamic period (638–1099)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Islamic_period_(638–1099)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Jewish_Golden_Age_in_early_Muslim_Spain_(711–1031)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Jewish_Golden_Age_in_early_Muslim_Spain_(711–1031)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The Jewish Golden Age in early Muslim Spain (711–1031)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Jewish_Golden_Age_in_early_Muslim_Spain_(711–1031)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Crusaders_period_(1099–1260)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Crusaders_period_(1099–1260)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>The Crusaders period (1099–1260)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Crusaders_period_(1099–1260)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Mamluk_period_(1260–1517)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Mamluk_period_(1260–1517)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>The Mamluk period (1260–1517)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Mamluk_period_(1260–1517)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spain,_North_Africa,_and_the_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain,_North_Africa,_and_the_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain,_North_Africa,_and_the_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expulsions_of_the_Jews_of_Spain_and_Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expulsions_of_the_Jews_of_Spain_and_Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expulsions_of_the_Jews_of_Spain_and_Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Early_Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Early_Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The Early Modern period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Early Modern period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Court_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Court_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Court Jews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Court_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Port_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Port_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Port Jews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Port_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>The Ottoman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_European_Enlightenment_and_the_Haskalah_(18th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_European_Enlightenment_and_the_Haskalah_(18th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>The European Enlightenment and the Haskalah (18th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_European_Enlightenment_and_the_Haskalah_(18th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hasidic_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasidic_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Hasidic Judaism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasidic_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>The 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The 20th century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The 20th century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_Zionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Zionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Modern Zionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Zionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>The Holocaust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Holocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_establishment_of_the_State_of_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_establishment_of_the_State_of_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>The establishment of the State of Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_establishment_of_the_State_of_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>The 21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia_and_Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia_and_Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Russia and Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia_and_Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Juden" title="Geschichte der Juden – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Geschichte der Juden" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8B%95%E1%89%A5%E1%88%AB%E1%8B%8D%E1%8B%AB%E1%8A%95_%E1%89%B3%E1%88%AA%E1%8A%AD" title="የዕብራውያን ታሪክ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የዕብራውያን ታሪክ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تاريخ اليهود – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ اليهود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_pueblu_xud%C3%ADu" title="Historia del pueblu xudíu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia del pueblu xudíu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C9%99hudi_xalq%C4%B1n%C4%B1n_tarixi" title="Yəhudi xalqının tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yəhudi xalqının tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_dels_jueus" title="Història dels jueus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història dels jueus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_%C5%BDid%C5%AF" title="Dějiny Židů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Židů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dernes_historie" title="Jødernes historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jødernes historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddische_Gschicht" title="Yiddische Gschicht – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Yiddische Gschicht" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deitsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Juden" title="Geschichte der Juden – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Juden" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_los_jud%C3%ADos" title="Historia de los judíos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de los judíos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Judismo" title="Historia Judismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historia Judismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juduen_historia" title="Juduen historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Juduen historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تاریخ یهود – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ یهود" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_peuple_juif" title="Histoire du peuple juif – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du peuple juif" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հրեաների պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հրեաների պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="यहूदी इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यहूदी इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_%C5%BDidova" title="Povijest Židova – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Židova" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Judaismo" title="Historio di Judaismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Judaismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Yahudi" title="Sejarah Yahudi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_degli_ebrei" title="Storia degli ebrei – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia degli ebrei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%A2%D7%9D_%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C" title="היסטוריה של עם ישראל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של עם ישראל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Историја на Евреите – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Евреите" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantaran%27_ny_vahoaka_jiosy" title="Tantaran' ny vahoaka jiosy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantaran' ny vahoaka jiosy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A6_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="യഹൂദ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യഹൂദ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Yahudi" title="Sejarah Yahudi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joodse_geschiedenis" title="Joodse geschiedenis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Joodse geschiedenis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8disk_historie" title="Jødisk historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jødisk historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="یہودی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یہودی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="د يهوديت تاريخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د يهوديت تاريخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_judaica" title="História judaica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História judaica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_evreilor" title="Istoria evreilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria evreilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="История еврейского народа – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История еврейского народа" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_jahude" title="Historia jahude – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia jahude" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jewish history" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jevrejska_istorija" title="Jevrejska istorija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Jevrejska istorija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutalaisten_historia" title="Juutalaisten historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juutalaisten historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judendomens_historia" title="Judendomens historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Judendomens historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="யூதர்களின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யூதர்களின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi_tarihi" title="Yahudi tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudi tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Єврейська історія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Єврейська історія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="یہودی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہودی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Do_Th%C3%A1i" title="Lịch sử Do Thái – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Do Thái" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%98%D7%A2" title="יידישער געשיכטע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="יידישער געשיכטע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="犹太人历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="犹太人历史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q961603#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> may be too long</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">length guidelines</a> and help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit">move details into the article's body</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_063.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_063.jpg/220px-Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_063.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_063.jpg/330px-Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_063.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_063.jpg/440px-Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_063.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2394" /></a><figcaption>According to Jewish tradition, <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>, shown <a href="/wiki/Jacob_wrestling_with_the_angel" title="Jacob wrestling with the angel">wrestling with the angel</a> in this painting by <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>, was the father of the <a href="/wiki/Tribes_of_Israel" 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Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism"><span class="wrap">Land of Israel</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah"><span class="wrap">Bar and bat mitzvah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah"><span class="wrap">Kingdom of Judah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem"><span class="wrap">Temple in Jerusalem</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity"><span class="wrap">Assyrian captivity</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity"><span class="wrap">Babylonian captivity</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty"><span class="wrap">Hasmonean dynasty</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a></span>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Christianity and Judaism</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Hinduism and Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Islamic–Jewish</span> relations</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Arab–Israeli</span> conflict</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa"><span class="wrap">South Africa</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom"><span class="wrap">United Kingdom</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic"><span class="wrap">Dominican Republic</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico"><span class="wrap">Puerto Rico</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism"><span class="wrap">Reform</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism"><span class="wrap">Conversion to Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Icon-religion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/200px-Icon-religion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/300px-Icon-religion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/400px-Icon-religion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="519" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founding figures</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhartha_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhartha Gautama">Siddhartha Gautama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza_ibn_Ali" title="Hamza ibn Ali">Hamza ibn Ali</a> (<a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druzism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Baháʼu'lláh">Baháʼu'lláh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Study_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Study of religion">Study of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_gene" title="God gene">God gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greco</a>-<a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Hellenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Dharmaization (Hindu-Buddhist Indianization)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Age of Discovery</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Modern day</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Age of Reason</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Postmodernism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jainism" title="Timeline of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Far Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism#History" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto#History" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religion" title="Template:History of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religion" title="Template talk:History of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jewish history</b> is the history of the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, their <a href="/wiki/Jewish_peoplehood" title="Jewish peoplehood">nation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">culture</a>, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures. </p><p>Jews originated from the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrews</a> of historical <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel and Judah</a>, two related kingdoms that emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkelstein2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkelstein2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pitcher2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitcher2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the earliest mention of <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israel</a> is inscribed on the <a href="/wiki/Merneptah_Stele" title="Merneptah Stele">Merneptah Stele</a> around 1213–1203 BCE, religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as c. 1500 BCE. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> fell to the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> in around 720 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-Broshi_2001_1742_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Broshi_2001_1742-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> in 586 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of the Judean population was exiled to <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylon</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity">Assyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivities</a> are regarded as representing the start of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a>. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Achaemenid Empire</a> conquered the region, the exiled Jews were <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">allowed to return</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">rebuild the temple</a>; these events mark the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After several centuries of foreign rule, the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> led to an <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">independent Hasmonean kingdom</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-BangScheidel2013_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BangScheidel2013-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was gradually incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Malamat1976_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Malamat1976-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish-Roman wars</a>, a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the expulsion of many Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FahlbuschBromiley2005_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FahlbuschBromiley2005-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jewish population in <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> to <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and then to <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Babylon</a>, with smaller communities spread out across the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. During the same period, the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>, central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities <a href="/wiki/Coalescent_theory" title="Coalescent theory">coalesced</a> into three major <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">ethnic subdivisions</a> according to where their ancestors settled: the <i><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Jewry" title="Eastern European Jewry">Eastern Europe</a>), the <i><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardim</a></i> (initially in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Iberian Peninsula</a>), and the <i><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dosick_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dosick-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> rule over the Levant was lost in the 7th century as the newly established <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Islamic Caliphate</a> expanded into the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, North Africa, and later into the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>. <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain</a>, with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed. However, in 1492 the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">Jews were forced to leave Spain</a> and migrated in great numbers to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italy</a>. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Poland">Poland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 18th century saw the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a> from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. </p><p>In the 19th century, when Jews in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a> faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a>. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist movement</a> was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> between 1881 and 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1933, with the rise to power of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a>, the Jewish situation became severe. Economic crises, racial <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Europe#The_Holocaust" title="Antisemitism in Europe">antisemitic laws</a>, and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a>, to the United States and to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. In 1939, <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> began and until 1941 Hitler <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">occupied almost all of Europe</a>. In 1941, following the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invasion</a> of the Soviet Union, the <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a> began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. In Poland, three million were murdered in <a href="/wiki/Gas_chambers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas chambers">gas chambers</a> in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a> camp complex alone. This <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. </p><p>Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, <a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a> declared the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_and_democratic_state" title="Jewish and democratic state">Jewish and democratic state</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Eretz_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Eretz Israel">Eretz Israel</a></i> (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">IDF</a> resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a> from all over Europe and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Middle Eastern countries</a>. As of 2022,<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a> with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Jewish</a>. The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">United States</a>, while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a>. For statistics related to modern Jewish demographics, see <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish population">Jewish population</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish historiography</a></div> <p>Ancient Jewish history is known from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, extra-biblical sources, <a href="/wiki/Apocrypha" title="Apocrypha">apocrypha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigrapha" title="Pseudepigrapha">pseudoepigrapha</a>, the writings of <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a> authors and <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">church fathers</a>, as well as archaeological finds, inscriptions, ancient documents (such as the <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri_and_ostraca" title="Elephantine papyri and ostraca">Papyri from Elephantine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Fayyum</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea scrolls</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Letters" title="Cave of Letters">Bar Kokhba letters</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Babatha" title="Babatha">Babatha Archives</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Genizah documents</a>) supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">oral history</a> and the collection of commentaries in the <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>. </p><p>With the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> and <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, Jewish histories and <a href="/wiki/Early_editions_of_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Early editions of the Hebrew Bible">early editions of the Torah/Tanakh</a> were published which dealt with the history of the Jewish religion, and increasingly, <a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">national histories</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_peoplehood" title="Jewish peoplehood">Jewish peoplehood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">identity</a>. This was a move from a <a href="/wiki/Manuscript_culture" title="Manuscript culture">manuscript or scribal culture</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Printing_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Printing culture">printing culture</a>. Jewish historians wrote accounts of their collective experiences, but also increasingly used history for political, cultural, and scientific or philosophical exploration. Writers drew upon a corpus of culturally inherited text in seeking to construct a logical narrative to critique or advance the state of the art. Modern Jewish historiography intertwines with intellectual movements such as the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> but drew upon earlier works in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> and into diverse sources in antiquity. Today, the history of the Jews and Judaism is often divided into six periods: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a> (c. 1200–586 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a> (c. 516 BCE–70 CE)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic or Talmudic period</a> (70–640 CE)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> (640–1492)</li> <li>Early Modern period (1492–1750)</li> <li>Modern period (1750–20th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust" title="Timeline of the Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and the establishment of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a> (19th–21st centuries)</li></ol> <figure class="mw-halign-center noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="#Time_periods_in_Jewish_history" title="Jewish history"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Chronology_of_Israel_eng.png/800px-Chronology_of_Israel_eng.png" decoding="async" width="800" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Chronology_of_Israel_eng.png 1.5x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="179" usemap="#ImageMap_7952ffb1c9e6355c" /></a><map name="ImageMap_7952ffb1c9e6355c"><area href="/wiki/Aliyah" shape="rect" coords="529,125,670,142" alt="Periods of massive immigration to Palestine" title="Periods of massive immigration to Palestine" /><area href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" shape="rect" coords="454,125,520,141" alt="Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile" title="Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in exile" /><area href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" shape="rect" coords="370,125,445,141" alt="Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence" title="Periods in which the majority of Jews lived in the southern Levant, with full or partial independence" /><area href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" shape="rect" coords="252,125,363,141" alt="Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed" title="Periods in which a Jewish Temple existed" /><area href="#Time_periods_in_Jewish_history" shape="rect" coords="158,125,248,141" alt="Jewish history" title="Jewish history" /><area href="/wiki/Book_of_Judges" shape="rect" coords="21,82,108,98" alt="Shoftim" title="Shoftim" /><area href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" shape="rect" coords="108,82,213,97" alt="Melakhim" title="Melakhim" /><area href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" shape="rect" coords="117,67,214,84" alt="First Temple" title="First Temple" /><area href="/wiki/Second_Temple_of_Jerusalem" shape="rect" coords="230,67,336,83" alt="Second Temple" title="Second Temple" /><area href="/wiki/Zugot" shape="rect" coords="274,83,315,97" alt="Zugot" title="Zugot" /><area href="/wiki/Tannaim" shape="rect" coords="316,83,364,97" alt="Tannaim" title="Tannaim" /><area href="/wiki/Amoraim" shape="rect" coords="363,82,429,178" alt="Amoraim" title="Amoraim" /><area href="/wiki/Savoraim" shape="rect" coords="429,82,450,97" alt="Savoraim" title="Savoraim" /><area href="/wiki/Geonim" shape="rect" coords="449,83,556,97" alt="Geonim" title="Geonim" /><area href="/wiki/Rishonim" shape="rect" coords="556,82,663,97" alt="Rishonim" title="Rishonim" /><area href="/wiki/Acharonim" shape="rect" coords="663,80,756,96" alt="Acharonim" title="Acharonim" /><area href="/wiki/Aliyah" shape="rect" coords="755,76,771,96" alt="Aliyot" title="Aliyot" /><area href="/wiki/Israel" shape="rect" coords="770,52,784,97" alt="Israel" title="Israel" /><area href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" shape="rect" coords="756,50,770,76" alt="The Holocaust" title="The Holocaust" /><area href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" shape="rect" coords="663,50,757,80" alt="Diaspora" title="Diaspora" /><area href="/wiki/Alhambra_decree" shape="rect" coords="650,49,663,81" alt="Expulsion from Spain" title="Expulsion from Spain" /><area href="/wiki/Dispersion_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" shape="rect" coords="344,50,650,83" alt="Roman exile" title="Roman exile" /><area href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" shape="poly" coords="182,66,330,66,330,74,344,74,344,49,182,50" alt="Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)" title="Assyrian Exile (Ten Lost Tribes)" /><area href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" shape="rect" coords="212,66,228,98" alt="Babylonian captivity" title="Babylonian captivity" /><area href="/wiki/Second_Temple_of_Jerusalem" shape="rect" coords="228,83,274,97" alt="Second Temple period" title="Second Temple period" /><area href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible" shape="poly" coords="21,97,14,97,14,51,181,51,182,65,117,66,117,81,21,81" alt="Ancient Jewish History" title="Ancient Jewish History" /><area href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_Bible" shape="rect" coords="47,109,302,117" alt="Chronology of the Bible" title="Chronology of the Bible" /><area href="/wiki/Common_Era" shape="rect" coords="286,98,300,109" alt="Common Era" title="Common Era" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Israel_(1500–586_BCE)"><span id="Ancient_Israel_.281500.E2.80.93586_BCE.29"></span>Ancient Israel (1500–586 BCE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient Israel (1500–586 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_early_Israelites">The early Israelites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The early Israelites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Israel_Judea_926_BC-fr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Map_Israel_Judea_926_BC-fr.svg/200px-Map_Israel_Judea_926_BC-fr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Map_Israel_Judea_926_BC-fr.svg/300px-Map_Israel_Judea_926_BC-fr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Map_Israel_Judea_926_BC-fr.svg/400px-Map_Israel_Judea_926_BC-fr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in 926 BCE</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of the early Jews, and their neighbours, centres on the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> and east coast of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. It begins among those people who occupied the area lying between the river <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, by the deserts of <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, and by the highlands of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, the land of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> (roughly corresponding to modern Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Jordan, and Lebanon) was a meeting place of civilizations. </p><p>The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the <a href="/wiki/Merneptah_Stele" title="Merneptah Stele">Merneptah Stele</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, dated to about 1200 BCE. According to the modern archaeological account, the Israelites and their culture branched out of the <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite peoples</a> and their cultures through the development of a distinct <a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">monolatristic</a>—and later <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</a>—religion centred on the national god <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They spoke an archaic form of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a>, known today as <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional religious view of Jews and Judaism of their own history was based on the narrative of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>. In this view, <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, is the first Jew.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevenson20123_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevenson20123-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> was born to Abraham, and <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a> was born to Isaac. Following a <a href="/wiki/Jacob_wrestling_with_the_angel" title="Jacob wrestling with the angel">struggle with an angel</a>, Jacob was given the name <a href="/wiki/Israel_(name)" title="Israel (name)">Israel</a>. Following a severe drought, Jacob and his twelve sons fled to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>, where they eventually formed the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a>. The Israelites were later <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">led out of slavery in Egypt and subsequently brought to Canaan</a> by <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>; they eventually <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">conquered Canaan</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Joshua" title="Joshua">Joshua</a>. </p><p>Modern scholars agree that the Bible does not provide an authentic account of the Israelites' origins; the consensus supports that the archaeological evidence showing largely indigenous origins of Israel in Canaan, not Egypt, is "overwhelming" and leaves "no room for an Exodus from Egypt or a 40-year pilgrimage through the Sinai wilderness".<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated99_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated99-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as "a fruitless pursuit".<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated99_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated99-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is accepted that this narrative does have a "historical core" to it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200161_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200161-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to the Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt:<sup id="cite_ref-Finkelstein_1994_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkelstein_1994-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The culture of the earliest Israelite settlements is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god <a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">El</a>, the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and the alphabet used is early Canaanite. The almost sole marker distinguishing the "Israelite" villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">Biblical narrative</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a> was organized into a confederacy of twelve tribes ruled by a series of <a href="/wiki/Biblical_judges" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical judges">Judges</a> for several hundred years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Kingdoms_of_Israel_and_Judah">The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></div> <p>Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel and Judah</a>. The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as the successors of an earlier <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">United Kingdom of Israel</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)#Archaeological_record" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">its historicity is disputed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zachary_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zachary-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lipschits_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lipschits-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> existed from <abbr title="circa">ca.</abbr> 900 BCE<sup id="cite_ref-Finkelstein2_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkelstein2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 169–195">: 169–195 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wright_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> existed from <abbr title="circa">ca.</abbr> 700 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Pitcher2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pitcher2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tel_Dan_Stele" class="mw-redirect" title="Tel Dan Stele">Tel Dan Stele</a>, discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate the extent of its power.<sup id="cite_ref-Grabbe_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabbe-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cline_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cline-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NWSem_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NWSem-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under <a href="/wiki/Saul_the_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Saul the King">Saul</a>, and continued under <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> and his son, <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a>. David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jebus" title="Siege of Jebus">conquered Jerusalem</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Jebusites" title="Jebusites">Jebusites</a>, turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a> on <a href="/wiki/Moriah" title="Moriah">Mount Moriah</a> in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE, a civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Judah" title="Tribe of Judah">Judah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Simeon" title="Tribe of Simeon">Simeon</a> was absorbed into Judah) and <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Benjamin" title="Tribe of Benjamin">Benjamin</a> in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south. </p><p>The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkelsteinSilberman2002146–7_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelsteinSilberman2002146–7-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the days of the <a href="/wiki/Omride_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Omride Dynasty">Omride dynasty</a>, it controlled <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, the upper <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Valley" title="Jordan Valley">Jordan Valley</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sharon_plain" title="Sharon plain">Sharon</a> and large parts of the <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)" title="Samaria (ancient city)">Samaria</a>, the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Broshi_2001_1742_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Broshi_2001_1742-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, controlled the <a href="/wiki/Judaean_Mountains" title="Judaean Mountains">Judaean Mountains</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shephelah" title="Shephelah">Shephelah</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Judaean_Desert" title="Judaean Desert">Judaean Desert</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev</a>. After the fall of Israel, Judah became a <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassalage</a>, despite <a href="/wiki/Hezekiah#Political_moves_and_Assyrian_invasion" title="Hezekiah">Hezekiah's revolt</a> against the Assyrian king <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Hosea" title="Book of Hosea">Hosea</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelle20059_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelle20059-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Isaiah</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrettler2010161–62_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrettler2010161–62-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Amos" title="Book of Amos">Amos</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadine201071–72_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadine201071–72-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Micah" title="Book of Micah">Micah</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson2003a690_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2003a690-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nahum" title="Book of Nahum">Nahum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Brien200214_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Brien200214-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zephaniah" title="Book of Zephaniah">Zephaniah</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGelston2003c715_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGelston2003c715-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy" title="Book of Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson2003b154_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2003b154-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first edition of the <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomistic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomistic history">Deuteronomistic history</a> (the books of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joshua" title="Book of Joshua">Joshua</a>/<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judges" title="Book of Judges">Judges</a>/<a href="/wiki/Books_of_Samuel" title="Books of Samuel">Samuel</a>/<a href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">Kings</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellO'Brien20002_and_fn.6_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellO'Brien20002_and_fn.6-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Habakkuk" title="Book of Habakkuk">Habakkuk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGelston2003a710_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGelston2003a710-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> for control of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King <a href="/wiki/Jehoiakim" title="Jehoiakim">Jehoiakim</a> of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against the empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 597 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This defeat is documented in the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Chronicles" title="Babylonian Chronicles">Babylonian Chronicles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BabylonianChronicles_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BabylonianChronicles-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zedekiah" title="Zedekiah">Zedekiah</a>, Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 587 or 586 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, responding to a second revolt in Judah, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">besieged and destroyed Jerusalem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a> was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the "<a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian Captivity</a>". Zedekiah himself was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">fled to Egypt</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Babylonian_captivity_(c._587–538_BCE)"><span id="The_Babylonian_captivity_.28c._587.E2.80.93538_BCE.29"></span>The Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Babylonian captivity (c. 587–538 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg/250px-Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg/375px-Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg/500px-Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prisoners.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Deportation and exile of the <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a> of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> to <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> and the destruction of Jerusalem and <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Solomon's temple">Solomon's temple</a></figcaption></figure><p>During the several decades between the fall of Judah and their <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">return to Zion</a> under Persian rule, Jewish history enters an obscure phase. Many Jews were exiled across <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>, while others remained in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jeremiah" title="Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a> refers to communities in Egypt, including settlements in <a href="/wiki/Migdol" title="Migdol">Migdol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tahpanhes" title="Tahpanhes">Tahpanhes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noph" title="Noph">Noph</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pathros" title="Pathros">Pathros</a>. Moreover, a Jewish military colony existed at <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a>, established before the exile, where they built their own shrine.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jeremiah" title="Book of Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel" title="Book of Ezekiel">Book of Ezekiel</a>, the majority of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Obadiah" title="Book of Obadiah">Obadiah</a>, and what is referred to in research as "<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Isaiah" title="Book of Isaiah">Second Isaiah</a>" were all written during this time period as well.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Temple_period_(538_BCE–70_CE)"><span id="Second_Temple_period_.28538_BCE.E2.80.9370_CE.29"></span>Second Temple period (538 BCE–70 CE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Second Temple period (538 BCE–70 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian_period_(c._538–332_BCE)"><span id="Persian_period_.28c._538.E2.80.93332_BCE.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="Post-exilic_period"></span>Persian period (c. 538–332 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Persian period (c. 538–332 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Return_to_Zion" title="Return to Zion">Return to Zion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">Yehud (Persian province)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/220px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/330px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg/440px-109.Ezra_Reads_the_Law_to_the_People.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2301" data-file-height="2907" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a> Reads the Law to the People, Gustav Dore</figcaption></figure> <p>According to the Book of Ezra, Persian <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, king of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, brought an end to the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian exile">Babylonian exile</a> in 538 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-rennert_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rennert-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a year after his conquest of Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The return from exile was led by <a href="/wiki/Zerubbabel" title="Zerubbabel">Zerubbabel</a>, a prince from the royal line of David, and Joshua the Priest, descended from former High Priests of the Temple. They oversaw the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a>, completed between 521 and 516 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-rennert_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rennert-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As part of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a>, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (<i><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with different borders, covering a smaller territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Grabbe355_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabbe355-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary scholars point to a gradual return process that extended into the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of Persian Judah was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkelstein_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkelstein-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 308">: 308 </span></sup> </p><p>The final Torah is widely seen as a product of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian period">Persian period</a> (539–333 BCE, probably 450–350 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrei20016_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrei20016-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives <a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a>, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three prophets, considered the last in Jewish tradition—<a href="/wiki/Haggai" title="Haggai">Haggai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zechariah_(Hebrew_prophet)" title="Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)">Zechariah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malachi" title="Malachi">Malachi</a>—were active during this period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> After the death of the last Jewish prophet and while still under Persian rule, the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jewish people</a> passed into the hands of five successive generations of <a href="/wiki/Zugot" title="Zugot">zugot</a> ("pairs of") leaders. They flourished first <a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">under the Persians</a> and then under the Greeks. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a> were formed. Under the Persians then under the Greeks, Jewish coins were minted in Judea as <a href="/wiki/Yehud_coinage" title="Yehud coinage">Yehud coinage</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Hellenistic_period_(c._332–110_BCE)"><span id="The_Hellenistic_period_.28c._332.E2.80.93110_BCE.29"></span>The Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></div> <p>In 332 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Kingdom">Seleucid Kingdom</a> was formed. </p><p>The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Jews">Alexandria</a>, culminating in the compilation of the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Hasmonean_Kingdom_(110–63_BCE)"><span id="The_Hasmonean_Kingdom_.28110.E2.80.9363_BCE.29"></span>The Hasmonean Kingdom (110–63 BCE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The Hasmonean Kingdom (110–63 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></div> <p>Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV Epiphanes</a> and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a> erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Mattathias" title="Mattathias">Mattathias</a>. His son, <a href="/wiki/Judas_Maccabeus" title="Judas Maccabeus">Judas Maccabeus</a>, recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a>, which lasted from 165 BCE to 63 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the Hasmoneans later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a>, the kingdom reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a>, leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Roman_period_(63_BCE_–_135_CE)"><span id="The_Roman_period_.2863_BCE_.E2.80.93_135_CE.29"></span>The Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">History of the Jews in the Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea (Roman province)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1919" data-file-height="1210" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a>, following renovations by <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod</a> in the first century CE</figcaption></figure> <p>Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean">Hasmoneans</a>, but it was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(63_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (63 BCE)">conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE</a>. <a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman expansion">Roman expansion</a> was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> was appointed "King of the Jews" by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>, supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a>. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, <a href="/wiki/Herod_Archelaus" title="Herod Archelaus">Herod Archelaus</a> ruled the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy_(Judea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrarchy (Judea)">tetrarchy of Judea</a> as <a href="/wiki/Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">ethnarch</a>, the Romans denying him the title of King. </p><p> After the <a href="/wiki/Census_of_Quirinius" title="Census of Quirinius">Census of Quirinius</a> in 6 CE, the <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Roman province of Judaea</a> was formed as a satellite of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> under the rule of a <a href="/wiki/Prefect" title="Prefect">prefect</a> (as was <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>) until 41 CE, then <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Procurator (Roman)">procurators</a> after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see <a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian_Roman_Empire" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire</a>). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus of Nazareth">Jesus of Nazareth</a>, an itinerant <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a> from <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, and the central figure of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, was put to death by <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">crucifixion</a> in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of <a href="/wiki/Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaea">Judaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pontius_Pilate" title="Pontius Pilate">Pontius Pilate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Roberts_-_The_Siege_and_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_by_the_Romans_Under_the_Command_of_Titus,_A.D._70.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/David_Roberts_-_The_Siege_and_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_by_the_Romans_Under_the_Command_of_Titus%2C_A.D._70.jpg/250px-David_Roberts_-_The_Siege_and_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_by_the_Romans_Under_the_Command_of_Titus%2C_A.D._70.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/David_Roberts_-_The_Siege_and_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_by_the_Romans_Under_the_Command_of_Titus%2C_A.D._70.jpg/375px-David_Roberts_-_The_Siege_and_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_by_the_Romans_Under_the_Command_of_Titus%2C_A.D._70.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/David_Roberts_-_The_Siege_and_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_by_the_Romans_Under_the_Command_of_Titus%2C_A.D._70.jpg/500px-David_Roberts_-_The_Siege_and_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_by_the_Romans_Under_the_Command_of_Titus%2C_A.D._70.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5906" data-file-height="3921" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70)">Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans</a> (1850 painting by <a href="/wiki/David_Roberts_(painter)" title="David Roberts (painter)">David Roberts</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a>, also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> quelled the rebellion in <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>, who led the brutal <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">siege of Jerusalem</a>, culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple.<sup id="cite_ref-:07_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:07-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:32_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman victory was celebrated with a <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a> in Rome, showcasing Jewish artifacts like the <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Temple menorah">menorah</a>, which were then put on display in the new <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Temple of Peace</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting <a href="/wiki/Judaea_Capta_coinage" title="Judaea Capta coinage">Judaea Capta coins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Masada" title="Siege of Masada">siege of Masada</a> (73-74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.<sup id="cite_ref-:06_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:06-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism.<sup id="cite_ref-:72_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:54_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:54-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards <a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">prayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torah_study" title="Torah study">Torah study</a>, and communal gatherings in <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a>. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in <a href="/wiki/Yavne" title="Yavne">Yavneh</a>, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Magness_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magness-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity,<sup id="cite_ref-:54_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:54-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the traditions of the <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">belief in resurrection</a> became the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png/250px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png/375px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png/500px-Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png 2x" data-file-width="1575" data-file-height="879" /></a><figcaption>The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Diaspora_during_the_Second_Temple_period">The Diaspora during the Second Temple period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Diaspora during the Second Temple period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AHJ-GM2_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHJ-GM2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in <a href="/wiki/Jehoiachin%27s_Rations_Tablets" title="Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets">Joachin's ration tablets</a>, listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, and further evidence are the <a href="/wiki/Al-Yahudu_Tablets" title="Al-Yahudu Tablets">Al-Yahudu tablets</a>, dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-us-israel-archaeology_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-us-israel-archaeology-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri_and_ostraca" title="Elephantine papyri and ostraca">documents from Elephantine</a> reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> ("<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Babylonia</a>" in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a>, and, beginning in the middle of the first century BCE, in the city of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smallwood_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smallwood-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AHJ-GM2_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHJ-GM2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first centuries CE, as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish-Roman Wars</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-:522_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:522-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zeev-20063_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-20063-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The book of <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, as well as other <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline</a> texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenised Jews</a> in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenised Jews were affected by the <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the <i><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a>.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Talmudic_period_(70–640_CE)"><span id="Talmudic_period_.2870.E2.80.93640_CE.29"></span>Talmudic period (70–640 CE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Talmudic period (70–640 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diaspora_Revolt_(115–117_CE)"><span id="Diaspora_Revolt_.28115.E2.80.93117_CE.29"></span>Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_Revolt" title="Diaspora Revolt">Diaspora Revolt</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_Revolt" title="Diaspora Revolt">Diaspora Revolt</a> (115–117 CE), <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> communities across several eastern provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> engaged in widespread rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeev-20062_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-20062-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the <a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">ingathering of exiles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Third_Temple" title="Third Temple">reconstruction of the Temple</a>, these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> and rebuilding Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:222_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:222-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeev-20062_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-20062-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>, leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Libya" title="Roman Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:522_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:522-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zeev-20063_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-20063-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the significant and influential community in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AHJ-GM2_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHJ-GM2-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:522_91-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:522-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bar_Kokhba_revolt_(132–136_CE)"><span id="Bar_Kokhba_revolt_.28132.E2.80.93136_CE.29"></span>Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg/220px-Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg/330px-Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg/440px-Barkokhba-silver-tetradrachm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>A tetradrachm minted during the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, featuring the former Second Temple, a <i>lulav</i>, and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem'</figcaption></figure> <p>From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of <a href="/wiki/Aelia_Capitolina" title="Aelia Capitolina">Aelia Capitolina</a> on the ruins of Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Simon_bar_Kokhba" title="Simon bar Kokhba">Simon Bar Kokhba</a>, styled as <i><a href="/wiki/Nasi_(Hebrew_title)" title="Nasi (Hebrew title)">nasi</a></i> or prince of Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt_coinage" title="Bar Kokhba revolt coinage">rebel state's coinage</a> proclaimed "Freedom of Israel" and "For the Freedom of Jerusalem," using <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">ancient Hebrew script</a> for nationalistic symbolism.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Severus" title="Sextus Julius Severus">Julius Severus</a>, who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea proper</a>, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:22_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans also suffered heavy losses.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts,<sup id="cite_ref-Eshel_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eshel-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:03_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The province of Judaea was renamed <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_97-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ariel_Lewin_p._33_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ariel_Lewin_p._33-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Roman_period_in_the_Land_of_Israel">Late Roman period in the Land of Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Late Roman period in the Land of Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Judaism" title="Constantine the Great and Judaism">Constantine I</a> allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on <a href="/wiki/Tisha_B%27Av" title="Tisha B'Av">Tisha B'Av</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a>. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched <a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Constantius_Gallus" title="Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus">yet another revolt</a>, provoking heavy retribution.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a>. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic <a href="/wiki/Galilee_earthquake_of_363" class="mw-redirect" title="Galilee earthquake of 363">Galilee earthquake of 363</a> and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Solomon_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomon-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the <a href="/wiki/Hellenes_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenes (religion)">Hellene</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-A_Psychoanalytic_History_of_the_Jews_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Psychoanalytic_History_of_the_Jews-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims. </p><p>In 438 CE, when the Empress <a href="/wiki/Licinia_Eudoxia" title="Licinia Eudoxia">Eudocia</a> removed the ban on Jews' praying at the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Mount" title="Temple Mount">Temple site</a>, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Revolts" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Revolts">Samaritan insurrections</a> broke out across the <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a> province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Revolts" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Revolts">Revolt of 556</a> was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion. </p><p>In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an <a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Heraclius" title="Jewish revolt against Heraclius">alliance</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Persians</a>, who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Phoenicia_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phoenicia-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, their autonomy was brief: the <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah_ben_Hushiel" title="Nehemiah ben Hushiel">Jewish leader</a> in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when <a href="/wiki/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar ibn al-Khattab">Umar ibn al-Khattab</a> completed the conquest of Akko. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Jews_of_pre-Muslim_Babylonia_(219–638_CE)"><span id="The_Jews_of_pre-Muslim_Babylonia_.28219.E2.80.93638_CE.29"></span>The Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">History of the Jews in Iraq</a></div> <p>After the fall of Jerusalem, <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> (modern day Iraq) would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by <a href="/wiki/Jehoiachin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jehoiachin">Jehoiachin</a> in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> and in the centuries after.<sup id="cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life all the way up to the 13th century. By the first century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing<sup id="cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million<sup id="cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era.<sup id="cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was there that they would write the Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>. The Jews established <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_Academies_in_Babylonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic Academies in Babylonia">Talmudic Academies in Babylonia</a>, also known as the Geonic Academies ("Geonim" meaning "splendour" in Biblical Hebrew or "geniuses"), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the <a href="/wiki/Pumbedita_Academy" title="Pumbedita Academy">Pumbedita Academy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sura_Academy" title="Sura Academy">Sura Academy</a>. Major yeshivot were also located at <a href="/wiki/Nehardea" title="Nehardea">Nehardea</a> and Mahuza.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Talmudic <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva</a> Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva</a> academies, most of them located in The United States and <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">Israel</a>, continues today. </p><p>These Talmudic <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva</a> academies of Babylonia followed the era of the <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a> ("expounders")—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220CE – 500CE), and following the <a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a> ("reasoners")—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the <a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a>. The Geonim (Hebrew: גאונים) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Resh_Galuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Resh Galuta">Resh Galuta</a> (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the <a href="/wiki/Resh_Galuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Resh Galuta">Resh Galuta</a> were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a> would treat them with much honour.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a>—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to <a href="/wiki/Sherira_Gaon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherira Gaon">Sherira Gaon</a>, was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of <a href="/wiki/Sura" class="mw-redirect" title="Sura">Sura</a> was <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ben_Hofni" title="Samuel ben Hofni">Samuel ben Hofni</a>, who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was <a href="/wiki/Hezekiah_Gaon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezekiah Gaon">Hezekiah Gaon</a>, who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years. </p><p>One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was <a href="/wiki/Nehardea" title="Nehardea">Nehardea</a>, which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Bathyra" title="Judah ben Bathyra">Judah ben Bathyra</a>, and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at <a href="/wiki/Nehar_Pekod" title="Nehar Pekod">Nehar-Pekod</a>, founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of <a href="/wiki/Joshua_ben_Hananiah" title="Joshua ben Hananiah">Joshua ben Hananiah</a>, which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Byzantine_period_(324–638_CE)"><span id="The_Byzantine_period_.28324.E2.80.93638_CE.29"></span>The Byzantine period (324–638 CE)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Byzantine period (324–638 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></div> <p>Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and <a href="/wiki/Caesaropapism" title="Caesaropapism">caesaropapism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically. </p><p>It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their Governor, <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Gallus" title="Constantius Gallus">Constantius Gallus</a>. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered. </p><p>In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, <a href="/wiki/Hillel_II" title="Hillel II">Hillel II</a>, created an official calendar, which needed no monthly sightings of the moon. The months were set, and the calendar needed no further authority from Judea. At about the same time, the Jewish academy at Tiberius began to collate the combined Mishnah, <a href="/wiki/Braitot" class="mw-redirect" title="Braitot">braitot</a>, explanations, and interpretations developed by generations of scholars who studied after the death of <a href="/wiki/Judah_HaNasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah HaNasi">Judah HaNasi</a>. The text was organized according to the order of the Mishna: each paragraph of Mishnah was followed by a compilation of all of the interpretations, stories, and responses associated with that Mishnah. This text is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>.</i> </p><p>The Jews of Judea received a brief respite from official persecution during the rule of the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian the Apostate</a>. Julian's policy was to return the Roman Empire to Hellenism, and he encouraged the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. As Julian's rule lasted only from 361 to 363, the Jews could not rebuild sufficiently before Roman Christian rule was restored over the Empire. Beginning in 398 with the consecration of <a href="/wiki/St._John_Chrysostom" class="mw-redirect" title="St. John Chrysostom">St. John Chrysostom</a> as <a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">Patriarch</a>, Christian rhetoric against Jews grew sharper; he preached sermons with titles such as "Against the Jews" and "On the Statues, Homily 17," in which John preaches against "the Jewish sickness".<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such heated language contributed to a climate of Christian distrust and hate toward the large Jewish settlements, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. </p><p>In the beginning of the 5th century, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Theodosius" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Theodosius">Emperor Theodosius</a> issued a set of decrees establishing official persecution of Jews. Jews were not allowed to own slaves, build new synagogues, hold public office or try cases between a Jew and a non-Jew. Intermarriage between Jew and non-Jew was made a capital offence, as was the conversion of Christians to Judaism. Theodosius did away with the <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a> and abolished the post of <a href="/wiki/Nasi_(Hebrew_title)" title="Nasi (Hebrew title)">Nasi</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Justinian">Emperor Justinian</a>, the authorities further restricted the civil rights of Jews,<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and threatened their religious privileges.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue,<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and forbade, for instance, the use of the Hebrew language in divine worship. Those who disobeyed the restrictions were threatened with corporal penalties, exile, and loss of property. The Jews at Borium, not far from Syrtis Major, who resisted the Byzantine General <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> in his campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, were forced to embrace Christianity, and their synagogue was converted to a church.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Justinian and his successors had concerns outside the province of Judea, and he had insufficient troops to enforce these regulations. As a result, the 5th century was a period when a wave of new synagogues were built, many with beautiful mosaic floors. Jews adopted the rich art forms of the Byzantine culture. Jewish mosaics of the period portray people, animals, menorahs, zodiacs, and Biblical characters. Excellent examples of these synagogue floors have been found at Beit Alpha (which includes the scene of Abraham sacrificing a ram instead of his son Isaac along with a zodiac), Tiberius, Beit Shean, and Tzippori. </p><p>The precarious existence of Jews under Byzantine rule did not long endure, largely due to the explosion of the Muslim religion out of the remote Arabian peninsula (where large populations of Jews resided, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews under Muslim Rule">History of the Jews under Muslim Rule</a> for more). The <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> ejected the Byzantines from the Holy Land (or the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, defined as modern Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria) within a few years of their victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmouk" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yarmouk">Battle of Yarmouk</a> in 636. Numerous Jews fled the remaining Byzantine territories in favour of residence in the Caliphate over the subsequent centuries. </p><p>The size of the Jewish community in the Byzantine Empire was not affected by attempts by some emperors (most notably Justinian) to forcibly convert the Jews of Anatolia to Christianity, as these attempts met with very little success.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians continue to research the status of the Jews in Asia Minor under Byzantine rule. (for a sample of views, see, for instance, J. Starr <i>The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641–1204</i>; S. Bowman, <i>The Jews of Byzantium</i>; R. Jenkins <i>Byzantium</i>; Averil Cameron, "Byzantines and Jews: Recent Work on Early Byzantium", <i>Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies</i> 20 (1996)). No systematic persecution of the type endemic at that time in Western Europe (pogroms, the stake, mass <a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">expulsions</a>, etc.) has been recorded in Byzantium.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the Jewish population of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> remained in place after the conquest of the city by <a href="/wiki/Mehmet_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmet II">Mehmet II</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog,_6th_century_C.E.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century CE Brooklyn Museum"><img alt="Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog, 6th century CE Brooklyn Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog%2C_6th_century_C.E.jpg/180px-Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog%2C_6th_century_C.E.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog%2C_6th_century_C.E.jpg/270px-Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog%2C_6th_century_C.E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog%2C_6th_century_C.E.jpg/360px-Roman._Mosaic_of_Menorah_with_Lulav_and_Ethrog%2C_6th_century_C.E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1007" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Mosaic of Menorah with Lulav and Ethrog</i>, 6th century CE <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beit_Alpha.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at Beit Alpha (5th century)"><img alt="Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at Beit Alpha (5th century)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Beit_Alpha.jpg/118px-Beit_Alpha.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Beit_Alpha.jpg/177px-Beit_Alpha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Beit_Alpha.jpg/236px-Beit_Alpha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="527" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mosaic pavement of a synagogue at <a href="/wiki/Beit_Alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Beit Alpha">Beit Alpha</a> (5th century)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mosaic in the Tzippori Synagogue (5th century)"><img alt="Mosaic in the Tzippori Synagogue (5th century)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg/170px-ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg/254px-ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg/339px-ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1251" data-file-height="886" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mosaic in the <a href="/wiki/Tzippori_Synagogue" title="Tzippori Synagogue">Tzippori Synagogue</a> (5th century)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hammat_Gader.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Mosaic pavement recovered from the Hamat Gader synagogue (5th or 6th century)"><img alt="Mosaic pavement recovered from the Hamat Gader synagogue (5th or 6th century)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Hammat_Gader.JPG/180px-Hammat_Gader.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Hammat_Gader.JPG/270px-Hammat_Gader.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Hammat_Gader.JPG/360px-Hammat_Gader.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mosaic pavement recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Hamat_Gader" title="Hamat Gader">Hamat Gader</a> synagogue (5th or 6th century)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diaspora_communities">Diaspora communities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Diaspora communities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrival_of_the_Jewish_pilgrims_at_Coachin,_A.D._68.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Arrival_of_the_Jewish_pilgrims_at_Coachin%2C_A.D._68.jpg/220px-Arrival_of_the_Jewish_pilgrims_at_Coachin%2C_A.D._68.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Arrival_of_the_Jewish_pilgrims_at_Coachin%2C_A.D._68.jpg/330px-Arrival_of_the_Jewish_pilgrims_at_Coachin%2C_A.D._68.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Arrival_of_the_Jewish_pilgrims_at_Coachin%2C_A.D._68.jpg/440px-Arrival_of_the_Jewish_pilgrims_at_Coachin%2C_A.D._68.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1861" data-file-height="1326" /></a><figcaption>Arrival of the Jewish pilgrims at Cochin, 68 CE.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Shingly</a> in 72 CE, after the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_Second_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of the Second Temple">Destruction of the Second Temple</a>. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to mean the granting of autonomy by a local king, Cheraman Perumal, to the community, under their leader Joseph Rabban, in 379 CE. The first synagogue there was built in 1568. The legend of the founding of Indian <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Kerala" title="Christianity in Kerala">Christianity in Kerala</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Apostle" title="Thomas the Apostle">Thomas the Apostle</a> relates that on his arrival there, he encountered a local girl who understood Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Perhaps in the 4th century, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Semien" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Semien">Kingdom of Semien</a>, a Jewish nation in modern <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Ethiopia</a> was established, lasting until the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Medieval_period">The Medieval period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Medieval period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Islamic_period_(638–1099)"><span id="The_Islamic_period_.28638.E2.80.931099.29"></span>The Islamic period (638–1099)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The Islamic period (638–1099)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">History of the Jews under Muslim rule</a></div> <p>In 638 CE the Byzantine Empire lost control of the Levant. The Arab <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Islamic Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Caliph_Omar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph Omar">Caliph Omar</a> conquered Jerusalem and the lands of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">Syria</a>, Palestine and Egypt. As a political system, Islam created radically new conditions for Jewish economic, social, and intellectual development.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Caliph_Omar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph Omar">Caliph Omar</a> permitted the Jews to reestablish their presence in Jerusalem–after a lapse of 500 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Bashan,_Eliezer_2007_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bashan,_Eliezer_2007-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish tradition regards <a href="/wiki/Caliph_Omar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph Omar">Caliph Omar</a> as a benevolent ruler and the Midrash (Nistarot de-Rav Shimon bar Yoḥai) refers to him as a "friend of Israel."<sup id="cite_ref-Bashan,_Eliezer_2007_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bashan,_Eliezer_2007-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Arab geographer <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">Al-Muqaddasi</a>, the Jews worked as "the assayers of coins, the dyers, the tanners and the bankers in the community".<sup id="cite_ref-SKatz_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKatz-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> period, many Jewish officials served in the regime.<sup id="cite_ref-SKatz_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKatz-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Professor <a href="/wiki/Moshe_Gil" title="Moshe Gil">Moshe Gil</a> believes that at the time of the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE, the majority of the population was Christian and Jewish.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this time Jews lived in thriving communities all across ancient Babylonia. In the Geonic period (650–1250 CE), the Babylonian Yeshiva Academies were the chief centres of Jewish learning; the <a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a> (meaning either "Splendor" or "Geniuses"), who were the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in Jewish law. </p><p>In the 7th century, the new Muslim rulers institute the <a href="/wiki/Kharaj" title="Kharaj">kharaj</a> land tax, which led to mass migration of Babylonian Jews from the countryside to cities like <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. This in turn led to greater wealth and international influence, as well as a more cosmopolitan outlook from Jewish thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Saadiah_Gaon" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadiah Gaon">Saadiah Gaon</a>, who now deeply engaged with Western philosophy for the first time. When the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> and the city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> declined in the 10th century, many Babylonian Jews migrated to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> region, contributing to the spread of Babylonian Jewish customs throughout the Jewish world.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Jewish_Golden_Age_in_early_Muslim_Spain_(711–1031)"><span id="The_Jewish_Golden_Age_in_early_Muslim_Spain_.28711.E2.80.931031.29"></span>The Jewish Golden Age in early Muslim Spain (711–1031)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Jewish Golden Age in early Muslim Spain (711–1031)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a></div> <p>The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in Europe, a period of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Muslim rule</a> throughout much of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>. During that time, <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed. </p><p>A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>, whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abd-ar-Rahman_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd-ar-Rahman III">Abd-ar-Rahman III</a> and his son, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakam_II" title="Al-Hakam II">Al-Hakam II</a>, the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_Cordoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Cordoba">Caliphate of Cordoba</a>, to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>, Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-weiner_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiner-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.<sup id="cite_ref-lewis_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lewis-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moses_Maimonides" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Maimonides">Moses Maimonides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-weiner_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiner-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar <a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Hanoch" title="Moses ben Hanoch">Moses ben Enoch</a> was appointed <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a> of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, and as a consequence <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> became the centre of <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic</a> study, and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> the meeting-place of Jewish savants. </p><p>The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the <a href="/wiki/Almohades" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohades">Almohades</a>, a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Crusaders_period_(1099–1260)"><span id="The_Crusaders_period_.281099.E2.80.931260.29"></span>The Crusaders period (1099–1260)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The Crusaders period (1099–1260)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_the_Crusades" title="History of the Jews and the Crusades">History of the Jews and the Crusades</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1099)">Siege of Jerusalem (1099)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1099jerusalem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/1099jerusalem.jpg/220px-1099jerusalem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/1099jerusalem.jpg/330px-1099jerusalem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/1099jerusalem.jpg/440px-1099jerusalem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="766" data-file-height="802" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (1099)">Capture of Jerusalem</a>, 1099</figcaption></figure> <p>Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The twelfth century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Crucifixion of Christ">crucifixion of Christ</a>. The massacres began at <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a> and Jewish communities in <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Valley" title="Rhine Valley">Rhine Valley</a> were seriously affected.<sup id="cite_ref-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions.<sup id="cite_ref-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413_133-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the <a href="/wiki/Crusaders" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusaders">Crusaders</a>. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire.<sup id="cite_ref-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413_133-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099).<sup id="cite_ref-SKatz_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKatz-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-SKatz_127-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKatz-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this period, the <a href="/wiki/Masoretes" title="Masoretes">Masoretes</a> of Tiberias established the <i><a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">niqqud</a></i>, a system of <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritical</a> signs used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>. Numerous <a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">piyutim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">midrashim</a> were recorded in Palestine at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-SKatz_127-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SKatz-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the "great, holy house".<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of <a href="/wiki/Cheshvan" title="Cheshvan">Cheshvan</a>, commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_the_Patriarchs" title="Cave of the Patriarchs">Cave of the Patriarchs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a>. </p><p>In 1141 <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Halevi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehuda Halevi">Yehuda Halevi</a> issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Andalusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Córdoba, Andalusia">Córdoba</a>, he arrived in Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At <a href="/wiki/Damietta" title="Damietta">Damietta</a>, he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in <a href="/wiki/Tyre_(Lebanon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyre (Lebanon)">Tyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated "Zionide" (<i>Zion ha-lo Tish'ali</i>). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Mamluk_period_(1260–1517)"><span id="The_Mamluk_period_.281260.E2.80.931517.29"></span>The Mamluk period (1260–1517)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The Mamluk period (1260–1517)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nahmanides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahmanides">Nahmanides</a> is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>, where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. <a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest <a href="/wiki/Karaite_(Jewish_sect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaite (Jewish sect)">Karaite</a> authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castilian</a> court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>, by the grave of <a href="/wiki/Yechiel_of_Paris" title="Yechiel of Paris">Yechiel of Paris</a>. </p><p>Yechiel had <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">emigrated</a> to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There he established the Talmudic academy <i>Midrash haGadol d'Paris</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 <a href="/wiki/Obadiah_ben_Abraham" class="mw-redirect" title="Obadiah ben Abraham">Obadiah ben Abraham</a>, commentator on the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain,_North_Africa,_and_the_Middle_East"><span id="Spain.2C_North_Africa.2C_and_the_Middle_East"></span>Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">History of the Jews in Spain</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and Judaism">Islam and Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizrahi Jew">Mizrahi Jew</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">History of the Jews under Muslim rule</a></div> <p>During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in <a href="/wiki/Moorish_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish Spain">Moorish Spain</a> about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. <a href="/wiki/Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Riots">Riots</a> resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in <a href="/wiki/1066_Granada_massacre" title="1066 Granada massacre">Granada in 1066</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Middle Ages, the governments of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (May 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohads</a>, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the <a href="/wiki/Almoravides" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravides">Almoravides</a> in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the <i><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmis</a></i> harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some, such as the family of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (May 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a></div> <p>According to the American writer <a href="/wiki/James_P._Carroll" class="mw-redirect" title="James P. Carroll">James Carroll</a>, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">MtDNA</a>, compared to <a href="/wiki/Y-DNA#Genetic_genealogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-DNA">Y-DNA</a> among Jewish populations.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Records of Jewish communities in France (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">History of the Jews in France</a>) and Germany (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">History of the Jews in Germany</a>) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Cantor" title="Norman Cantor">Norman Cantor</a> and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">division</a> of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labor and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cantor_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cantor-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a specialty of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over.<sup id="cite_ref-jewishencyclopedia_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jewishencyclopedia-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews became imperial <span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span><i>servi cameræ</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span>, the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities. </p><p>Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Crusade" title="People's Crusade">People's Crusade</a> (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Shepherds%27_Crusade_(1251)" title="Shepherds' Crusade (1251)">Shepherds' Crusades of 1251</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shepherds%27_Crusade_(1320)" title="Shepherds' Crusade (1320)">1320</a>. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion" title="Edict of Expulsion">expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland#Early_history_to_Golden_Age:_966–1572" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Golden Age</a>. </p><p>In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghetto</a>, and the practice spread across Italy (see <a href="/wiki/Cum_nimis_absurdum" title="Cum nimis absurdum">Cum nimis absurdum</a>) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expulsions_of_the_Jews_of_Spain_and_Portugal">Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain#Massacres_and_mass_conversions_of_1391" title="History of the Jews in Spain">major pogrom in 1391</a> which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the <a href="/wiki/Granada_War" title="Granada War">conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada</a> in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a>, and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> of the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous Converso community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practiced Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the Spanish Inquisition. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England. </p><p>The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">last Muslim state</a> was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">convert or leave without their property</a>. 100,000 converted with many continuing to <a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">secretly practice Judaism</a>, for which the Catholic church's <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">inquisition</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Torquemada" title="Tomás de Torquemada">Torquemada</a>) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Spanish Jews</a> moved to North Africa, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a> and the Ottoman Empire, especially <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thessaloniki" title="History of the Jews in Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Early_Modern_period">The Early Modern period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: The Early Modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were "modernized" and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghetto</a>. The first of these two social types is the <a href="/wiki/Court_Jew" title="Court Jew">Court Jew</a> who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg Empire</a>. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the <i>maskil</i>, (learned person), a proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by "highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals". Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a> was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah. </p><p>In the 1990s, the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Port_Jew" title="Port Jew">Port Jew</a>" has been suggested as an "alternate path to modernity" that was distinct from the European <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Port_Jew" title="Port Jew">Port Jew</a> focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-HelenFry_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HelenFry-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Court_Jews">Court Jews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Court Jews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Court_Jew" title="Court Jew">Court Jew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shtadlan" title="Shtadlan">shtadlan</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Court_Jew" title="Court Jew">Court Jews</a> were <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Banker" class="mw-redirect" title="Banker">bankers</a> or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are <i>Jewish <a href="/wiki/Bailiff" title="Bailiff">bailiff</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Shtadlan" title="Shtadlan">shtadlan</a></i>. </p><p>Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as <a href="/wiki/Financier" class="mw-redirect" title="Financier">financiers</a>, suppliers, <a href="/wiki/Diplomat" title="Diplomat">diplomats</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trade_delegate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trade delegate (page does not exist)">trade delegates</a>. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbinical</a> jurisdiction. </p><p>From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Port_Jews">Port Jews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Port Jews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Port_Jew" title="Port Jew">Port Jew</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Port_Jew" title="Port Jew">Port Jew</a> is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered "the earliest modern Jews". According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as "refugees from the Inquisition" and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Diaspora">Jewish Diaspora</a> and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-HelenFry_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HelenFry-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were "valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived".<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a "reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities". </p><p>From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Ottoman_Empire">The Ottoman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: The Ottoman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire</a></div> <p>During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the <i>millets</i>, the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nasi" title="Joseph Nasi">Joseph Nasi</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sanjak-bey" title="Sanjak-bey">Sanjak-bey</a> (<i>governor</i>, a rank usually only bestowed upon Muslims) of the island of <a href="/wiki/Naxos_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxos Island">Naxos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yarmuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Yarmuk">Battle of Yarmuk</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the <a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a> was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577. </p><p>Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G.E. Von Grunebaum : </p> <blockquote><p>It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">History of the Jews in Poland</a></div> <p>In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to 13th century and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the <a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a> (1648) and by the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish wars">Swedish wars</a> (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a>. </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, and German <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, which divided Poland among themselves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_European_Enlightenment_and_the_Haskalah_(18th_century)"><span id="The_European_Enlightenment_and_the_Haskalah_.2818th_century.29"></span>The European Enlightenment and the Haskalah (18th century)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: The European Enlightenment and the Haskalah (18th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the period of the <a href="/wiki/European_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="European Renaissance">European Renaissance</a> and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided. At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a>. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by <a href="/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov" title="Baal Shem Tov">Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov</a>, and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance. </p><p>At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of <a href="/wiki/Clermont-Tonnerre" class="mw-redirect" title="Clermont-Tonnerre">Clermont-Tonnerre</a> before the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> in 1789: </p> <blockquote><p>We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hasidic_Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Hasidic Judaism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mitnagdim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitnagdim">Mitnagdim</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg/210px-Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg/315px-Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg/420px-Maurycy_Gottlieb_-_Jews_Praying_in_the_Synagogue_on_Yom_Kippur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1647" data-file-height="2130" /></a><figcaption>Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Maurycy_Gottlieb" title="Maurycy Gottlieb">Maurycy Gottlieb</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a> is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a> that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalisation of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_mysticism" title="Jewish mysticism">Jewish mysticism</a> as the fundamental aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish faith</a>. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary <a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Ultra-Orthodox</a> Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Lithuanian-Yeshiva</a> approach and the Oriental <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Judaism">Sephardi</a> tradition. </p><p>It was founded in 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> by Rabbi Israel <a href="/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov" title="Baal Shem Tov">Baal Shem Tov</a> as a reaction against overly <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">legalistic</a> Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Divine_immanence" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine immanence">Immanent</a> Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of <a href="/wiki/Torah_study" title="Torah study">study</a>, and replaced historical <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">mystical (kabbalistic)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Musar_literature" title="Musar literature">ethical (musar)</a> <a href="/wiki/Asceticism_in_Judaism" title="Asceticism in Judaism">asceticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maggid" title="Maggid">admonishment</a> with optimism, encouragement, and daily <a href="/wiki/Deveikut" class="mw-redirect" title="Deveikut">fervour</a>. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a>, through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual <a href="/wiki/Halacha" class="mw-redirect" title="Halacha">observance</a>, while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful <a href="/wiki/Nigun" title="Nigun">song</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature#Hasidic_and_Haskalah_literature" title="Yiddish literature">storytelling</a> as forms of mystical devotion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_19th_century">The 19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: The 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her,_30._Mai_1806.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg/275px-Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg/413px-Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg/550px-Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2174" data-file-height="1908" /></a><figcaption>An 1806 French print depicts <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> emancipating the Jews.</figcaption></figure> <p>Though persecution still existed, emancipation spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> invited Jews to leave the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">Jewish ghettos in Europe</a> and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_and_the_Jews" title="Napoleon and the Jews">Napoleon and the Jews</a>). By 1871, with Germany's emancipation of Jews, every European country except Russia had emancipated its Jews. </p><p>Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> emerged, based on the ideas of race and nationhood rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_Trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreyfus Trial">Dreyfus Trial</a> in France. These persecutions, along with state-sponsored <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> in Russia in the late 19th century, led a number of Jews to believe that they would only be safe in their own nation. See <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Herzl" title="Theodor Herzl">Theodor Herzl</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">History of Zionism</a>. </p><p>During this period, Jewish migration to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (see <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">American Jews</a>) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from Russia and Eastern Europe. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_20th_century">The 20th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: The 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Zionism">Modern Zionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Modern Zionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">History of Zionism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Zionism" title="Proto-Zionism">Proto-Zionism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herzl_on_a_balcony_1901.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Herzl_on_a_balcony_1901.jpg/220px-Herzl_on_a_balcony_1901.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Herzl_on_a_balcony_1901.jpg/330px-Herzl_on_a_balcony_1901.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Herzl_on_a_balcony_1901.jpg/440px-Herzl_on_a_balcony_1901.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="1890" /></a><figcaption>Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during <a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Congress" title="World Zionist Congress">Fifth Zionist Congress</a> in December 1901, by <a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Moses_Lilien" title="Ephraim Moses Lilien">Ephraim Moses Lilien</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to <a href="/wiki/Shivat_tzion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shivat tzion">Shivat Tzion</a>. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—<a href="/wiki/Rishon_LeZion" title="Rishon LeZion">Rishon LeZion</a>—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the "<a href="/wiki/Hovevei_Zion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hovevei Zion">Hovevei Zion</a>" movement. Later on, the "<a href="/wiki/Bilu_(movement)" title="Bilu (movement)">Bilu</a>" movement established many other settlements in Palestine. </p><p>The Zionist movement was officially founded after the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kattowitz_convention&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kattowitz convention (page does not exist)">Kattowitz convention</a> (1884) and the <a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Congress" title="World Zionist Congress">World Zionist Congress</a> (1897), and it was <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Herzl" title="Theodor Herzl">Theodor Herzl</a> who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, and the Jews received the promise of a "National Home" from the British in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration" title="Balfour Declaration">Balfour Declaration of 1917</a>, given to <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann" title="Chaim Weizmann">Chaim Weizmann</a>. </p><p>In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Samuel,_1st_Viscount_Samuel" title="Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel">Herbert Samuel</a> was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem" title="Hebrew University of Jerusalem">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab co-inhabitants of Palestine were hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, however, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and they also began to express their opposition to the pro-Jewish policy of the British government in violent ways. </p><p>Arab gangs began to commit violent acts which included the murder of individual Jews, attacks on convoys and attacks on the Jewish population. After the 1920 <a href="/wiki/1920_Palestine_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="1920 Palestine riots">Arab riots</a> and the 1921 <a href="/wiki/Jaffa_riots" title="Jaffa riots">Jaffa riots</a>, the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had no desire to confront local Arab gangs and punish them for their attacks on Palestinian Jews. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection from these gangs, the Jewish leadership created the <a href="/wiki/Haganah" title="Haganah">Haganah</a> organization in order to protect its community's farms and <a href="/wiki/Kibbutz" title="Kibbutz">Kibbutzim</a>. </p><p>Major riots occurred during the <a href="/wiki/1929_Palestine_riots" title="1929 Palestine riots">1929 Palestine riots</a> and the <a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine</a>. </p><p>Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a <a href="/wiki/Binational_solution" class="mw-redirect" title="Binational solution">binational solution</a> to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority. </p><p>Meanwhile, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>. At that time, a disproportionate number of <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winners were Jewish, as is still the case.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Russia, many Jews were involved in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> and belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Holocaust">The Holocaust</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: The Holocaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">History of the Jews during World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corpses_in_the_courtyard_of_Nordhausen_concentration_camp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Corpses_in_the_courtyard_of_Nordhausen_concentration_camp.jpg/220px-Corpses_in_the_courtyard_of_Nordhausen_concentration_camp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Corpses_in_the_courtyard_of_Nordhausen_concentration_camp.jpg/330px-Corpses_in_the_courtyard_of_Nordhausen_concentration_camp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Corpses_in_the_courtyard_of_Nordhausen_concentration_camp.jpg/440px-Corpses_in_the_courtyard_of_Nordhausen_concentration_camp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2341" /></a><figcaption>Bodies of inmates of the <a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora" class="mw-redirect" title="Mittelbau-Dora">Mittelbau-Dora</a> Nazi concentration camp who died during <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Nordhausen_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Nordhausen in World War II">bombing raids</a> on April 3 and 4, 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1933, with <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi party">Nazi party</a>'s rise to power in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the Jewish situation became more severe. <a href="/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic" title="Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic">Economic crises</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_legislation_in_pre-war_Nazi_Germany" title="Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany">racial Anti-Jewish laws</a>, and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. </p><p>In 1939, <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> began and until 1945, <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Europe" title="German-occupied Europe">Germany occupied almost all of Europe</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)" title="Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)">Poland</a>—<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">where millions of Jews were living at that time</a>—and <a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">France</a>. In 1941, following the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invasion of the Soviet Union</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a> began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">annihilation</a> of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy</a>-<a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Libya" title="Italian Libya">Italian Libya</a>). This <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> or the <i>Shoah</i> (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in <a href="/wiki/Gas_chambers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas chambers">gas chambers</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz camp complex</a>. </p><p>The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_establishment_of_the_State_of_Israel">The establishment of the State of Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: The establishment of the State of Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">History of Israel</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Israel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of Independence (Israel)">Declaration of Independence (Israel)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Israel" title="Category:History of Israel">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">History of <span class="fn org label">Israel</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The Western Wall, Jerusalem" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg/245px-Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg" decoding="async" width="245" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg/368px-Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg/490px-Kotel_East_Jerusalem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3684" data-file-height="1120" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Early history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Levant" title="Prehistory of the Levant">Prehistoric Levant</a></b> <small></small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kebaran_culture" title="Kebaran culture">Kebaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushabian_culture" title="Mushabian culture">Mushabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harifian_culture" title="Harifian culture">Harifian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodian_culture" title="Lodian culture">Lodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizzanim_culture" title="Nizzanim culture">Nizzanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassulian" title="Ghassulian">Ghassulian</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></b> <small></small> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retjenu" title="Retjenu">Retjenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habiru" class="mw-redirect" title="Habiru">Habiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasu" title="Shasu">Shasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Iron Age I <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philistines" title="Philistines">Philistines</a></li></ul></li></ul></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 12th–10th centuries BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">United Monarchy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 10th century BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 10th century BCE–720 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 10th century BCE–587 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Babylonian_province)" title="Yehud (Babylonian province)">Babylonian rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 587–538 BCE</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Persian_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehud (Persian province)">Persian Yehud</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 538–333 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Hellenistic period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 333–164 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 164–37 BCE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_tetrarchy" title="Herodian tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a></li></ul></li></ul></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 37 BCE–6 CE</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Roman Judaea</a> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Jewish-Roman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish-Roman Wars">Jewish-Roman Wars</a>)</li></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 6 CE–136 CE</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Late Antiquity and Middle Ages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 70–638</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 136–395</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Byzantine Palaestina</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Prima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Secunda</a></li></ul></li></ul></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 395–638</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bilad_a-Sham" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilad a-Sham">Early Islamic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Filastin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">Urdunn</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 638–1099</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1099–1291</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1174–1260</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1260–1517</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>Modern history</b> <small>(1517–1948)</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Eyalet" title="Damascus Eyalet">Eyalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Jerusalem" title="Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem">Mutasarrifate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">OETA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">Yishuv</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel_(1948%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Israel (1948–present)">State of Israel</a></b> <small>(1948–present)</small> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Israeli_history" title="Timeline of Israeli history">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Israel" title="List of years in Israel">Years</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Israeli Declaration of Independence">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austerity_in_Israel" title="Austerity in Israel">Austerity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_Wadi" title="Silicon Wadi">Silicon Wadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Israel proxy conflict">Iran–Israel conflict</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_Palestine" title="Cartography of Palestine">Historical maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region)" title="Demographic history of Palestine (region)">Historical population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travelogues_of_Palestine" title="Travelogues of Palestine">Historical literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Israel">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jerusalem" title="History of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_leaders_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="List of Jewish leaders in the Land of Israel">Jewish leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_military_history" title="Jewish military history">Jewish warfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:LightSteelBlue; white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; text-align:left; border-top:solid 0px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Israel" title="Archaeology of Israel">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Israeli_museums" title="List of Israeli museums">Museums</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/48px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/64px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Israel" title="Portal:Israel">Israel portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Israel" title="Template:History of Israel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Israel" title="Template talk:History of Israel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Israel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Israel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (May 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/King_David_Hotel_bombing" title="King David Hotel bombing">King David Hotel bombing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann" title="Chaim Weizmann">Chaim Weizmann</a>, president of the <a href="/wiki/WZO" class="mw-redirect" title="WZO">WZO</a> appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Agency">Jewish Agency</a>. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the <a href="/wiki/Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lehi_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lehi (group)">Lehi</a>. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On November 29, 1947, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> adopted <a href="/wiki/Resolution_181" class="mw-redirect" title="Resolution 181">Resolution 181</a>(II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of <a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_Civil_War_in_Mandatory_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine">civil war</a> the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a> started.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_state" title="Jewish state">Jewish state</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eretz_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Eretz Israel">Eretz Israel</a> to be known as the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">State of Israel</a>. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Arab countries</a>. </p><p>Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>, 1967 <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a>, 1973 <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a>, <a href="/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War" title="1982 Lebanon War">1982 Lebanon War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2006_Lebanon_War" title="2006 Lebanon War">2006 Lebanon War</a>, as well as a nearly constant series of <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">ongoing minor conflicts</a>. </p><p>Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organisations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process" title="Israeli–Palestinian peace process">peace process</a> to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_21st_century">The 21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: The 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a> with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Jewish</a>. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">United States</a>, with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada. For statistics related to modern Jewish demographics see <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish population">Jewish population</a></i>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Jewish Autonomous Oblast">Jewish Autonomous Oblast</a>, created during the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> period, continues to be an <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_oblast" title="Autonomous oblast">autonomous oblast</a> of the Russian state.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbi" title="Chief Rabbi">Chief Rabbi</a> of <a href="/wiki/Birobidzhan" title="Birobidzhan">Birobidzhan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mordechai_Scheiner" title="Mordechai Scheiner">Mordechai Scheiner</a>, says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Governor" title="Governor">Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Mikhaylovich_Volkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov">Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov</a> has stated that he intends to, "support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations".<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Birobidzhan_Synagogue" title="Birobidzhan Synagogue">Birobidzhan Synagogue</a> opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of people who identified as Jews in <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> community.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The estimated <a href="/wiki/British_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="British Jew">British Jewish</a> population in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> as of 2011 was 263,346.<sup id="cite_ref-ks2011_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ks2011-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2021, per the <a href="/wiki/Census_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Census in the United Kingdom">British Census</a>, the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On October 7, 2023, the militant group <a href="/wiki/2023_Hamas_attack_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Hamas attack on Israel">Hamas invaded Israel</a> from the Gaza Strip, killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The attack escalated into a <a href="/wiki/2023_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Israel–Hamas war">major war between Israel and Hamas</a>. Many civilians were killed and displaced, and hostages were taken.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">Expulsions and exoduses of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic studies on Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Jewish population comparisons">Historical Jewish population comparisons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of antisemitism">Geography of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">History of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">History of the Jews during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jewish_history-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Jewish history-related articles">Index of Jewish history-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Jewish ethnic divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish historiography">Jewish historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Jewish population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_question" title="Jewish question">Jewish question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Jewish Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Jewish_history" title="Outline of Jewish history">Outline of Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_antisemitism" title="Timeline of antisemitism">Timeline of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline of Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Jewish_chronology" title="Traditional Jewish chronology">Traditional Jewish chronology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Finkelstein2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Finkelstein2_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finkelstein2_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2001" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). <i>The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories</i> (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86912-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-86912-4"><bdi>978-0-684-86912-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+unearthed+%3A+archaeology%27s+new+vision+of+ancient+Israel+and+the+origin+of+its+stories&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+Touchstone&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-684-86912-4&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft.au=Silberman%2C+Neil+Asher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitcher2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pitcher2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pitcher2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229">The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229">Archived</a> April 9, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Broshi_2001_1742-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Broshi_2001_1742_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Broshi_2001_1742_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroshi2001" class="citation book cs1">Broshi, Maguen (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174"><i>Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-201-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84127-201-6"><bdi>978-1-84127-201-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203455/https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174">Archived</a> from the original on February 10, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bread%2C+Wine%2C+Walls+and+Scrolls&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84127-201-6&rft.aulast=Broshi&rft.aufirst=Maguen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DetTUEorS1zMC%26pg%3DPAPA174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaust2012" class="citation book cs1">Faust, Avraham (August 29, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28"><i>Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period</i></a>. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt5vjz28">10.2307/j.ctt5vjz28</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-641-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-641-9"><bdi>978-1-58983-641-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judah+in+the+Neo-Babylonian+Period&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=2012-08-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt5vjz28&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-641-9&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt5vjz28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Stökl,_Caroline_Waerzegger2015" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger (2015). <i>Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context</i>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. pp. 7–11, 30, 226.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exile+and+Return%3A+The+Babylonian+Context&rft.pages=7-11%2C+30%2C+226&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Jonathan+St%C3%B6kl%2C+Caroline+Waerzegger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Encyclopaedia Judaica</i>. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.pages=27&rft.edition=2nd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BangScheidel2013-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BangScheidel2013_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Fibiger_BangWalter_Scheidel2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Fibiger Bang; Walter Scheidel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184"><i>The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 184–187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8"><bdi>978-0-19-518831-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 16,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+State+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+and+Mediterranean&rft.pages=184-187&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518831-8&rft.au=Peter+Fibiger+Bang&rft.au=Walter+Scheidel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGCj09AmtvvwC%26pg%3DPAPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malamat1976-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Malamat1976_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Malamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Malamat (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PAPA223"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 223–239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=223-239&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.au=Abraham+Malamat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kSovzudhFUC%26pg%3DPAPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZissu2018" class="citation book cs1">Zissu, Boaz (2018). "Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967"><i>Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE</i></a>. Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson. Leiden, The Netherlands. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34986-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34986-5"><bdi>978-90-04-34986-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967">988856967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interbellum+Judea+70-132+CE%3A+An+Archaeological+Perspective&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Christians+in+the+First+and+Second+Centuries%3A+The+Interbellum+70%E2%80%92132+CE&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=19&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F988856967&rft.isbn=978-90-04-34986-5&rft.aulast=Zissu&rft.aufirst=Boaz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F988856967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FahlbuschBromiley2005-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FahlbuschBromiley2005_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErwin_FahlbuschGeoffrey_William_Bromiley2005" class="citation book cs1">Erwin Fahlbusch; Geoffrey William Bromiley (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15"><i>The Encyclopedia of Christianity</i></a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 15–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2416-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2416-5"><bdi>978-0-8028-2416-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160412/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 16,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Christianity&rft.pages=15-&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5&rft.au=Erwin+Fahlbusch&rft.au=Geoffrey+William+Bromiley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC5V7oyy69zgC%26pg%3DPAPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&pg=PA87">"Heritage: Civilization and the Jews; The Uses of Adversity." Page 87.</a> Eban, Abba Solomon. "Heritage: Civilization and the Jews." Summit Books, A Division of Simon and Schuster, Inc. Syracuse, New York: 1984. Page 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dosick-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dosick_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dosick (2007), pp. 59, 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mosk (2013), p. 143. "Encouraged to move out of the Holy Roman Empire as persecution of their communities intensified during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Ashkenazi community increasingly gravitated toward Poland."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harshav, Benjamin (1999). <i>The Meaning of Yiddish</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. "From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the centre of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewin1979" class="citation journal cs1">Lewin, Rhoda G. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf">"Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Minnesota History</i>. <b>46</b> (7): 259. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on July 21, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minnesota+History&rft.atitle=Stereotype+and+reality+in+the+Jewish+immigrant+experience+in+Minneapolis&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=259&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Lewin&rft.aufirst=Rhoda+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcollections.mnhs.org%2FMNHistoryMagazine%2Farticles%2F46%2Fv46i07p258-273.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html">"Jewish Nobel Prize Winners"</a>. jinfo.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 24, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 7,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Nobel+Prize+Winners&rft.pub=jinfo.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jinfo.org%2FNobel_Prizes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2004" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Martin, ed. (2004). "Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period". <i>The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 36–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0003">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-928032-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-928032-0"><bdi>0-19-928032-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jews+and+Judaism+in+the+Second+Temple+Period&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Jewish+Studies&rft.pages=36-52&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0003&rft.isbn=0-19-928032-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2004" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Martin, ed. (2004). "Historiography on the Jews in the 'Talmudic Period' (70–640 ce)". <i>The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 79–114. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0005">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199280322.013.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-928032-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-928032-0"><bdi>0-19-928032-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historiography+on+the+Jews+in+the+%E2%80%98Talmudic+Period%E2%80%99+%2870%E2%80%93640+ce%29&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Jewish+Studies&rft.pages=79-114&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199280322.013.0005&rft.isbn=0-19-928032-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGnuse1997" class="citation book cs1">Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). <i>No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel</i>. England: Sheffield Academic Press Ltd. pp. 28, 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85075-657-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85075-657-0"><bdi>1-85075-657-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Other+Gods%3A+Emergent+Monotheism+in+Israel&rft.place=England&rft.pages=28%2C+31&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press+Ltd&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-85075-657-0&rft.aulast=Gnuse&rft.aufirst=Robert+Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steiner, Richard C. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), <i>The Semitic Languages</i>, Routledge, pp. 145–173, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7">978-0-415-05767-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevenson20123-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevenson20123_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevenson2012">Levenson 2012</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated99-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated99_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated99_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever,_William_G.2002" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William G. (2002). <i>What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2126-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2126-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-2126-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Did+the+Biblical+Writers+Know+and+When+Did+They+Know+It%3F&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3&rft.au=Dever%2C+William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span> p. 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaust2015p.476:_"While_there_is_a_consensus_among_scholars_that_the_Exodus_did_not_take_place_in_the_manner_described_in_the_Bible,_surprisingly_most_scholars_agree_that_the_narrative_has_a_historical_core,_and_that_some_of_the_highland_settlers_came,_one_way_or_another,_from_Egypt.."_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaust2015">Faust 2015</a>, p.476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERedmount200161-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERedmount200161_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRedmount2001">Redmount 2001</a>, p. 61: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2001" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC"><i>What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?</i></a>. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-927120-37-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-927120-37-5"><bdi>3-927120-37-5</bdi></a>. <q>After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Did+the+Biblical+Writers+Know%2C+and+When+Did+They+Know+It%3F&rft.pages=98-99&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-927120-37-5&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-VxwC5rQtwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finkelstein_1994-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Finkelstein_1994_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelsteinNaaman1994" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel; Naaman, Nadav, eds. (1994). <i>From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel</i>. <a href="/wiki/Israel_Exploration_Society" title="Israel Exploration Society">Israel Exploration Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-880317-20-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-880317-20-4"><bdi>978-1-880317-20-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Nomadism+to+Monarchy%3A+Archaeological+and+Historical+Aspects+of+Early+Israel&rft.pub=Israel+Exploration+Society&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-880317-20-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_ShawRobert_Jameson2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Israel,_Israelites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Israel, Israelites (page does not exist)">Ian Shaw</a>; Robert Jameson (2002). Ian Shaw (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&pg=PA313"><i>A Dictionary of Archaeology</i></a> (New ed.). Wiley Blackwell. p. 313. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23583-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23583-5"><bdi>978-0-631-23583-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160406/https://books.google.com/books?id=zmvNogJO2ZgC&q=%22Iron+Age+Israel%22+origins+in+Canaan%2C&pg=PA313">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span>. <q>The Biblical account of the origins of the people of Israel (principally recounted in Numbers, Joshua and Judges) often conflicts with non-Biblical textual sources and with the archaeological evidence for the settlement of Canaan in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. [...] Israel is first textually attested as a political entity in Egyptian texts of the late 13th century BCE and the Egyptologist Donald Redford argues that the Israelites must have been emerging as a distinct group within the Canaanite culture during the century or so prior to this. It has been suggested that the early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the more urbanized coastal Canaanites (Gottwald 1979). Alternatively, it has been argued that the Israelites were survivors of the decline in the fortunes of Canaan who established themselves in the highlands at the end of the late Bronze Age (Ahlstrom 1986: 27). Redford, however, makes a good case for equating the very earliest Israelites with a semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine whom the Egyptians called Shasu (Redford 1992:2689–80; although see Stager 1985 for strong arguments against the identification with the Shasu). These Shasu were a persistent thorn in the side of the Ramessid pharaohs' empire in Syria-Palestine, well-attested in Egytian texts, but their pastoral lifestyle has left scant traces in the archaeological record. By the end of the 13th century BCE, however, the Shasu/Israelites were beginning to establish small settlements in the uplands, the architecture of which closely resembles contemporary Canaanite villages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.pages=313&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23583-5&rft.au=Ian+Shaw&rft.au=Robert+Jameson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzmvNogJO2ZgC%26q%3D%2522Iron%2BAge%2BIsrael%2522%2Borigins%2Bin%2BCanaan%252C%26pg%3DPA313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKillebrew2005" class="citation book cs1">Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC"><i>Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E.</i></a> Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-097-4"><bdi>978-1-58983-097-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230117055402/https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC">Archived</a> from the original on January 17, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2012</span>. <q>Much has been made of the scarcity of pig bones at highland sites. Since small quantities of pig bones do appear in Late Bronze Age assemblages, some archaeologists have interpreted this to indicate that the ethnic identity of the highland inhabitants was distinct from Late Bronze Age indigenous peoples (see Finkelstein 1997, 227–230). Brian Hesse and Paula Wapnish (1997) advise caution, however, since the lack of pig bones at Iron I highland settlements could be a result of other factors that have little to do with ethnicity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+Peoples+and+Ethnicity%3A+An+Archeological+Study+of+Egyptians%2C+Canaanites%2C+Philistines%2C+and+Early+Israel%2C+1300%E2%80%931100+B.C.E.&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-097-4&rft.aulast=Killebrew&rft.aufirst=Ann+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVtAmmwapfVAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zachary-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zachary_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2016" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, Zachary (April 22, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146107916639208">"Debating the United Monarchy: Let's See How Far We've Come"</a>. <i>Biblical Theology Bulletin</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 59–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146107916639208">10.1177/0146107916639208</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0146-1079">0146-1079</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147053561">147053561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Theology+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Debating+the+United+Monarchy%3A+Let%27s+See+How+Far+We%27ve+Come&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=59-69&rft.date=2016-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147053561%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0146-1079&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0146107916639208&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Zachary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1177%2F0146107916639208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lipschits-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lipschits_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipschits2014" class="citation book cs1">Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The history of Israel in the biblical period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ"><i>The Jewish Study Bible</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 2107–2119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997846-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997846-5"><bdi>978-0-19-997846-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2022</span>. <q>As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of "united monarchy" is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit comprised of Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called "Israel."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+history+of+Israel+in+the+biblical+period&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Study+Bible&rft.pages=2107-2119&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997846-5&rft.aulast=Lipschits&rft.aufirst=Oded&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyErYBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wright_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2014" class="citation web cs1">Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml">"David, King of Judah (Not Israel)"</a>. <i>The Bible and Interpretation</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml">the original</a> on March 1, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 15,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Bible+and+Interpretation&rft.atitle=David%2C+King+of+Judah+%28Not+Israel%29&rft.date=2014-07&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Jacob+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibleinterp.com%2Farticles%2F2014%2F07%2Fwri388001.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabbe-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grabbe_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabbe2007" class="citation book cs1">Grabbe, Lester L. (April 28, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&pg=PA333"><i>Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-25171-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-25171-8"><bdi>978-0-567-25171-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160924/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcVmBAEo5rcC&pg=PA333">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2022</span>. <q>The Tel Dan inscription generated a good deal of debate and a flurry of articles when it first appeared, but it is now widely regarded (a) as genuine and (b) as referring to the Davidic dynasty and the Aramaic kingdom of Damascus.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ahab+Agonistes%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Omri+Dynasty&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing+USA&rft.date=2007-04-28&rft.isbn=978-0-567-25171-8&rft.aulast=Grabbe&rft.aufirst=Lester+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkcVmBAEo5rcC%26pg%3DPA333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cline-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cline_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCline2009" class="citation book cs1">Cline, Eric H. (September 28, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61"><i>Biblical Archaeology: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971162-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971162-8"><bdi>978-0-19-971162-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160932/https://books.google.com/books?id=uGzRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2022</span>. <q>Today, after much further discussion in academic journals, it is accepted by most archaeologists that the inscription is not only genuine but that the reference is indeed to the House of David, thus representing the first allusion found anywhere outside the Bible to the biblical David.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+Archaeology%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009-09-28&rft.isbn=978-0-19-971162-8&rft.aulast=Cline&rft.aufirst=Eric+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuGzRCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NWSem-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NWSem_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMykytiuk2004" class="citation book cs1">Mykytiuk, Lawrence J. (January 1, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&pg=PA113"><i>Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200-539 B.C.E.</i></a> Society of Biblical Lit. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-062-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-062-2"><bdi>978-1-58983-062-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=eprY1Qd0veAC&pg=PA113">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 19,</span> 2022</span>. <q>Some unfounded accusations of forgery have had little or no effect on the scholarly acceptance of this inscription as genuine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Identifying+Biblical+Persons+in+Northwest+Semitic+Inscriptions+of+1200-539+B.C.E.&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Lit&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-062-2&rft.aulast=Mykytiuk&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeprY1Qd0veAC%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelsteinSilberman2002146–7-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkelsteinSilberman2002146–7_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2002">Finkelstein & Silberman 2002</a>, pp. 146–7:Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:02_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelstein" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/949151323"><i>The forgotten kingdom : the archaeology and history of Northern Israel</i></a>. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-910-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-910-6"><bdi>978-1-58983-910-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/949151323">949151323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+forgotten+kingdom+%3A+the+archaeology+and+history+of+Northern+Israel&rft.pages=74&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F949151323&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-910-6&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F949151323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:04-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:04_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelstein2013" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/880456140"><i>The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel</i></a>. pp. 65–66, 73, 78, 87–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-911-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-911-3"><bdi>978-1-58983-911-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/880456140">880456140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Kingdom%3A+the+archaeology+and+history+of+Northern+Israel&rft.pages=65-66%2C+73%2C+78%2C+87-94&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F880456140&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-911-3&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F880456140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelstein2011" class="citation journal cs1">Finkelstein, Israel (November 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179/033443511x13099584885303">"Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria"</a>. <i>Tel Aviv</i>. <b>38</b> (2): 194–207. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F033443511x13099584885303">10.1179/033443511x13099584885303</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0334-4355">0334-4355</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128814117">128814117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tel+Aviv&rft.atitle=Observations+on+the+Layout+of+Iron+Age+Samaria&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=194-207&rft.date=2011-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128814117%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0334-4355&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F033443511x13099584885303&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1179%2F033443511x13099584885303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Sasson1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H.H._Ben-Sasson" class="mw-redirect" title="H.H. Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel</a>, ed. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119074435/https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC">Archived</a> from the original on January 19, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 12,</span> 2018</span>. <q>Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kSovzudhFUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelle20059-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelle20059_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKelle2005">Kelle 2005</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrettler2010161–62-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrettler2010161–62_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrettler2010">Brettler 2010</a>, pp. 161–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERadine201071–72-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERadine201071–72_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRadine2010">Radine 2010</a>, pp. 71–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2003a690-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson2003a690_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogerson2003a">Rogerson 2003a</a>, p. 690.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Brien200214-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Brien200214_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Brien2002">O'Brien 2002</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGelston2003c715-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGelston2003c715_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGelston2003c">Gelston 2003c</a>, p. 715.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogerson2003b154-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogerson2003b154_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogerson2003b">Rogerson 2003b</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbellO'Brien20002_and_fn.6-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbellO'Brien20002_and_fn.6_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCampbellO'Brien2000">Campbell & O'Brien 2000</a>, p. 2 and fn.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGelston2003a710-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGelston2003a710_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGelston2003a">Gelston 2003a</a>, p. 710.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_51-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickerman2007" class="citation cs2">Bickerman, E. J. (January 1, 2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/9789047420729/Bej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml">"Nebuchadnezzar And Jerusalem"</a>, <i>Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols)</i>, Brill, pp. 961–974, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004152946.i-1242.280">10.1163/ej.9789004152946.i-1242.280</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2072-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2072-9"><bdi>978-90-474-2072-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Jewish+and+Christian+History+%282+vols%29&rft.atitle=Nebuchadnezzar+And+Jerusalem&rft.pages=961-974&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2Fej.9789004152946.i-1242.280&rft.isbn=978-90-474-2072-9&rft.aulast=Bickerman&rft.aufirst=E.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2F9789047420729%2FBej.9789004152946.i-1242_044.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalil1991" class="citation journal cs1">Galil, Gershon (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193">"The Babylonian Calendar and the Chronology of the Last Kings of Judah"</a>. <i>Biblica</i>. <b>72</b> (3): 367–378. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-0887">0006-0887</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42611193">42611193</a>. <q>All the scholars, without exception, establish the date of the surrender of Jehoiachin, king of Judah, as the second day of Adar, the seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon (March 16, 597 BC), following the Babylonian chronicle ... This unique date is undoubtedly the most precise in Israelite history during the biblical period.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblica&rft.atitle=The+Babylonian+Calendar+and+the+Chronology+of+the+Last+Kings+of+Judah&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=367-378&rft.date=1991&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42611193%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0006-0887&rft.aulast=Galil&rft.aufirst=Gershon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42611193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BabylonianChronicles-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BabylonianChronicles_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030154541/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx">"British Museum – Cuneiform tablet with part of the Babylonian Chronicle (605–594 BCE)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx">the original</a> on October 30, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+Museum+%E2%80%93+Cuneiform+tablet+with+part+of+the+Babylonian+Chronicle+%28605%E2%80%93594+BCE%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fexplore%2Fhighlights%2Fhighlight_objects%2Fme%2Fc%2Fcuneiform_nebuchadnezzar_ii.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190505195611/https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html">"ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle) – Livius"</a>. <i>www.livius.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc5/jerusalem.html">the original</a> on May 5, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.livius.org&rft.atitle=ABC+5+%28Jerusalem+Chronicle%29+%E2%80%93+Livius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fcg-cm%2Fchronicles%2Fabc5%2Fjerusalem.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShalomVakninShaarBen-Yosef2023" class="citation journal cs1">Shalom, N.; Vaknin, Y.; Shaar, R.; Ben-Yosef, E.; Lipschits, O.; Shalev, Y.; Gadot, Y.; Boaretto, E. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305440323001036">"Destruction by fire: Reconstructing the evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian destruction in a monumental building in Jerusalem"</a>. <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i>. <b>157</b>: 105823. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023JArSc.157j5823S">2023JArSc.157j5823S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2023.105823">10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Science&rft.atitle=Destruction+by+fire%3A+Reconstructing+the+evidence+of+the+586+BCE+Babylonian+destruction+in+a+monumental+building+in+Jerusalem&rft.volume=157&rft.pages=105823&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jas.2023.105823&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023JArSc.157j5823S&rft.aulast=Shalom&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Vaknin%2C+Y.&rft.au=Shaar%2C+R.&rft.au=Ben-Yosef%2C+E.&rft.au=Lipschits%2C+O.&rft.au=Shalev%2C+Y.&rft.au=Gadot%2C+Y.&rft.au=Boaretto%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0305440323001036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_56-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBedford2001" class="citation cs2">Bedford, Peter Ross (January 1, 2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s004.xml">"Introduction"</a>, <i>Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah</i>, Brill, pp. 1–39, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004498051_004">10.1163/9789004498051_004</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-49805-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-49805-1"><bdi>978-90-04-49805-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Temple+Restoration+in+Early+Achaemenid+Judah&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.pages=1-39&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004498051_004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-49805-1&rft.aulast=Bedford&rft.aufirst=Peter+Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2F9789004498051%2FB9789004498051_s004.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBedford2001" class="citation cs2">Bedford, Peter Ross (January 1, 2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/9789004498051/B9789004498051_s005.xml">"Living Without the Jerusalem Temple—In Judah and Babylonia"</a>, <i>Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah</i>, Brill, p. 42, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004498051_005">10.1163/9789004498051_005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-49805-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-49805-1"><bdi>978-90-04-49805-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Temple+Restoration+in+Early+Achaemenid+Judah&rft.atitle=Living+Without+the+Jerusalem+Temple%E2%80%94In+Judah+and+Babylonia&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004498051_005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-49805-1&rft.aulast=Bedford&rft.aufirst=Peter+Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fdisplay%2Fbook%2F9789004498051%2FB9789004498051_s005.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rennert-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rennert_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rennert_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html">"Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule"</a>. Biu.ac.il<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 15,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Second+Temple+Period+%28538+BCE.+to+70+CE%29+Persian+Rule&rft.pub=Biu.ac.il&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biu.ac.il%2Fjs%2Frennert%2Fhistory_4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Harper's Bible Dictionary</i>, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the word for province</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabbe355-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grabbe355_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabbe2004" class="citation book cs1">Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&pg=PA355"><i>A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1</i></a>. T & T Clark. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08998-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08998-4"><bdi>978-0-567-08998-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews+and+Judaism+in+the+Second+Temple+Period%3A+Yehud+%E2%80%93+A+History+of+the+Persian+Province+of+Judah+v.+1&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-567-08998-4&rft.aulast=Grabbe&rft.aufirst=Lester+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-MnE5T_0RbMC%26q%3Dgave%2Bthe%2BJews%2Bpermission%2Bto%2Breturn%2Bto%2BYehud%2Bprovince%2Band%2Bto%2Brebuild%2Bthe%26pg%3DPA355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipschits2024" class="citation cs2">Lipschits, Oded (March 18, 2024), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110487442-020/html">"Between Archaeology and Text: A Reevaluation of the Development Process of Jerusalem in the Persian Period"</a>, <i>Judah in the Biblical Period</i>, De Gruyter, p. 374, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110487442-020">10.1515/9783110487442-020</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-048744-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-048744-2"><bdi>978-3-11-048744-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Between+Archaeology+and+Text%3A+A+Reevaluation+of+the+Development+Process+of+Jerusalem+in+the+Persian+Period&rft.btitle=Judah+in+the+Biblical+Period&rft.pages=374&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2024-03-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110487442-020&rft.isbn=978-3-11-048744-2&rft.aulast=Lipschits&rft.aufirst=Oded&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110487442-020%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finkelstein-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Finkelstein_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2001" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). <i>The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories</i> (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-86912-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-86912-8"><bdi>0-684-86912-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+unearthed+%3A+archaeology%27s+new+vision+of+ancient+Israel+and+the+origin+of+its+stories&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+Touchstone&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-684-86912-8&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft.au=Silberman%2C+Neil+Asher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrei20016-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrei20016_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrei2001">Frei 2001</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERomer20082_and_fn.3_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRomer2008">Romer 2008</a>, p. 2 and fn.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2016" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson, Kenneth (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/949219870"><i>A History of the Hasmonean State: Josephus and Beyond</i></a>. T&T Clark Jewish and Christian texts series. London; New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. pp. 2, 23–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66902-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-66902-5"><bdi>978-0-567-66902-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/949219870">949219870</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hasmonean+State%3A+Josephus+and+Beyond&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.series=T%26T+Clark+Jewish+and+Christian+texts+series&rft.pages=2%2C+23-28&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+T%26T+Clark%2C+an+imprint+of+Bloomsbury+Publishing+Plc&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F949219870&rft.isbn=978-0-567-66902-5&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F949219870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_David_Davies" title="William David Davies">William David Davies</a>. <i>The Hellenistic Age</i>. Volume 2 of Cambridge History of Judaism. Cambridge University Press, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21929-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21929-7">978-0-521-21929-7</a>. pp. 292–312.</li> <li>Jeff S. Anderson. <i>The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period</i>. University Press of America, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-2327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-2327-8">978-0-7618-2327-8</a>. pp. 37–38.</li> <li>Howard N. Lupovitch. <i>Jews and Judaism in World History</i>. Taylor & Francis. 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46205-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46205-1">978-0-415-46205-1</a>. pp. 26–30.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hooker, Richard. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060829230214/http://www.wsu.edu:8000/%7Edee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM">"The Hebrews: The Diaspora"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/HEBREWS.HTM">the original</a> on August 29, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Hebrews%3A+The+Diaspora&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsu.edu%3A8000%2F~dee%2FHEBREWS%2FHEBREWS.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span> World Civilizations Learning Modules. Washington State University, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4267-2475-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4267-2475-6">978-1-4267-2475-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jensen, M. H. (2014). The Political History in Galilee from the First Century BCE to the end of the Second Century CE. <i>Galilee in the late Second Temple and Mishnaic periods. Volume 1. Life, culture and society</i>, pp. 69-70. "According to Jewish War, Vespasian laid siege to and conquered all the major strongholds of Galilee [...] Since the entire campaign was short and lasted only for some months in the spring and summer of 67, there is no reason to believe that Galilee was entirely devastated when the Romans set their course south. However, the places that were conquered, were in a typical Roman fashion levelled more or less to the ground and many people sold of as slaves.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:07-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:07_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeksler-Bdolah2019" class="citation book cs1">Weksler-Bdolah, Shlomit (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1170143447"><i>Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman period: in light of archaeological research</i></a>. Brill. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41707-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41707-6"><bdi>978-90-04-41707-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1170143447">1170143447</a>. <q>The historical description is consistent with the archeological finds. Collapses of massive stones from the walls of the Temple Mount were exposed lying over the Herodian street running along the Western Wall of the Temple Mount. The residential buildings of the Ophel and the Upper City were destroyed by great fire. The large urban drainage channel and the Pool of Siloam in the Lower City silted up and ceased to function, and in many places the city walls collapsed. [...] Following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, a new era began in the city's history. The Herodian city was destroyed and a military camp of the Tenth Roman Legion established on part of the ruins.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aelia+Capitolina+%E2%80%93+Jerusalem+in+the+Roman+period%3A+in+light+of+archaeological+research&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1170143447&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41707-6&rft.aulast=Weksler-Bdolah&rft.aufirst=Shlomit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1170143447&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:32_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFרייךReich2009" class="citation journal cs1">רייך, רוני; Reich, Ronny (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23407359">"The Sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE: Flavius Josephus' Description and the Archaeological Record / חורבן ירושלים בשנת 70 לסה"נ: תיאורו של יוסף בן מתתיהו והממצא הארכאולוגי"</a>. <i>Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה</i> (131): 25–42. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0334-4657">0334-4657</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23407359">23407359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cathedra%3A+For+the+History+of+Eretz+Israel+and+Its+Yishuv+%2F+%D7%A7%D7%AA%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%94%3A+%D7%9C%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A5+%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C+%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%91%D7%94&rft.atitle=The+Sack+of+Jerusalem+in+70+CE%3A+Flavius+Josephus%27+Description+and+the+Archaeological+Record+%2F+%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%9F+%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D+%D7%91%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%AA+70+%D7%9C%D7%A1%D7%94%22%D7%A0%3A+%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95+%D7%A9%D7%9C+%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3+%D7%91%D7%9F+%D7%9E%D7%AA%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95+%D7%95%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%90+%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99&rft.issue=131&rft.pages=25-42&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23407359%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0334-4657&rft.aulast=%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9A&rft.aufirst=%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99&rft.au=Reich%2C+Ronny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23407359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huitink, Luuk. "Between Triumph and Tragedy: Josephus, Bellum Judaicum 7.121–157." <i>Reading Greek, Hellenistic and Roman spolia. Objects, appropriation and cultural change, Euhormos: Greco-Roman Studies in Anchoring Innovation. Leiden: Brill</i> (2023). pp. 215–216, 234</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvermanOverman2003" class="citation book cs1">Overman, J. Andrew; Overman, J. Andrew (September 2, 2003). "The First Revolt and Flavian politics". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781134518326"><i>The First Jewish Revolt</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203167441">10.4324/9780203167441</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-51832-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-51832-6"><bdi>978-1-134-51832-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+First+Revolt+and+Flavian+politics&rft.btitle=The+First+Jewish+Revolt&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003-09-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203167441&rft.isbn=978-1-134-51832-6&rft.aulast=Overman&rft.aufirst=J.+Andrew&rft.au=Overman%2C+J.+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2F9781134518326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:06-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:06_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerr1984" class="citation book cs1">Herr, Moshe David (1984). Shtern, Menahem (ed.). <i>The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.)</i>. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi. p. 288.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Eretz+Israel%3A+The+Roman+Byzantine+period%3A+the+Roman+period+from+the+conquest+to+the+Ben+Kozba+War+%2863+B.C.E-135+C.E.%29&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pages=288&rft.pub=Yad+Izhak+Ben-Zvi&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Herr&rft.aufirst=Moshe+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:72-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:72_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaclean_Rogers2021" class="citation book cs1">Maclean Rogers, Guy (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1294393934"><i>For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE</i></a>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26256-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26256-8"><bdi>978-0-300-26256-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1294393934">1294393934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Freedom+of+Zion%3A+The+Great+Revolt+of+Jews+against+Romans%2C+66%E2%80%9374+CE&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1294393934&rft.isbn=978-0-300-26256-8&rft.aulast=Maclean+Rogers&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1294393934&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner2017" class="citation cs2">Neusner, Jacob (November 28, 2017), Hinnells, John (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351152761-20">"Judaism in a Time of Crisis: Four Responses to the Destruction of the Second Temple"</a>, <i>Neusner on Judaism</i>, Routledge, pp. 399–413, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781351152761-20">10.4324/9781351152761-20</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-15276-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-15276-1"><bdi>978-1-351-15276-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neusner+on+Judaism&rft.atitle=Judaism+in+a+Time+of+Crisis%3A+Four+Responses+to+the+Destruction+of+the+Second+Temple&rft.pages=399-413&rft.date=2017-11-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781351152761-20&rft.isbn=978-1-351-15276-1&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781351152761-20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:54-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:54_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:54_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaresh2006" class="citation book cs1">Karesh, Sara E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378"><i>Encyclopedia of Judaism</i></a>. Facts On File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78785-171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78785-171-9"><bdi>978-1-78785-171-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378">1162305378</a>. <q>Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1162305378&rft.isbn=978-1-78785-171-9&rft.aulast=Karesh&rft.aufirst=Sara+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1162305378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStemberger2003" class="citation cs2">Stemberger, Guenter (2003), Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470758014.ch5">"The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism, 70–640 CE"</a>, <i>The Blackwell Companion to Judaism</i> (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 78–79, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470758014.ch5">10.1002/9780470758014.ch5</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57718-058-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57718-058-6"><bdi>978-1-57718-058-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 2,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+Rabbinic+Judaism%2C+70%E2%80%93640+CE&rft.pages=78-79&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470758014.ch5&rft.isbn=978-1-57718-058-6&rft.aulast=Stemberger&rft.aufirst=Guenter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470758014.ch5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2006" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Steven T., ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-judaism/3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394"><i>The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period</i></a>. Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488">10.1017/chol9780521772488</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8"><bdi>978-0-521-77248-8</bdi></a>. <q>Under the leadership of R. Yohanan ben Zakkai and his circle at Yavneh, Judaism sought to reconstitute itself and find a new equilibrium in the face of the disaster of 70.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism%3A+Volume+4%3A+The+Late+Roman-Rabbinic+Period&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77248-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fcambridge-history-of-judaism%2F3F4F0A32983FC0DCDB414553888DC394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Neusner, Jacob (September 26, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110839043-002/html">"The Formation of Rabbinic Judaism: Yavneh (Jamnia) from A.D. 70 to 100"</a>. In Haase, Wolfgang (ed.). <i>Religion (Judentum: Palästinisches Judentum [Forts.])</i> (in German). De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110839043-002">10.1515/9783110839043-002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083904-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083904-3"><bdi>978-3-11-083904-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+Rabbinic+Judaism%3A+Yavneh+%28Jamnia%29+from+A.D.+70+to+100&rft.btitle=Religion+%28Judentum%3A+Pal%C3%A4stinisches+Judentum+%26%2391%3BForts.%26%2393%3B%29&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2016-09-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110839043-002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-083904-3&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110839043-002%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1984" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Shaye J.D. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609">"The Significance of Yavneh: Pharisees, Rabbis, and the End of Jewish Sectarianism"</a>. <i>Hebrew Union College Annual</i>. <b>55</b>: 29. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0360-9049">0360-9049</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507609">23507609</a>. <q>The goal was not the triumph over other sects but the elimination of the need for sectarianism itself. [...] The destruction of the temple provided the impetus for this process: it warned the Jews of the dangers of internal divisiveness and it removed one of the major focal points of Jewish sectarianism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hebrew+Union+College+Annual&rft.atitle=The+Significance+of+Yavneh%3A+Pharisees%2C+Rabbis%2C+and+the+End+of+Jewish+Sectarianism&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=29&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23507609%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0360-9049&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Shaye+J.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23507609&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magness-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Magness_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJodi_Magness2011" class="citation book cs1">Jodi Magness (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&q=diaspora+70+ce&pg=PA189">"Sectarianism before and after 70 CE"</a>. In Daniel R. Schwartz; Zeev Weiss (eds.). <i>Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21744-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21744-7"><bdi>978-90-04-21744-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sectarianism+before+and+after+70+CE&rft.btitle=Was+70+CE+a+Watershed+in+Jewish+History%3F%3A+On+Jews+and+Judaism+before+and+after+the+Destruction+of+the+Second+Temple&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-21744-7&rft.au=Jodi+Magness&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVecxAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddiaspora%2B70%2Bce%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Erich_S._Gruen" title="Erich S. Gruen">Erich S. Gruen</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&pg=PA3">Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans</a> <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–34: 'Compulsory dislocation, .…cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. … The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHJ-GM2-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AHJ-GM2_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHJ-GM2_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHJ-GM2_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2018" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Martin (2018). <i>A History of Judaism</i>. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press. pp. 21, 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18127-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18127-1"><bdi>978-0-691-18127-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Judaism&rft.place=Princeton+Oxford&rft.pages=21%2C+232&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18127-1&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-us-israel-archaeology-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-us-israel-archaeology_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2017" class="citation news cs1">Baker, Luke (February 3, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203">"Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Ancient+tablets+reveal+life+of+Jews+in+Nebuchadnezzar%27s+Babylon&rft.date=2017-02-03&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U.Gabbay and Sh.Secunda. (eds.). <i>Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity</i>, Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus Flavius, <i>Against Appion</i>. 4.II</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smallwood-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smallwood_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Mary_Smallwood1984" class="citation book cs1">E. Mary Smallwood (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&q=Diaspora+before+70&pg=PA168">"The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70"</a>. In William David Davies; Louis Finkelstein; William Horbury (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521243773" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521243773"><bdi>978-0521243773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Diaspora+in+the+Roman+period+before+AD+70&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism%3A+The+early+Roman+period%2C+Volume+3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0521243773&rft.au=E.+Mary+Smallwood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAW2BuWcalXIC%26q%3DDiaspora%2Bbefore%2B70%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Translation_1981,_pg._95-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Translation_1981,_pg._95_90-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס רותת "עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום", ע"מ 95. 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(ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part">"The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117"</a>, <i>The Cambridge History of Judaism</i> (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 93–106, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.005">10.1017/chol9780521772488.005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05513-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05513-0"><bdi>978-1-139-05513-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 8,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism&rft.atitle=The+uprisings+in+the+Jewish+Diaspora%2C+116%E2%80%93117&rft.pages=93-106&rft.date=2006-06-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05513-0&rft.aulast=Zeev&rft.aufirst=Miriam+Pucci+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FCBO9781139055130A007%2Ftype%2Fbook_part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:33-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:33_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmallwood1976" class="citation book cs1">Smallwood, E. Mary (1976). <i>The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian</i>. SBL Press. pp. 394–397. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50204-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50204-8"><bdi>978-90-04-50204-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+under+Roman+Rule+from+Pompey+to+Diocletian&rft.pages=394-397&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-90-04-50204-8&rft.aulast=Smallwood&rft.aufirst=E.+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorbury2014" class="citation book cs1">Horbury, William (2014). <i>Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-04905-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-04905-4"><bdi>978-1-139-04905-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+War+under+Trajan+and+Hadrian&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-139-04905-4&rft.aulast=Horbury&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:222-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:222_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarclay1998" class="citation book cs1">Barclay, John M. G. (1998). <i>Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE)</i>. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08651-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08651-8"><bdi>978-0-567-08651-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+in+the+Mediterranean+Diaspora%3A+from+Alexander+to+Trajan+%28323+BCE%E2%80%93117+CE%29&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=T%26T+Clark&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-567-08651-8&rft.aulast=Barclay&rft.aufirst=John+M.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_97-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_97-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEck2015" class="citation cs2">Eck, Werner (July 30, 2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-1056">"Bar Kokhba"</a>, <i>Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.1056">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1056</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 2,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Bar+Kokhba&rft.date=2015-07-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.1056&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.aulast=Eck&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-1056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEck1999" class="citation journal cs1">Eck, Werner (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/abs/bar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view/27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4">"The Bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View"</a>. <i>The Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>89</b>: 76, 80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F300735">10.2307/300735</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1753-528X">1753-528X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/300735">300735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Bar+Kokhba+Revolt%3A+The+Roman+Point+of+View&rft.volume=89&rft.pages=76%2C+80&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=1753-528X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F300735%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F300735&rft.aulast=Eck&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-roman-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fbar-kokhba-revolt-the-roman-point-of-view%2F27E95F52A627562F93178F17A51D5FD4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavivDavid2021" class="citation journal cs1">Raviv, Dvir; David, Chaim Ben (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759421000271">"Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?"</a>. <i>Journal of Roman Archaeology</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 585–607. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759421000271">10.1017/S1047759421000271</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-7594">1047-7594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Cassius+Dio%27s+figures+for+the+demographic+consequences+of+the+Bar+Kokhba+War%3A+Exaggeration+or+reliable+account%3F&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=585-607&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1047759421000271&rft.issn=1047-7594&rft.aulast=Raviv&rft.aufirst=Dvir&rft.au=David%2C+Chaim+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1047759421000271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:22_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1971" class="citation book cs1">Jones, A.H.M. (1971). <i>The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford. p. 277. <q>This provoked the last Jewish war, which seems from our meager accounts [...] to have resulted in the desolation of Judaea and the practical extermination of its Jewish population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cities+of+the+Eastern+Roman+Provinces&rft.pages=277&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=A.H.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMor2016">Mor 2016</a>, pp. 483–484: "Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the <a href="/wiki/Sicaricon" title="Sicaricon">sikarikon laws</a> were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eshel-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eshel_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanan Eshel,<a href="//archive.org/details/cambridgehis_xxxx_1984_004_8494287/page/n1082" class="extiw" title="iarchive:cambridgehis xxxx 1984 004 8494287/page/n1082"> 'The Bar Kochba revolt, 132-135,'</a> in William David Davies, Louis Finkelstein, Steven T. Katz (eds.) <i>The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period,</i> pp.105-127, p.105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:03_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEshel2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Eshel, Hanan (2006). "4: The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132 – 135". In T. Katz, Steven (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7672733"><i>The Cambridge History of Judaism</i></a>. Vol. 4. The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge: Cambridge. pp. 105–127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521772488" title="Special:BookSources/9780521772488"><bdi>9780521772488</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7672733">7672733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4%3A+The+Bar+Kochba+Revolt%2C+132+%E2%80%93+135&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=105-127&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7672733&rft.isbn=9780521772488&rft.aulast=Eshel&rft.aufirst=Hanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F7672733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-H.H._Ben-Sasson,_1976,_page_334_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H.H. Ben-Sasson, <i>A History of the Jewish People</i>, Harvard University Press, 1976, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-39731-2">0-674-39731-2</a>, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ariel_Lewin_p._33-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ariel_Lewin_p._33_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ariel Lewin. <i>The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine</i>. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name - one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus - Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89236-800-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89236-800-4">0-89236-800-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes, University of Nebraska Press, 1995, I, pp. 46–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Res Gestae</i>, 23.1.2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Solomon-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Solomon_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html">"Julian and the Jews 361–363 CE"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120520080932/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/julian-jews.html">Archived</a> May 20, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Fordham University, The Jesuit University of New York) and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051020130904/http://www.gibsoncondo.com/~david/convert/history.html">"Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple"</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Psychoanalytic_History_of_the_Jews-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A_Psychoanalytic_History_of_the_Jews_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk1996" class="citation book cs1">Falk, Avner (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&q=julian&pg=PA343"><i>A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews</i></a>. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3660-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8386-3660-2"><bdi>978-0-8386-3660-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160921/https://books.google.com/books?id=z10-Xz9Kno4C&q=julian&pg=PA343">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Psychoanalytic+History+of+the+Jews&rft.pages=343&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+Univ+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8386-3660-2&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Avner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz10-Xz9Kno4C%26q%3Djulian%26pg%3DPA343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Avraham Yaari, <i>Igrot Eretz Yisrael</i> (Tel Aviv, 1943), p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_S._Jacobs2004" class="citation book cs1">Andrew S. Jacobs (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&pg=PA157"><i>Remains of the Jews: The Holy Land and Christian Empire in Late Antiquity</i></a>. Stanford University Press. pp. 157–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4705-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4705-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-4705-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161019/https://books.google.com/books?id=8O95ErDSZQgC&pg=PA157">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 19,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remains+of+the+Jews%3A+The+Holy+Land+and+Christian+Empire+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=157-&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4705-9&rft.au=Andrew+S.+Jacobs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8O95ErDSZQgC%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phoenicia-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Phoenicia_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Lipiński2004" class="citation book cs1">Edward Lipiński (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&pg=PA542"><i>Itineraria Phoenicia</i></a>. Peeters Publishers. pp. 542–543. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1344-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1344-8"><bdi>978-90-429-1344-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161013/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&q=Opusculum+de+Persica+captivitate&pg=PA542">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 11,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Itineraria+Phoenicia&rft.pages=542-543&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1344-8&rft.au=Edward+Lipi%C5%84ski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSLSzNfdcqfoC%26q%3DOpusculum%2Bde%2BPersica%2Bcaptivitate%26pg%3DPA542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Solomon_Gryazel_p._137_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Solomon Gryazel, <i>History of the Jews: From the destruction of Judah in 586 BCE to the present Arab Israeli conflict</i>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Codex Judaica</i>, pp. 161–174, Kantor, Zichron Press, NY 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[מרדכי וורמברנד ובצלאל ס. רותת "עם ישראל – תולדות 4000 שנה – מימי האבות ועד חוזה השלום", ע"מ 97. (Translation: Mordechai Vermebrand and Betzalel S. Ruth <i>The People of Israel: The History of 4,000 Years, from the Days of the Forefathers to the Peace Treaty</i>, 1981, p. 97)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wendy Mayer and <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Allen" title="Pauline Allen">Pauline Allen</a>, <i>John Chrysostom: The Early Church Fathers</i> (London, 2000), pp. 113, 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cod., I., v. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Procopius, <i>Historia Arcana</i>, 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nov., cxlvi., Feb. 8, 553</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Procopius, <i>De Aedificiis</i>, vi. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_Alexandrovi%C4%8D_Ostrogorsky" class="mw-redirect" title="George Alexandrovič Ostrogorsky">G. Ostrogorsky</a>, <i>History of the Byzantine State</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Oxford History of Byzantium</i>, C. Mango (Ed) (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nathan Katz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA22"><i>Who Are the Jews of India?,</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160937/https://books.google.com/books?id=OEolDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA22">Archived</a> April 9, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 2000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92072-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92072-9">978-0-520-92072-9</a> pp. 13–14, 17–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archaeology.org/issues/498-2301/letter-from/11057-ethiopia-beta-israel">"Exploring a Forgotten Jewish Land - Archaeology Magazine"</a>. <i>www.archaeology.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.archaeology.org&rft.atitle=Exploring+a+Forgotten+Jewish+Land+-+Archaeology+Magazine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.org%2Fissues%2F498-2301%2Fletter-from%2F11057-ethiopia-beta-israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehrlich, Mark. <i>Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1</i>. ABC-CLIO, 2009, p. 152.(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-873-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-873-6">978-1-85109-873-6</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bashan,_Eliezer_2007-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bashan,_Eliezer_2007_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bashan,_Eliezer_2007_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashan2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bashan, Eliezer (2007). "Omar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb". In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Berenbaum" title="Michael Berenbaum">Berenbaum, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fred_Skolnik" title="Fred Skolnik">Skolnik, Fred</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i>. Vol. 15 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. p. 419. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4"><bdi>978-0-02-866097-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Omar+ibn+al-Kha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%AD%C4%81b&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=419&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866097-4&rft.aulast=Bashan&rft.aufirst=Eliezer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SKatz-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SKatz_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKatz_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKatz_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKatz_127-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKatz_127-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_E._Katz2001" class="citation web cs1">Joseph E. Katz (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html">"Continuous Jewish Presence in the Holy Land"</a>. EretzYisroel.Org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210125175116/http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~samuel/presence.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 25, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Continuous+Jewish+Presence+in+the+Holy+Land&rft.pub=EretzYisroel.Org&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Joseph+E.+Katz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eretzyisroel.org%2F~samuel%2Fpresence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moshe Gil, <i>A History of Palestine: 634–1099</i> pp. 170, 220–221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Marina_Rustow" title="Marina Rustow">Marina Rustow</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/">Baghdad in the West: Migration and the Making of Medieval Jewish Traditions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200711065105/http://perspectives.ajsnet.org/the-iran-iraq-issue-fall-2010/baghdad-in-the-west-migration-and-the-making-of-medieval-jewish-traditions/">Archived</a> July 11, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-weiner-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-weiner_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-weiner_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html">Sephardim</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html">Archived</a> September 7, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Rebecca Weiner.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel13060535">10.3390/rel13060535</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lewis-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lewis_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, Bernard W (1984). <i>The Jews of Islam</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413_133-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413_133-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_Malamat_1976_413_133-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Malamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Malamat (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/413">413</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=413-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.au=Abraham+Malamat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewishp00harv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Malamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Malamat (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/416">416</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=416-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.au=Abraham+Malamat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewishp00harv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Nirenberg2002" class="citation book cs1">David Nirenberg (2002). Gerd Althoff (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&pg=PA279"><i>Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography</i></a>. Johannes Fried. Cambridge University Press. pp. 279–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78066-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78066-7"><bdi>978-0-521-78066-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Concepts+of+the+Past%3A+Ritual%2C+Memory%2C+Historiography&rft.pages=279-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78066-7&rft.au=David+Nirenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMxS6-pQZzGsC%26pg%3DPA279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Malamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Malamat (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/419">419</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=419-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.au=Abraham+Malamat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewishp00harv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Malamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Malamat (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/414">414</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=414-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.au=Abraham+Malamat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewishp00harv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081013142810/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html">"Jewish Zionist Education"</a>. Jafi.org.il. May 15, 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/places/acco.html">the original</a> on October 13, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 13,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Zionist+Education&rft.pub=Jafi.org.il&rft.date=2005-05-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jafi.org.il%2Feducation%2F100%2Fplaces%2Facco.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140502035808/http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf">"Hadrat Melech"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lookstein.org/resources/bionotes.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 2, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hadrat+Melech&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lookstein.org%2Fresources%2Fbionotes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin_J._Segal" class="citation web cs1">Benjamin J. Segal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227184802/http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&content=content%2Fsegal_ch17">"Section III: The Biblical Age: Chapter Seventeen: Awaiting the Messiah"</a>. <i>Returning, the Land of Israel as a Focus in Jewish History</i>. JewishHistory.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=AdditionalReadings&content=content/segal_ch17">the original</a> on February 27, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Returning%2C+the+Land+of+Israel+as+a+Focus+in+Jewish+History&rft.atitle=Section+III%3A+The+Biblical+Age%3A+Chapter+Seventeen%3A+Awaiting+the+Messiah&rft.au=Benjamin+J.+Segal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishhistory.com%2Fjh.php%3Fid%3DAdditionalReadings%26content%3Dcontent%2Fsegal_ch17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maurice Roumani, <i>The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue</i>, 1977, pp. 26–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada">"Granada"</a>. <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. 1906. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412000424/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Granada&rft.btitle=Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1906&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F6855-granada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell_Bard2012" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell Bard (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_%28gen%29.html">"The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries"</a>. Jewish Virtual Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121007003054/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html">Archived</a> from the original on October 7, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Treatment+of+Jews+in+Arab%2FIslamic+Countries&rft.pub=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Mitchell+Bard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2Fanti-semitism%2FJews_in_Arab_lands_%2528gen%2529.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39">The Forgotten Refugees</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928051923/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39">Archived</a> September 28, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRebecca_Weiner" class="citation web cs1">Rebecca Weiner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html">"Sephardim"</a>. Jewish Virtual Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120907212349/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 7, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sephardim&rft.pub=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.au=Rebecca+Weiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2FJudaism%2FSephardim.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kraemer, Joel L., "Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait," <i>The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides</i>, pp. 16–17 (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carroll, James. <i><a href="/wiki/Constantine%27s_Sword" title="Constantine's Sword">Constantine's Sword</a></i> (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-77927-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-77927-9">978-0-395-77927-9</a> p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2002" class="citation web cs1">Wade, Nicholas (May 14, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html">"In DNA, New Clues to Jewish Roots"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180104/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/14/science/in-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 16,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+DNA%2C+New+Clues+to+Jewish+Roots&rft.date=2002-05-14&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F05%2F14%2Fscience%2Fin-dna-new-clues-to-jewish-roots.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cantor-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cantor_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman F. Cantor, <i>The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era</i>, Free Press, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2688-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2688-2">978-0-7432-2688-2</a>, pp. 28–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbenhard_Isenmann1999" class="citation book cs1">Ebenhard Isenmann (1999). Richard Bonney (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U24lRLy_qT8C&pg=PA259"><i>The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815</i></a>. Clarendon Press. pp. 259–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-154220-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-154220-6"><bdi>978-0-19-154220-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Fiscal+State+in+Europe+c.+1200%E2%80%931815&rft.pages=259-&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-154220-6&rft.au=Ebenhard+Isenmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU24lRLy_qT8C%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Malamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Malamat (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishp00harv/page/412">412</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=412-&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.au=Abraham+Malamat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewishp00harv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jewishencyclopedia-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jewishencyclopedia_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england">"England"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231726/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england">Archived</a> July 30, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a> (1906)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobin_R._Mundill2002" class="citation book cs1">Robin R. Mundill (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C"><i>England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262–1290</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52026-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52026-3"><bdi>978-0-521-52026-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409161017/https://books.google.com/books?id=CSKLfi_j110C">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=England%27s+Jewish+Solution%3A+Experiment+and+Expulsion%2C+1262%E2%80%931290&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52026-3&rft.au=Robin+R.+Mundill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCSKLfi_j110C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121">"Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon - Collections Search - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum"</a>. <i>collections.ushmm.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142432/https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn539121">Archived</a> from the original on November 29, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 6,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=collections.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=Print+of+Jews+forced+to+listen+to+a+Christian+sermon+-+Collections+Search+-+United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollections.ushmm.org%2Fsearch%2Fcatalog%2Firn539121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Jewish-Christian Encounter in Medieval Preaching, Routledge 2015, edited by Jonathan Adams and Jussi Hanska chapter 13, see page 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550-1750 by Jonathan Israel, chapter 1 Exodus from the West (page 25)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 138 - 144 / Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews by David Martin Gitlitz, University of New Mexico 2002, pp 75 - 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Jews of Spain by Jane Gerber, Free Press 1994 pp 142 - 144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513">"Reframing Jewish History"</a>. May 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200930222143/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=10513">Archived</a> from the original on September 30, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reframing+Jewish+History&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.h-net.org%2Freviews%2Fshowrev.php%3Fid%3D10513&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HelenFry-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HelenFry_161-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HelenFry_161-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFry2002" class="citation journal cs1">Fry, Helen P. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002650793">"Port Jews: Jewish Communities in Cosmopolitan Maritime Trading Centres, 1550–1950"</a>. <i>European Judaism</i>. <b>36</b>. Frank Cass Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-8286-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-8286-0"><bdi>978-0-7146-8286-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160935/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?docId=5002650793">Archived</a> from the original on April 9, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 1,</span> 2017</span>. <q>Port Jews were a social type, usually those who were involved in seafaring and maritime trade, who (like Court Jews) could be seen as the earliest modern Jews. Often arriving as refugees from the Inquisition, they were permitted to settle as merchants and allowed to trade openly in places such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. 'Their Diaspora connections and accumulated expertise lay in exactly the areas of overseas expansion that were then of interest to mercantilist governments.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Judaism&rft.atitle=Port+Jews%3A+Jewish+Communities+in+Cosmopolitan+Maritime+Trading+Centres%2C+1550%E2%80%931950&rft.volume=36&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-8286-0&rft.aulast=Fry&rft.aufirst=Helen+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FgoogleScholar.qst%3FdocId%3D5002650793&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dubin, <i>The port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: absolutist politics and enlightenment culture</i>, Stanford University Press, 1999, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, Gil Marks, HMH, 17 Nov 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Issawi & Dmitri Gondicas; <i>Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism</i>, Princeton, (1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G.E. Von Grunebaum, <i>Eastern Jewry Under Islam</i>, 1971, p. 369.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/theodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland/">"Theodor Herzl Signed Photograph, Basel, Switzerland | Shapell Manuscript Foundation"</a>. <i>Shapell</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 10,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Shapell&rft.atitle=Theodor+Herzl+Signed+Photograph%2C+Basel%2C+Switzerland+%7C+Shapell+Manuscript+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.shapell.org%2Fmanuscript%2Ftheodor-herzl-signed-photograph-basel-switzerland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html">"The Jewish Resistance Movement"</a>. Jewish Virtual Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160907162736/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/resist.html">Archived</a> from the original on September 7, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Resistance+Movement&rft.pub=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2FHistory%2Fresist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Horne, Edward (1982). <i>A Job Well Done (Being a History of The Palestine Police Force 1920–1948)</i>. The Anchor Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9508367-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9508367-0-6">978-0-9508367-0-6</a>. pp. 272, 299. States that Haganah withdrew on July 1, 1946. But remained permanently uncooperative.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fishkoff, Sue (October 8, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml">"A Jewish revival in Birobidzhan?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110510142551/http://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/041008/revival.shtml">Archived</a> May 10, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Jewish News of Greater Phoenix</i>. Accessed on June 8, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paxton, Robin (June 1, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&cid=84435&NewsType=80052">"From Tractors to Torah in Russia's Jewish Land"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130411050518/http://fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=525676&cid=84435&NewsType=80052">Archived</a> April 11, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939">"Governor Voices Support for Growing Far East Jewish Community"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110518042318/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=221939">Archived</a> May 18, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (November 15, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969">"Far East Community Prepares for 70th Anniversary of Jewish Autonomous Republic"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110518041740/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=166969">Archived</a> May 18, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (August 30, 2004). Federation of Jewish Communities. Accessed on June 8, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7411877.stm">"Jewish population on the increase"</a>. May 21, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090527215725/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7411877.stm">Archived</a> from the original on May 27, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 18,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Jewish+population+on+the+increase&rft.date=2008-05-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2F7411877.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ks2011-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ks2011_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262">"2011 Census: KS209EW Religion, local authorities in England and Wales"</a>. ons.gov.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-286262">Archived</a> from the original on January 5, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 15,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2011+Census%3A+KS209EW+Religion%2C+local+authorities+in+England+and+Wales&rft.pub=ons.gov.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ons.gov.uk%2Fons%2Fpublications%2Fre-reference-tables.html%3Fedition%3Dtcm%253A77-286262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrahamBoyd2022" class="citation web cs1">Graham, David; Boyd, Jonathan (November 29, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpr.org.uk/reports/jews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales">"Jews in Britain in 2021: First results from the Census of England and Wales"</a>. <i>Institute for Jewish Policy Research</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 13,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+for+Jewish+Policy+Research&rft.atitle=Jews+in+Britain+in+2021%3A+First+results+from+the+Census+of+England+and+Wales&rft.date=2022-11-29&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Boyd%2C+Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpr.org.uk%2Freports%2Fjews-britain-2021-first-results-census-england-and-wales&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/israel-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e">"Biden calls Hamas attacks the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust as US death toll ticks up"</a>. <i>AP News</i>. October 11, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=Biden+calls+Hamas+attacks+the+deadliest+day+for+Jews+since+the+Holocaust+as+US+death+toll+ticks+up&rft.date=2023-10-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fisrael-hamas-us-biden-blinken-99eb4063edabc80fa1fa198fb0bb020e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-MughrabiAngelAl-MughrabiAngel2023" class="citation news cs1">Al-Mughrabi, Nidal; Angel, Maytaal; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal; Angel, Maytaal (November 8, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/thousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08/">"Israeli, Hamas fighters in close combat in Gaza City as civilians flee"</a>. <i>Reuters</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Israeli%2C+Hamas+fighters+in+close+combat+in+Gaza+City+as+civilians+flee&rft.date=2023-11-08&rft.aulast=Al-Mughrabi&rft.aufirst=Nidal&rft.au=Angel%2C+Maytaal&rft.au=Al-Mughrabi%2C+Nidal&rft.au=Angel%2C+Maytaal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fmiddle-east%2Fthousands-civilians-flee-north-gaza-israeli-troops-hamas-fighters-clash-2023-11-08%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrettler2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marc_Zvi_Brettler" title="Marc Zvi Brettler">Brettler, Marc Zvi</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=39nQafdJ_ssC"><i>How to read the Bible</i></a>. New York: Jewish Publication Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0775-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0775-0"><bdi>978-0-8276-0775-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+read+the+Bible&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8276-0775-0&rft.aulast=Brettler&rft.aufirst=Marc+Zvi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D39nQafdJ_ssC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellO'Brien2000" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Antony F.; O'Brien, Mark A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AvZWPFqd2sEC"><i>Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History</i></a>. Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1451413687" title="Special:BookSources/978-1451413687"><bdi>978-1451413687</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unfolding+the+Deuteronomistic+History&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1451413687&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Antony+F.&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAvZWPFqd2sEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaust2015" class="citation book cs1">Faust, Avraham (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/11906343">"The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus"</a>. In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). <i>Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience</i>. Springer. pp. 467–482. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-04768-3"><bdi>978-3-319-04768-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Iron+Age+Israel%3A+On+Origins+and+Habitus&rft.btitle=Israel%27s+Exodus+in+Transdisciplinary+Perspective%3A+Text%2C+Archaeology%2C+Culture%2C+and+Geoscience&rft.pages=467-482&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-319-04768-3&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Avraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F11906343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2002" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC"><i>The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2338-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2338-6"><bdi>978-0-7432-2338-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+Unearthed%3A+Archaeology%27s+New+Vision+of+Ancient+Israel+and+the+Origin+of+Sacred+Texts&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-2338-6&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft.au=Silberman%2C+Neil+Asher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlu6ywyJr0CMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrei2001" class="citation book cs1">Frei, Peter (2001). "Persian Imperial Authorization: A Summary". In Watts, James (ed.). <i>Persia and Torah: The Theory of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch</i>. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781589830158" title="Special:BookSources/9781589830158"><bdi>9781589830158</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Persian+Imperial+Authorization%3A+A+Summary&rft.btitle=Persia+and+Torah%3A+The+Theory+of+Imperial+Authorization+of+the+Pentateuch&rft.place=Atlanta%2C+GA&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781589830158&rft.aulast=Frei&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelston2003a" class="citation book cs1">Gelston, Anthony (2003a). "Habakkuk". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Erdman+commentary+old+testament+hebrew+bible"><i>Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802837110" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802837110"><bdi>978-0802837110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Habakkuk&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Commentary+on+the+Bible&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0802837110&rft.aulast=Gelston&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Vo-11umIZQC%26q%3DErdman%2Bcommentary%2Bold%2Btestament%2Bhebrew%2Bbible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelston2003c" class="citation book cs1">Gelston, Anthony (2003c). "Zephaniah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Erdman+commentary+old+testament+hebrew+bible"><i>Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible</i></a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802837110" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802837110"><bdi>978-0802837110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zephaniah&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Commentary+on+the+Bible&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0802837110&rft.aulast=Gelston&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Vo-11umIZQC%26q%3DErdman%2Bcommentary%2Bold%2Btestament%2Bhebrew%2Bbible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelle2005" class="citation book cs1">Kelle, Brad E. (2005). <i>Hosea 2: Metaphor and Rhetoric in Historical Perspective</i>. Society of Biblical Lit.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hosea+2%3A+Metaphor+and+Rhetoric+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Lit&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kelle&rft.aufirst=Brad+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevenson2012" class="citation book cs1">Levenson, Jon Douglas (2012). <i>Inheriting Abraham: the legacy of the patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16355-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16355-0"><bdi>978-0-691-16355-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inheriting+Abraham%3A+the+legacy+of+the+patriarch+in+Judaism%2C+Christianity%2C+and+Islam&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16355-0&rft.aulast=Levenson&rft.aufirst=Jon+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMor2016" class="citation book cs1">Mor, Menahem (May 4, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wJDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31463-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-31463-4"><bdi>978-90-04-31463-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+Jewish+Revolt%3A+The+Bar+Kokhba+War%2C+132-136+CE&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2016-05-04&rft.isbn=978-90-04-31463-4&rft.aulast=Mor&rft.aufirst=Menahem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT8wJDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z3oZVjrDcgC"><i>A Short History of Judaism: Three Meals, Three Epochs</i></a>. Minneapolis, Mn: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-2552-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-2552-8"><bdi>0-8006-2552-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Judaism%3A+Three+Meals%2C+Three+Epochs&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+Mn&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8006-2552-8&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5Z3oZVjrDcgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2002" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Julia M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W0X9BTEO7OAC&q=%22seventh+century+BCE%22Assyria+remained+a+formidable%22%22threat%22&pg=PA14"><i>Nahum</i></a>. A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1841273006" title="Special:BookSources/978-1841273006"><bdi>978-1841273006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nahum&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1841273006&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Julia+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW0X9BTEO7OAC%26q%3D%2522seventh%2Bcentury%2BBCE%2522Assyria%2Bremained%2Ba%2Bformidable%2522%2522threat%2522%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadine2010" class="citation book cs1">Radine, Jason (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=taqfL4qnJs0C"><i>The Book of Amos in Emergent Judah</i></a>. Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3161501142" title="Special:BookSources/978-3161501142"><bdi>978-3161501142</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Amos+in+Emergent+Judah&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3161501142&rft.aulast=Radine&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtaqfL4qnJs0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedmount2001" class="citation book cs1">Redmount, Carol A. (2001) [1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA58">"Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Coogan" title="Michael Coogan">Coogan, Michael D.</a> (ed.). <i>The Oxford History of the Biblical World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 58–89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195139372" title="Special:BookSources/9780195139372"><bdi>9780195139372</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bitter+Lives%3A+Israel+in+and+out+of+Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=58-89&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780195139372&rft.aulast=Redmount&rft.aufirst=Carol+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DVHJRFW3mYC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogerson2003a" class="citation book cs1">Rogerson, John W. (2003a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=%22It+is+rare+for+a+prophet+to+be+mentioned%22&pg=PA703">"Micah"</a>. In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). <i>Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible</i>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802837110" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802837110"><bdi>978-0802837110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Micah&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Commentary+on+the+Bible&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0802837110&rft.aulast=Rogerson&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Vo-11umIZQC%26q%3D%2522It%2Bis%2Brare%2Bfor%2Ba%2Bprophet%2Bto%2Bbe%2Bmentioned%2522%26pg%3DPA703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogerson2003b" class="citation book cs1">Rogerson, John W. (2003b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=%22Deuteronomy+is+a+speech+delivered+by+Moses%22&pg=PA153">"Deuteronomy"</a>. In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). <i>Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible</i>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802837110" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802837110"><bdi>978-0802837110</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deuteronomy&rft.btitle=Eerdmans+Commentary+on+the+Bible&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0802837110&rft.aulast=Rogerson&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2Vo-11umIZQC%26q%3D%2522Deuteronomy%2Bis%2Ba%2Bspeech%2Bdelivered%2Bby%2BMoses%2522%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomer2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Romer, Thomas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021035437/http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf">"Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Hebrew Scriptures</i>. 8, article 15: 2–12. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 21, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 27,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hebrew+Scriptures&rft.atitle=Moses+Outside+the+Torah+and+the+Construction+of+a+Diaspora+Identity&rft.volume=8%2C+article+15&rft.pages=2-12&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jhsonline.org%2FArticles%2Farticle_92.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkolnik2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Skolnik" title="Fred Skolnik">Skolnik, Fred</a>, ed. (2007). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i>. Vol. 1–22 (2nd rev. ed.). Farmington Hills, Mi: Macmillan Reference USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-002-865-928-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-002-865-928-2"><bdi>978-002-865-928-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Farmington+Hills%2C+Mi&rft.edition=2nd+rev.&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-002-865-928-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler2022" class="citation book cs1">Adler, Yonatan (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k8KREAAAQBAJ"><i>The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal</i></a>. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25490-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25490-7"><bdi>978-0-300-25490-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Judaism%3A+An+Archaeological-Historical+Reappraisal&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Conn&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-300-25490-7&rft.aulast=Adler&rft.aufirst=Yonatan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk8KREAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertz1994" class="citation book cs1">Albertz, Rainer (1994) [1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GJS7BwAAQBAJ"><i>A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy</i></a>. Translated by John Bowden (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-21846-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-21846-6"><bdi>0-664-21846-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Israelite+Religion.+Vol.+1%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+the+End+of+the+Monarchy&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-664-21846-6&rft.aulast=Albertz&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGJS7BwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertz1994" class="citation book cs1">Albertz, Rainer (1994) [1992]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z5O7BwAAQBAJ"><i>A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 2: From the Exile to the Maccabees</i></a>. Translated by John Bowden (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-21847-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-21847-4"><bdi>0-664-21847-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Israelite+Religion.+Vol.+2%3A+From+the+Exile+to+the+Maccabees&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-664-21847-4&rft.aulast=Albertz&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz5O7BwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Allegro, John. <i>The chosen people: A study of Jewish history from the time of the exile until the revolt of Bar Kocheba</i> (Andrews, UK, 2015).</li> <li>Alpher, Joseph (1986). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofje00lhis">Encyclopedia of Jewish history: events and eras of the Jewish people</a>.</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cohn-Sherbok" title="Dan Cohn-Sherbok">Cohn-Sherbok, Dan</a>. <i>Atlas of Jewish history</i> (Routledge, 2013).</li> <li>Fireberg, H., Glöckner, O., & Menachem Zoufalá, M., eds. (2020). Being Jewish in 21st Century Central Europe. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110582369">10.1515/9783110582369</a></li> <li>Friesel, Evyatar. <i>Atlas of modern Jewish history</i> (1990) <a href="//archive.org/details/atlasofmodernjew00evya" class="extiw" title="iarchive:atlasofmodernjew00evya">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Gilbert, Martin. <i>Atlas of Jewish History</i> (1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlasofjewishhis00mart">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Kobrin, Rebecca and Adam Teller, eds. <i>Purchasing Power: The Economics of Modern Jewish History</i>. (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. viii, 355 pp. Essays by scholars focused on Europe.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendes-FlohrReinharz1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Mendes-Flohr" title="Paul R. Mendes-Flohr">Mendes-Flohr, Paul R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jehuda_Reinharz" title="Jehuda Reinharz">Reinharz, Jehuda</a>, eds. (1995). <i>The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507453-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507453-X"><bdi>0-19-507453-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30026590">30026590</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jew+in+the+Modern+World%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30026590&rft.isbn=0-19-507453-X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). <i>The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity.</i> 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (1999). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5YFXIUJYgsYC">The Four Stages of Rabbinic Judaism</a>.</i> London; New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Sachar, Howard M. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courseofmodernje00sach">The course of modern Jewish history</a>.</i> (2nd ed. 2013).</li> <li>Schloss, Chaim. <i>2000 Years of Jewish History</i> (2002), Heavily illustrated popular history.</li> <li>Scheindlin, Raymond P. <i>A short history of the Jewish people from legendary times to modern statehood</i> (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofje00sche">online free to borrow</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSweeney2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marvin_A._Sweeney" title="Marvin A. Sweeney">Sweeney, Marvin A.</a> (2003) [2000]. "The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE". In <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; Avery-Peck, Alan J. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C"><i>The Blackwell Companion to Judaism</i></a> (Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ. pp. 20–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57718-058-5"><bdi>1-57718-058-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Religious+World+of+Ancient+Israel+to+586+BCE&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass&rft.pages=20-36&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publ.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-57718-058-5&rft.aulast=Sweeney&rft.aufirst=Marvin+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbEyD_MaeqP4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVisotzkyFishman2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Burton_Visotzky" title="Burton Visotzky">Visotzky, Burton L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/David_Fishman" title="David Fishman">Fishman, David E.</a>, eds. (2018) [1999]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x1JPDwAAQBAJ"><i>From Mesopotamia to Modernity: Ten Introductions to Jewish History and Literature</i></a> (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-6717-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-6717-0"><bdi>978-0-8133-6717-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Mesopotamia+to+Modernity%3A+Ten+Introductions+to+Jewish+History+and+Literature&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-6717-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx1JPDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Benbassa, Esther. <i>The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Jews-France-History-Antiquity-Present/dp/0691090149/">excerpt and text search</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/99832821/the-jews-of-france-a-history-from-antiquity-to-the">online</a></li> <li>Birnbaum, Pierre, and Jane Todd. <i>The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy</i> (1996).</li> <li>Birnbaum, Pierre; Kochan, Miriam. <i>Anti-Semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present</i> (1992) 317p.</li> <li>Cahm, Eric. <i>The Dreyfus affair in French society and politics</i> (Routledge, 2014).</li> <li>Debré, Simon. "The Jews of France." <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i> 3.3 (1891): 367–435. long scholarly description. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1450008.pdf">online free</a></li> <li>Graetz, Michael, and Jane Todd. <i>The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle</i> (1996)</li> <li>Hyman, Paula E. <i>The Jews of Modern France</i> (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Modern-France-Jewish-Communities-World/dp/0520209257/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Hyman, Paula. <i>From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939</i> (Columbia UP, 1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromdreyfustovic0000hyma">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>Schechter, Ronald. <i>Obstinate Hebrews: Representations of Jews in France, 1715–1815</i> (Univ of California Press, 2003)</li> <li>Taitz, Emily. <i>The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne</i> (1994) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202034/https://www.questia.com/library/3665422/the-jews-of-medieval-france-the-community-of-champagne">Archived</a> November 30, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia_and_Eastern_Europe">Russia and Eastern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Russia and Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zvi_Gitelman" title="Zvi Gitelman">Gitelman, Zvi</a> (2001). <i>A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Fishman" title="David Fishman">Fishman, David</a> (1996). <i>Russia's First Modern Jews</i>. New York University Press.</li> <li>Polonsky, Antony. <i>The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History</i> (2013)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinerPolish_State_Archives_(in_cooperation_with)1997" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Miriam; Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) (1997). <i>Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories</i>. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9656508-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9656508-0-9"><bdi>978-0-9656508-0-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38756480">38756480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Roots+in+Poland%3A+Pages+from+the+Past+and+Archival+Inventories&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Miriam+Weiner+Routes+to+Roots+Foundation&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38756480&rft.isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft.au=Polish+State+Archives+%28in+cooperation+with%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinerUkrainian_State_Archives_(in_cooperation_with)Moldovan_National_Archives_(in_cooperation_with)1999" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Miriam; Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with); Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) (1999). <i>Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories</i>. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9656508-1-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9656508-1-6"><bdi>978-0-9656508-1-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/607423469">607423469</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Roots+in+Ukraine+and+Moldova%3A+Pages+from+the+Past+and+Archival+Inventories&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Miriam+Weiner+Routes+to+Roots+Foundation&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F607423469&rft.isbn=978-0-9656508-1-6&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft.au=Ukrainian+State+Archives+%28in+cooperation+with%29&rft.au=Moldovan+National+Archives+%28in+cooperation+with%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+history" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Fischel, Jack, and Sanford Pinsker, eds.<i>Jewish-American history and culture : an encyclopedia</i> (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishamericanhi00fisc">online free to borrow</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_history&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jewish_history" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jewish history">Jewish history</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/">The Jewish History Resource Center</a>. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm">The State of Israel</a> The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/">Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081224094628/http://www.encyclopaediajudaica.com/">Archived</a> December 24, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/jewishsbook.html">Internet Jewish History Sourcebook</a> offering homework help and online texts</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050528023003/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israelite_religion.htm">Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thinktorah.org/jewish-history/">2000 Years of Jewish History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050629084248/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/greek_influence.htm">Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050604085120/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/jewish_sects.htm">Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101119075635/http://adath-shalom.ca/samaritan_origin.htm">The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051118233741/http://www.adath-shalom.ca/eb2bk.htm">Jewish History Tables</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oztorah.com/category/australian-jewry/">Articles on Australian Jewish history</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oztorah.com/category/british-jewry/">Articles on British Jewish history</a>.</li> <li>Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). <i>A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-40332-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-40332-6">978-0-679-40332-6</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/Jewish_History.htm">Crash Course in Jewish History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csicso-nagy.uw.hu/fo-o-Csicso-NAGY-A/jewish-families.htm">Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=1&ArticleID=29">"Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229232302/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=1&ArticleID=29">Archived</a> February 29, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Biblical Archaeology Society</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishhistory.org/crash-course/">Summary of Jewish History</a> by Berel Wein</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/heb/heb-hist.html">Ancient Hebrew history</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishhistorylectures.org/">Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_history" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_history" title="Template:Jewish history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_history" title="Template talk:Jewish history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Jewish history in Israel/Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Jewish population comparisons">Population history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_military_history" title="Jewish military history">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">Expulsions and exoduses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Political movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Captivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Captivity">Assyrian Captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah%27s_revolts_against_Babylon" title="Judah's revolts against Babylon">Judah's revolts against Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_(Babylonian_province)" title="Yehud (Babylonian province)">Babylonian Yehud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Second_Temple_period" title="Timeline of the Second Temple period">Timeline of the Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Judaea">Roman Judaea</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars and revolts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judean_Civil_War" title="Judean Civil War">Judean Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish-Roman_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish-Roman Wars">Jewish-Roman Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">First Jewish-Roman War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beth_Horon_(66)" title="Battle of Beth Horon (66)">Battle of Beth Horon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilee_campaign_(67)" title="Galilee campaign (67)">Galilee campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Masada" title="Siege of Masada">Siege of Masada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora revolt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kitos_War" title="Kitos War">Kitos War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Carthage" title="History of the Jews in Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Mesopotamia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasi_(Hebrew_title)" title="Nasi (Hebrew title)">Nasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chazal" title="Chazal">Chazal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Talmudic academies in Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Constantius_Gallus" title="Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus">Revolt against Gallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_revolt_against_Heraclius" title="Jewish revolt against Heraclius">Revolt against Heraclius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mohammedan Wars <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Banu_Qurayza" title="Siege of Banu Qurayza">Siege of Banu Qurayza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Banu_Qaynuqa" title="Siege of Banu Qaynuqa">Siege of Banu Qaynuqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Khaybar" title="Battle of Khaybar">Battle of Khaybar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Banu_Nadir" title="Invasion of Banu Nadir">Invasion of Banu Nadir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">Under Muslim rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Sephardic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kairouan" title="History of the Jews in Kairouan">Kairouan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_the_Crusades" title="History of the Jews and the Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">Expulsion of Jews from Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_antisemitism" title="Medieval antisemitism">Medieval antisemitism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_question" title="Jewish question">Jewish question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Jewish)" title="Disabilities (Jewish)">Disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israeli history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Yishuv" class="mw-redirect" title="New Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold">See also</span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:JH" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:JH">WP:Jewish history</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_religions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religions" title="Template:History of religions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religions" title="Template talk:History of religions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">List of religions and spiritual traditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="History of the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rastafari" title="History of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shintoism#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism#History" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism#Origins" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Thought" title="History of New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Near East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic religion">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Illyro-thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theology" title="History of theology">History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jews_and_Judaism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Template:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jews_and_Judaism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">Outline of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jewish_history-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Jewish history-related articles">Index of Jewish history-related articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Atheists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta_Christianity" title="Xueta Christianity">Xueta Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism,_race_and_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionism, race and genetics">Zionism, race and genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groups_claiming_affiliation_with_Israelites" title="Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites">Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diaspora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a 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href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Holocaust" title="Encyclopedia of the Holocaust">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_other_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic 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